LECTURE 2

HOMEOSTASIS
 Outline
— Body fluids: intracellular & extracellular
— Principles of homeostasis
— Components of homeostatic system
— Examples of homeostasis
— Negative & positive feedback mechanisms
 Total Body Water
— Water makes up 60% of the body weight of an adult male and
50% of a female’s body weight.

— Total body water can be divided into 2 fluid compartments

— Intra-cellular compartment
— Extra-cellular compartment
— Intra-cellular Fluid
— fluid within cells.
— water existing in all body cells.
— accounts for two-thirds of the body’s water content.
— contains relatively large amounts of potassium,
phosphate and proteins.
 Total Body Water

— Extra-cellular Fluid
— fluid outside the cells.
— further divided into interstitial fluid, plasma, lymph,
cerebrospinal fluid and milk.
— provides a constant environment for cells.
— transports substances to and from cells.
— conducts nutrients, cells and waste products throughout the
tissues of the body.
 Homeostasis
— Mechanism by which the internal environment is kept
constant and near stable so that cellular metabolic
functions can proceed at maximum efficiency.
— Composition of the internal environment is tightly
controlled.
— Maintained by muscles or glands that are regulated by
sensory information from the internal environment.
— Necessary for life
 Homeostasis
— Control of physical and chemical factors
- Optimal conditions for survival
- Gives us independence from the environment, thus not
adversely affected by changes in the external environment
(e.g. heat)
1. Physical factors
— temperature (36.90C)
— pH, salt & water
— volume & pressure
2. Chemical factors
— O2 and CO2
— Levels of nutrients & waste products
— Levels of hormones & other regulatory compounds
 Principles of Homeostasis

1. Set point (reference point) – optimal level.

An efficient system can quickly restore this point.

2. Detector - detectors or receptors detect any changes,

internal or external

3. Control Centre – part of the brain where signals are

sent and the data is analysed

4. Effector – bring about the appropriate response to

restore the optimum.
 Components of a Homeostatic
System
1 2
3
Detector or Control
Input Effector
receptor centre
- Set
point
response
Feedback

Changed
condition
Maintaining Constant Body Temperature
Thermoregulation

1. Receptors / detectors
— to monitor external and internal conditions
— skin, brain, internal organs

2. Control center
— a part of the brain where the data is analyzed and signals are sent

3. Effectors
— mediate the appropriate response
— blood vessels carry blood to skin; sweat gland; muscles generate heat during
shivering

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 Homeostatic Mechanisms
(A) Negative-feedback system
— Body responds to reverse the change

üSweating
Heat
E.g. üDilation of
receptors Hypothalamus
Rise in in body/
surface
body blood
skin
vessels
temp
Increased
heat loss

Decrease in
feedback body temp
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 How negative feedback
mechanism helps to
maintain homeostasis?

If a factor within the internal

environment deviates too far from
a normal set point, the system
responsible for monitoring that
factor will initiate a counter
change that returns it to its
normal state.

Ross and Wilson. Anatomy and Physiology in Health and Illness.

Tenth Edition.
Challenge: What happens when the body temperature
falls?

üShivering
Heat
E.g. üConstriction
receptors Hypothalamus
Fall in in body/
of surface
body blood vessels
skin
temp
Heat
production,
Reduced heat
loss

Increase in
feedback
body temp
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 Homeostasis: Blood Glucose Levels
Glucose is
Detector? converted to
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Control Centre? Glycogen &
Effector? stored in liver
Insulin: hormone that
(+) liver to convert glucose
to glycogen, thus reducing blood
glucose
 Homeostasis of Blood Glucose Level

Insulin-secreting
cells of the pancreas
activated; release
insulin into the
blood Uptake of glucose
from blood is en-
hanced in most
body cells

Blood glucose
levels decline
to set point;
Elevated Liver takes up stimulus for
blood sugar glucose and stores insulin release
levels it as glycogen diminishes
Stimulus: Imb
rising blood ala
nce
glucose levels
Stimulus:
(e.g., after Homeostasis: Normal blood glucose declining blood
eating four levels (90 mg/100ml) glucose levels
jelly doughnuts) (e.g., after
Imb skipping a meal)
ala
nce

Low blood
sugar levels

Rising blood
glucose levels Glucagon-releasing
return blood sugar cells of pancreas
to homeostatic set activated;
point; stimulus for release glucagon
glucagon release into blood; target
diminishes is the liver
Liver breaks down
glycogen stores and
releases glucose to
the blood
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Seeley, Anatomy and Physiology, Chapter 10. 2010
 Homeostatic Mechanisms
(B) Positive feedback system
— Occur less frequently in the body
— A change in the body to increase the magnitude of
the change
— E.g.
— Blood clotting at the site of the injured vessel
triggers the deposition of additional clot so that
further loss of blood is halted
— During childbirth, stretching of the cervix
triggers the release of the hormone oxytocin
which causes more powerful contractions of the
uterus to expel the foetus 15
 How are signals transmitted to
maintain homeostasis?

—The nervous and endocrine systems work together to

maintain homeostasis.

—Nervous system: responds rapidly to short-term changes by

sending electrical impulses.

—Endocrine system: brings about longer-term adaptations by

sending out chemical messengers (hormones) into the
bloodstream.
 Summary
1. Ability to maintain optimum internal environment
makes us less dependent on the external environment.
2. The internal environment of the body is mainly
controlled by body fluids.
3. Homeostasis takes place by both positive & negative
feedback mechanisms.

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 What you need to know:

— Understand what is homeostasis

— Explain the principles of homeostasis
— Explain how homeostasis regulates blood
sugar and body temperature.

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