HOMEOSTASIS

- tendency of a biological system to resist change in order to maintain a stable, relatively

constant internal environment

- From the Greek words: “homoios” (“like or similar”) + “stasis” (“standing or stoppage”)

- generally affected by feedback mechanisms

• FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
- In a loop system, the system - a molecule, cell, organism, or ecosystem - responds to a
perturbation or deviation from normal (stimulus)

- Types of Feedback Loops:

1. Negative - output of the system inhibits the system ; returns system to homeostasis

2. Positive - output of the system stimulates the system ; moves system away from
homeostasis

- Components:
1. Stimulus - produces change in a particular variable (ex: blood sugar level, temperature)

2. Receptor - detects the change/stimulus

3. Control Center - receives input/information sent by receptor, determines appropriate
output/response and sends these instructions to the effector
4. Effector - carries out necessary processes that influence the magnitude of the stimulus

• NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
- output of the system inhibits the system ; returns system to homeostasis

- In this type of feedback loop, the effector responds to correct the imbalance and return the
variable to homeostasis

- Process:
1. Stress or disturbance (stimulus) changes the internal environment

2. Change is detected by the receptors

3. Corrective measures determined by the control center are activated and carried out by
the effectors

4. Corrective measures counteract the change back towards the “set point” or the
“optimal conditions” (state of homeostasis)

 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK EXAMPLES


CONTROL
VARIABLE RECEPTOR EFFECTOR AND RESPONSE
CENTER
• Hypothalamus - • Thermo- • Smooth Muscle in Arterioles

thermoreceptors regulatory - High: Vasodilation ; blood is delivered from the core to the surface of the body, so the heat can be lost by convection to the atmosphere
detect blood Centre in (blood carries some of your body heat so it’s brought closer to the surface so the heat it carries can be lost to the surroundings to cool you
Hypothalamus
down)

temperature

- Low: Vasoconstriction ; less blood is delivered from the core to the surface of the body, which may cause skin to feel cold and even turn
• Skin - blue (in extreme cases, this leads to frostbite because the body is trying to keep what heat it has at its core so as not to lose it to the
environment)

thermoreceptors
detect external
• Sweat Glands

temperature - High: Sweat is produced ; skin turns red (though perhaps this has more to do with vasodilation) ; heat loss is increased via evaporation of
sweat (sweat gets the heat necessary for vaporization from your body and “takes this heat with them” when they evaporate, causing heat
loss that cools the body)

- Low: No sweat is produced


• Temperature
• Errector Pilli Muscles in Skin

- High: Muscles relax (this causes hair to be flat so air can circulate over the skin, causing evaporation and convection)

- Low: Muscles contract (this causes hair to stand, trapping an insulating layer of still, warm air near the skin surface, since it’s difficult for
air to flow with all of the hair that impedes its flow)


• Skeletal Muscles

- High: No shivering

- Low: Shivering occurs (this is the rapid contraction and relaxation of muscles in order to generate heat by friction and metabolic activity)

• Adrenal and Thyroid Glands

- High: Glands stop releasing epinephrine and thyroid hormones

- Low: Glands secrete epinephrine and thyroid hormones to increase metabolic rate and generate heat
• Neurons in the • Prolyl • Pancreas

Ventromedial endopeptidase - High: Beta cells in the pancreas release insulin (this causes the liver and body cells to take up glucose and store it as glycogen [Mickey
Nucleus in the enzyme Mouse: “It’s a surprise tool that will help us later.”] which causes the blood glucose level to decrease and return to the set point)

Hypothalamus 
 (located in the - Low: Alpha cells in the pancreas release glucagon (which causes the liver to break down the stored glycogen [our surprise tool!] into glucose
Ventromedial and release it into the bloodstream, which raises the blood glucose level back to the set point)

Nucleus)

• Effects of Hormones with Respect to Pyruvate

- Insulin: Stimulates glycolysis which breaks down glucose and turns it into pyruvate

• Glucose - Glucagon: Stimulates gluconeogenesis which turns pyruvate into glucose

Level (in
• Effects of Hormones with Respect to Glycogen

the Blood) - Insulin: Stimulates glyconeogenesis which turns glucose into glycogen

- Glucagon: Stimulates glycogenolysis which breaks down glycogen and turns it back into glucose

* Notes:

- The set point/optimum glucose level is 90mg/100mL

- Glucose has opposing effects on insulin and glucagon secretion

- Insulin and glucagon have reciprocal responses, which means that as one increases, the other decreases

- Eating a meal increases glucose level, while not eating decreases the glucose level, since glucose gets absorbed and used by the cells over
time, and if you don’t eat to replenish it, your blood glucose level will eventually fall lower than the set point
 CONTROL
VARIABLE RECEPTOR EFFECTOR AND RESPONSE
CENTER
• Calcium-sensing • Thyroid and • Bones

Receptors Parathyroid - High: Calcitonin stimulates the deposition of calcium

(CaSRs) in the Gland 
 - Low: PTH increases calcium resorption/release


Parathyroid (though
Gland Calcitonin • Kidneys

and the - High: Calcitonin reduces the reabsorption of calcium in the kidneys, since this uptake increases the amount of calcium in the blood

Parathyroid - Low: PTH increases calcium reabsorption and decreased phosphate reabsorption ; conversion of Calcifediol [25(OH)D] to Calcitriol
Hormone [or [1,25(OH)2D] (the two hormones affect levels of Vitamin D [Calcifedol is a metabolite, which Calcitriol is the active form of Vitamin D],
PTH] which in turns affects how your body absorbs calcium, since Vitamin D affects the body’s capacity to effectively absorb calcium)

• Calcium
respectively)
Level (in
• Gut (Intestines)

the Blood) - High: Calcitonin does not have a very direct effect on the gut, unlike PTH through Calcitriol

- Low: The effects of Calcitriol increases calcium and phosphate reabsorption in the gut, which causes blood calcium level to rise,
restoring the levels to the set point


* Notes:

- The set point/optimum blood calcium level is 10mg/100mL

- Calcium levels are detected by determining its amounts in the blood serum, which is blood plasma without fibrinogens or blood cells

- It’s probably relevant that there are lots of blood vessels in the gut and in the kidneys, so an increased calcium uptake in those regions allow
for more calcium to enter the bloodstream

• Blood • Osmoreceptors • Pituitary Gland • Aquaporin Channels (AC)

Pressure and in the (through the - High: Decreased ADH levels cause ACs in the collecting duct to close, which leads to a decrease in the amount of water being
Osmolality Hypothalamus Antidiuretic reabsorbed from the urine (this leads to a decrease in the amount of blood water and a large volume of diluted urine [because instead of
(Blood Water Hormone the water being in the blood, it’s in the urine], which decreases blood water potential and restores it to the set point)

Potential / [ADH]
Amount of otherwise
- Low: Increased ADH levels cause ACs in the collecting duct to open, which leads to an increase in the amount of water being
Water in the known as reabsorbed from the urine (this - coupled with the feeling of thirst which causes the organism to drink - leads to an increase in the
Blood) Vasopressin) amount of blood water and a smaller volume of concentrated urine, which increases blood water potential and restores it to the set point)

• Hypothalamus, • Hypothalamus • Process

Anterior Pituitary (affected by - Neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus secrete a hypothalamic tropic hormone (Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone [TRH] being one example) into the
Gland and the pituitary portal circulation towards the anterior pituitary gland

Thyroid Gland neurosecretory - The anterior pituitary gland secretes an anterior pituitary tropic hormone which makes its way to the thyroid gland (and example is the Thyroid Stimulating
cells in the Hormone [TSH], which stimulates the synthesis and release of thyroid hormones T3 and T4)

median region - T3 and T4 in turn use negative feedback to control the secretion of TRH and TSH (low amounts of T3 and T4 stimulate the increased release of TRH and
of the TSH, while high amounts of T3 and T4 stimulate the decreased release of TRH and TSH)

Parvocellular - Hormones released by the endocrine glands themselves can also have a negative feedback loop with the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland

• Hypothalamic- Nucleus)
Pituitary- • Hypothalamic Tropic Hormones and their Respective Anterior Pituitary Hormones and Affected Regions

Endocrine
Gland Axis
 POSITIVE FEEDBACK EXAMPLES


CONTROL
VARIABLE RECEPTOR EFFECTOR AND RESPONSE
CENTER
• Childbirth • Nerves in the • Brain (though • With Respect to Oxytocin

(Oxytocin and Cervix the Pituitary - Oxytocin causes the uterus to contract, which in turn pushes the baby against the cervix (lower end of the uterus)

Uterine Gland) - The stretching of the cervix is detected by nerves which send impulses to the brain

Contraction) - The brain stimulates the pituitary gland to release more oxytocin, which starts the loop anew
• Platelets Receptors - • Platelets

attracted to exposed
• Platelet collagen (the exposure - Platelets adhere to the site of a break or tear in a blood vessel wall

-
Activation caused by a break in - At the same time, they release chemicals that attract more platelets, completing the loop

the blood vessel)

- This feedback cycle ends when a platelet plug is formed
• Ethylene • Plant Tissues • With Respect to Ethylene

Receptors (which produce - A ripening apple releases the volatile plant hormone, ethylene, which serves as the stimulus

• Fruit Ripening ethylene as a - Ethylene accelerates the ripening of others fruits in the vicinity

response to heat - Since these nearby fruits are also ripening (due to the initial stimulus), they also release ethylene like the first apple

and injury)
- This causes all the fruits to quickly become ripe together

OTHER FEEDBACK MECHANISMS


VARIABLE DESCRIPTION

• Loop:

- An increase in the predator population leads to a decrease in the prey population, due to predators hunting prey

• In Nature: Predator - However, due to the decrease in the prey population, the predator population cannot be sustained, and their numbers decrease

and Prey Populations - The decrease in the predator population, in turn, causes an increases in the prey population, because they are no longer being hunted

- The increase in the prey population allows the predator population to be sustained, which causes an increase in the latter’s population, which begins the loop anew
• Healthy vs. Type 1 Diabetes vs. Type 2 Diabetes:

- Healthy: Insulin is secreted by the pancreas which attaches to an insulin receptor, allowing for the cellular uptake of glucose
• In Diseases:
- Type 1: Insulin is not produced by the pancreas, which leads to the failure of cells to take up glucose, and therefore failure to lower blood glucose levels
Diabetes Mellitus
- Type 2: Insulin is produced by the pancreas, but cells and their insulin receptors fail to respond properly, which leads to the failure of cells to take up glucose, and
therefore failure to lower blood glucose levels

• Information:

• In Diseases: - In Congenital Hypothyroidism the thyroid gland is not able to produce thyroid hormones since birth, which affects the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Endocrine Gland Axis

Congenital - Effects may include stunted growth/growth delays, mental disability and hearing loss

Hypothyroidism - Detected in newborn screening by the presence of high levels of TSH

- Can be treated though the use of hormones as well