14/8/18

HUBS191: Lecture 38
Revision and Integration

Lecture 32

Peptide hormones and adrenaline

- Water soluble hormones
- Therefore, they can travel through the blood easily
without a carrier protein
- They bind to receptors that are embedded in the cell
membrane
- The receptor is changed/activated which sets off a 2nd
messenger pathway
- Eg. Adrenaline binds to liver cell membrane receptor
o Hormone-receptor complex activates a second
messenger (cascade of reactions)
o Causes a breakdown of glycogen to glucose
o Results in an increase of glucose in the blood

Steroid and thyroid hormones

- Lipid-soluble hormones
- Therefore, the are carried in the blood bound to carrier
proteins and are dissociated near the target cell
- They simply diffuse across the cell membrane where
there are specific receptors on the nucleus or in the
cytoplasm
- Hormone receptor complex can bind to a specific place
on a DNA strand which activates transcription and the
production of new proteins
- Eg. Cortisol binds to liver cell receptor in the cytoplasm
o The hormone-receptor complex moves to the
nucleus to activate a specific gene
o Transcription and translation occurs
o New glucose is synthesised as a result
o Increase in glucose in the blood

Hormone and Water or lipid Receptor Mechanism of Target cell and

source soluble location action principal action
Glucagon Water soluble Membrane Activates 2nd Liver cells to
Alpha cells receptor messenger increase blood
(pancreas islets) glucose by
increasing
glucose
secretion
14/8/18

Thyroid Lipid soluble Nucleus Activates or

hormone inhibits gene
Thyroid gland transcription
Adrenaline Water soluble Membrane Activates 2nd
Adrenal cortex receptor messenger
Cortisol Lipid soluble Cytoplasm Activates or Muscle and
Adrenal cortex inhibits gene adipose tissue
transcription to increase
blood glucose
concentration
by decreasing
glucose uptake
Remaining Water soluble Membrane Activates 2nd
hormones receptors messengers

Lecture 33

- Insulin is the only hormone that can decrease the blood glucose concentration
- Pancreatic beta cells are the sensors and the integrator which targets liver, muscle
and adipose tissue cells in order to promote glucose uptake
o Fuel is stored for later use
o Liver and muscle = glycogen synthesis
o Adipose and liver = fat synthesis
o Muscle also promotes amino acid uptake for glycogen and protein synthesis
- Negative feedback loop because the response reduces the stimulus
14/8/18

- Glucagon is one of a number of hormones that can increase blood glucose

concentrations which give multiple backup systems
- Released in fasting state when blood glucose concentration falls below the reference
range
- Alpha cells are the sensors and integrators that integrates information and releases
glucagon to increase the blood glucose concentration
- The target cells are liver cells
o Reverses the process that insulin initiates
o Breakdown of glycogen to form monosaccharides of glucose
o Glucose synthesis which needs amino acids or lipids to occur
o Lipids can be converted into ketones which some parts of the body can use as
an energy source
- Negative feedback loop as the response reduces the stimulus

Practice question: Briefly describe the role of insulin in the homeostasis of blood glucose
concentration (3 marks)

When blood glucose levels rise above the reference range (3.5-6 mmol/L) is sensed by the
beta cells of the pancreatic islets, they provide a response by releasing the hormone insulin
into the blood. Insulin’s main target tissues are the liver, muscle and adipose tissues where
insulin stimulates uptake of glucose by cells in these tissues. It promotes:
- Synthesis of glycogen (in liver and muscle)
- Storage of glucose as fat (in liver and muscle)
- Storage of glucose as fat (in liver and adipose tissue)
These metabolic changes decrease the blood glucose level back within the reference range.
14/8/18

Lecture 34

- The hypothalamus controls the secretion of hormones from both lobes of the
pituitary lobes
o The stimulus is neural input to the hypothalamus
- However, each lobe is responsible for the secretion of different hormones and is
controlled by different pathways

- Key thing is that the neurons extend from the cell body which are in the
hypothalamus
14/8/18

- The axons are intertwined among the blood vessels

- The posterior pituitary gland secretes 2 hormones
o They are not made in the posterior pituitary rather in the hypothalamus
o They are stored at the tips of the axons where they are close to the blood
stream when activates to be released
o Action potentials cause stored hormones to be released out into the blood
o Releases ADH or oxytocin
- The anterior pituitary gland releases a second hormone
o Hormonal link
o Released from the hypothalamus where they travel through the blood to the
anterior pituitary gland which causes a release of a second hormone
o FSH and LH are reproductive hormones

Posterior lobe Anterior lobe

- Neural input stimulates neurons in - Neural input stimulates neurons in
the hypothalamus (axon terminals the hypothalamus to secrete
in the posterior pituitary) to change releasing hormones (or inhibiting
action potential frequency hormones)

- Action potentials stimulate the - Releasing hormones travel in the

release of specific stored hormones
(ADH or oxytocin, made in the
hypothalamus) from the axon
terminals in the posterior lobe into
circulation
- Released hormones travel in the
blood to influence the activity of the
target cells
blood to the anterior lobe and bind
to specific cell membrane receptors
- Hormone-receptor binding
stimulates the cell to secrete
specific stored hormones into the
blood
- Released hormones travel in the
blood to influence the activity of the
target cells
14/8/18

- The stimuli for growth hormones are stress and sleep

- The growth hormone travels through the blood via the anterior pituitary gland
- The key target cell = liver
o Where another factor (IGF-1) is produced in response to the growth hormone
o This indirectly promotes growth in bones and other tissues
o It can create negative feedback loops
 Can be direct to stop making GHRH
 Or sends an inhibitory hormone via SS
- Growth hormones cause a lot of metabolic effects
o Stimulates protein synthesis in muscle
o Stimulates glucose synthesis in the liver
o Inhibits cellular uptake of glucose
o Increases triglyceride breakdown in adipose tissue

Practice question: Name an anterior pituitary hormone and outline how its secretion is
controlled (2 marks)

Growth hormone is an anterior pituitary hormone. The stimulus for GH release could be
stress, low glucose levels or sleep. The hypothalamus received the stimulus and secretes a
releasing hormone (GHRH) into blood vessels that connect the hypothalamus to the anterior
pituitary gland. GHRH binds its receptor on its target cells in the anterior pituitary to cause
those cells to increase GH release.

(The hypothalamus also secretes SS, an inhibiting hormone, that reduces GH secretion).
14/8/18

Lecture 35

- The hypothalamus sends neural input into the adrenal medulla which releases
adrenaline
o This causes glycogenolysis in the liver and skeletal muscle
o The other effects from adrenaline include increase of heart rate and blood
pressure
- Other neural signals are sent to the posterior pituitary lobe
o This causes release of anti-directic hormones (ADH)
o The target cells are the kidneys
- The responses from the posterior pituitary glands happen quicker because there are
stored hormones that are ready to be released and it involves neural transmission
- The anterior pituitary pathway is a slower process as proteins (eg. Cortisol) need to
be created
o The target organs = liver where it binds to specific receptors
o There is a change in protein expression and these proteins are involved in
creating new glucose (gluconeogenesis)
o Normal rhythm has other effects such as
 Increasing the breakdown of protein for energy
 Fat breakdown to building blocks for energy
o Cortisol can feedback to anterior and hypothalamus
14/8/18

Lecture 36

- TSH = thyroid stimulating hormone

- TRH = thyroid releasing hormone
- T3 is the active form and T4 is the inactive form and is released in higher volumes
o This increases the expression of Na/K ATP-ase
- Thyroid hormone synthesis is part of a sequence of thyroid being released
o Follicle cells release protein, thyroglobulin (TGB) into follicle
o Iodine reacts with tyrosine in the TGB molecules
 Moves into the space
o Iodised TGB moves into the follicular cells
o Thyroid hormones detach from TGB as needed
 This is how we get storage of lipid soluble hormones
o Dissociates into target cells
- NOTE: iodine is a necessary part of our diet as it is required for the production of
thyroid hormone
14/8/18

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is the main mechanism of regulating calcium

 Not involving hypothalamus
 Release of PTH which increases bone absorption
 Conversion of vitamin D to its activated form calcitriol
o Leads to increase in calcium absorption in calcium absorption within the
intestine
o Because of amplification effect, the calcitriol feedbacks to prevent further
vitamin D conversion

 Once above the reference range, a negative feedback loop is initiated

 Under extreme conditions, calcitonin can be increased

Hype-calcemia = decrease in neural function

 Excess amount of calcium in extracellular fluid, the membrane potential is pushed
lower (hyperpolarisation)
o Really hard to reach threshold value
o Decrease in responsivity from excitatory cells
Hypo-calcemia
 Decrease in calcium ions
 Outside of cell is more negative than it was
 Close to threshold value
 Much more excitable cells

- Changes in plasma calcium concentration causes a shift in RMP

14/8/18

Practice question: Name the hormone that is released in response to low blood calcium
concentration and describe two effect of this hormone (3 marks)

The hormone released in response to low blood calcium concentration is PTH.

- Acts on the bone to cause an increase in bone breakdown
- Actos on the kidney to increase calcium reabsorption

Practice question: Name the two hormones released from the adrenal gland in response to
stress and for each of these hormones, state one target tissue and a response of that target
tissue (3 marks)

The hormones released from the adrenal gland in response to stress are cortisol and
adrenaline
- Adrenaline acts on the liver and causes glycogenolysis
- Cortisol acts on the liver and causes gluconeogenesis