On China-centered Tributary System

Ideologies and Functions

Jian Junbo
Doni

1
 On China-centered Tributary System
Ideologies and Functions

Abstract: As East Asia’s traditional international system, the China-centered tribute system has typical
ideologies that are essentially based upon Chinese culture, especially the Confucian teachings and
principles. The pillar ideologies of this international system consist of three inherent associated ideas-
Confucian Ren and Li, Tianxia idea and Chinese-Barbarians order (Huayi Zhixu), with which the system
functioned well as an effective mechanism by granting domestic political legitimacy for rulers of both
China and its neighboring states (vassals), profiting neighboring states economically and keeping
regional stability in security. The function of this system based on Chinese culture to effectively keeping
regional stability by peaceful approach rather than by force or coerce has significant implications for
contemporary international relations in East Asia.
Key words: Tributary System; Chinese culture; Ideologies and Functions

Commonly, it’s argued that the traditional international system in East Asia is the China-centric
system based on tributary trade economically speaking and suzerain-vassals relationship
politically speaking. For example, Takeshi Hamashita in his book International Opportunity in
Modern China: Tribute Trade System and Modern Asian Economic Circe argued that ‘the China-
centered and almost Asia-covered tributary system, namely, the tributary trade system, is the
unique system in Asia and only in Asia historically’. 1 In much earlier time, a famous Sinologist
John King Fairbank (Fei Zhengqing in Chinese) and his colleague in an article On the Ch'ing
Tributary System said that ‘Chinese foreign policy in the nineteenth century only against its
traditional Chinese background, the tributary system’.2
However, these two classical documents on China-centered tributary system somehow failed to
give us a comprehensive picture of this system. Takeshi Hamashita considered the key function of
the tributary system is to support a typical trading mechanism between China and its vassals rather
than to do some others, yet it also has some important roles politically; meanwhile, he only
focused on the tributary system of Ming and Qing and neglected the longer history of this system
before these two last dynasties of China. Fairbank in his articles, although highlighted the
system’s ideology more than its functions, didn’t clearly generalize the basic or pillar ideological
factors. As for some latest researches on China’s tributary system, they focus its economic
functions more than political roles and meanwhile simply explain the system by using modern IR
theories but neglecting must-used concepts embedded in Chinese cultures. 3
That is, many researches regarding China-centered tributary system don’t exactly as well as
comprehensively focus on the ideological and functional genealogy of China-centered tributary
system at the same time, since this system’s function is essentially regulated by some typical
ideologies. To that regard, this article will summarize China-centered tributary system’s basic
1
滨下武志：《近代中国的国际契机——朝贡贸易体系与近代亚洲贸易圈》，朱荫贵，欧阳菲译，中国会
科学出版社，1999 年版。
2
J. K. Fairbank and S. Y. Teng, On the Ch'ing Tributary System, Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol. 6, No. 2,
Jun., 1941, p.135.
3
For example, Zhou Fangyin in his article explains the tributary system with conflict interaction theory but not
with cultural explanation, for instance, based on Confucian morality. See Zhou Fangyin, Asymmetry and China's
Tributary System，Chinese Journal of International Politics (Spring 2012) 5(1): 37-54.

2
ideological factors and functions after cautiously reviewing its long history. On the whole, this
article argues that the essential ideological factors that are inherently associated with each other
consist of three dimensions- Confucian codes, Tixian idea and Chinese-barbarians order, and its
functions are to ensure economic prosperity, grant political legitimacy and maintain regional
stability.

Evolution of China-centered Tributary System

The Chinese-centered tributary system is generally considered as East Asia’s traditional

international system which worked effectively for a very long time, where China resembled the
head of one big family and the other small surrounding countries like other members of this family
respected and were loyal to China through regularly sending tributes and delegations to the Court
of China. Of course these countries would always be given much more from Chinese emperor than
what they attributed, and their rulers also would be bestowed with the seal of ruling ( Ce Feng)
from Chinese emperor who was recognized as the common patriarchy, so-called the Son of the
Heaven.
Because this system’s features always changed in different periods and at the same time this
system is very different from the modern international systems, it seems not easy to be defined
exactly. Nevertheless, it has been adept and practiced for about several thousand years in East
Asia.
In some Chinese ancient poems and historical works, the prototype of tributary system (the
earliest and small-scare tributary activities and rules) can be found in Shang Dynasty (about 17 th to
11st centuries BC) or even much earlier. In Five Emperors (Wudi Benji), one chapter of History
(Shi Ji), it said that ‘in Xuanyuan age (about 4420-2900 BC), with the decline of Shenlong
authority, all kingdoms in Central Plains fell in wars with one another and people suffered badly,
but Emperor Shenlong could not crusade against them. Subsequently Xuanyuan trained soldiers
and made weapons to crusade against those who didn’t present tributes at the court of Central
Kingdom. After that, all other kingdoms came and obeyed Xuanyuan’s orders’. 4 Albeit this story
is a record of Chinese pre-history, or a legend in Chinese mythology, yet History is a very serious
and faith-worthy historical work, and somehow it should reflect that some similar tributary
activity really took place in that time. It’s also recorded that Tang, one sagacious King of Shang
Dynasty, ordered his Prime Minister Yiyin to formulate the Order for Four Orientations (Sifang
Ling) in order to alleviate those barbarians’ burden of tributary. Tang writes in it that ‘it’s bad if
what all kingdoms present are not their common local production … this is my order for four
orientations that what they contribute should get easier and not expensive’. 5 According to
Shangshu, the Chinese earliest historical work, it records that ‘those barbarians living in islands
contribute beautiful silks though they own dresses made of grass-weaved material’. 6 All of the
above and other similar records and stories regarding tributaries around Chinese pre-historical era
can be also found in other Chinese works, although some of them cannot be confirmed clearly. 7
These records indicate that Chinese tributary system had functioned since about 4000 years

4
《史记·五帝本纪》。
5
《逸周书·卷七》。
6
《尚书·禹贡》。
7
如《韩诗外传·卷五》载：“（周）成王之时，越裳氏重九译而献白雉于周公。”《尚书 ·大传卷五》则
称：“交趾之南，有越裳国，周成王时，越裳氏来献白雉。”

3
before.
However, the formal international tributary system was initiating in Han Dynasty (202 BC-220
AD) after the short Qin Emperor was overthrown. As a very powerful state, Han dynasty received
tributes mostly from those countries in the North-western and northern regions, through which
those small neighboring countries could coexist peacefully with Han dynasty and keep their
political independence. In addition, some tributary countries are from the South of Han Dynasty.
For example, one famous Chinese encyclopedia Huainan Zi, which was finished in the West Han
Dynasty, described that in that time ‘overseas foreigners would come to Emperor’s court, and all
barbarians contribute’. A historical book the History of Han (Han Shu) recorded in one chapter
Geographic Gazetteer that ‘since the period of Wu Emperor, barbarians of Ri’nan Xiwai (today’s
South East Asia) had come to the Court to contribute’.8 In some cases, it was recorded Chinese
Kings or emperors had bestowed the rulers of those tributary barbarian countries Ribbons and
Gold Seals, both of which symbolized the ruling authority and legitimacy.
In Three Kingdoms Period (220-280), China was divided into several independent local kingdoms
in which each one was keen to be the single and orthodox country representing the whole China.
The emperor of Wei Kingdom (220-265), one of those three kingdoms, interviewed with the
diplomatic representatives from Japan, accepted their tributes and finally presented them with
King’s Seal to support the tributary state, one big tribe of Japanese, to legitimately govern Japan,
meanwhile, the emperor sent many private gifts to the king of Japan, endorsed his authority’s
legitimacy.
Additionally, another kingdom Wu (22-280) also sent diplomatic delegates to those Southeast
Asian countries to invite those ‘barbarians’ to visit the King of Chinese Wu. The King of Wu had
sent two diplomatic representatives, Zhuying and Kangnan to Southern barbarian regions, inviting
them to present tributes at Kingdom Wu’s court. They were successful since about a dozen states
(especially including Funan and Linyi, i.e., today’s parts of Vietnam and Cambodia) had gone to
Wu Kingdom to present their local production. Why in this period those kings were so interested
in barbarians’ tributary was just to promote their legitimacy of representing the whole China, since
barbarians often had audiences with those Kings and emperors of Shang, Zhou and Han Dynasties
before. This tributary system was inherited by the following China’s dynasties, and it developed
into a self-contained level till Tang Dynasty.
In the period of Tang dynasty (618-907), frightened by its strong power, many barbarian regimes
sent their representatives to present tributes at the court of Tang. For managing tributary business
technically well, Tang Dynasty set up an independent institute, Court State Ceremonial (Honglu
Si), working together with other two institutes, Secretary in Charge of Guests (Zhuke Lang) and
Secretary in Charge of Topography (Zhifang Lang), wherein the former of which, belonged to the
Ministry of Rites, was in charge of receiving and protocol business, and the latter, belonged to the
Ministry of Defense, whom was responsible for drawing map for those barbarian’s delegates.
In Song dynasty (960-1279) and Yuan dynasty (1271-1368), China-centered tributary system
developed to a higher level after forming a very complicated net constructed by typical institutes,
written regulations and rules, and those subtle symbolic tokens.
For example, Song Dynasty also decided Court State Ceremonial belonged to the Ministry of Riot
to be in charge of tributary business; which set several daks at coastal cities for foreign tributary
delegates. Additionally, Song also set the diapauses for typical countries, for example, An’nan

8
《汉书·地理志》。

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(today’s north Vietnam) was required to present tribute at Song’s court each three years. The
number of representatives from barbarians was also limited strictly in order to alleviate China’s
fiscal burden since Chinese emperors rebated barbarian representatives much more than their
tributaries.9
Yuan Dynasty considerably valued tributary business as well, besides establishing coastal daks,
the Residence for Envoys of Tributary States (Hui Yi Guan) was set up by central government in
Daudu (today’s Beijing) in charge of recording barbarians’ customs, productions, distance from
China and some other conditions of those tributary states. It’s interesting to point out that Yuan’s
emperors liked bestowing barbarian delegates’ mental tokens (from gold to silver and copper) in
order to transit the symbol of Chinese emperor’s authority as the common ruler of all under the
heaven to barbarian regions.
China-centric tributary system then, developed into its peak in the period of Ming dynasty (1368-
1644) and its successor, Qing Empire (1644-1911). In 1369, soon after the first emperor of Ming
Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang, who ascended the throng, promulgated an Edict that writes: ‘within the
last one hundred years, the barbarian10 stole and occupied our China, and their population
distributed at all parts of the world, meanwhile, they abandoned our Chinese human relations. For
this I have started a fight against them for 20 years, and now finally they’re defeated. Now I’m
governing China, and the stability of all under then heaven is fledging. I’m afraid those barbarians
don’t know about this change, so I sent my representatives to inform them of this’. 11 Ming’s court
invented a new approach-- Kan He System-- to tell the right tributary delegates from those
counterfeits, because some foreigners pretended to be the barbarian delegates who always profited
considerably through tributary.
Qing Dynasty also developed a much more complicated system than Yuan to deal with tributary
business, and the international trade between China and those tributary countries thrived under the
framework of this international system. In almost all time of Ming dynasty and in some time of
Qing Dynasty, maritime trade was prohibited by emperors, thus the tributary system became the
single access to international trade between China and other East Asian countries. If in the period
of non-banning of maritime trade, the trade with barbarians would be permitted within the given
days at the Residence for Envoys of Tributary States.
Additionally, it’s significant to point that through China-centric tributary system, Chinese culture
was gradually transferred to China’s neighboring and surrounding countries, such as Korea, Japan
and Vietnam, and influenced deeply these countries’ political system, societal structure and
opinions on the world, with which a Chinese cultural circle was formed in East Asia at last.

Ideological Pillars of China-centered Tributary System

- Confucian Code
Clearly, to the West, the tributary system is too strange to be understood, however, it’s deeply
stemmed from the Chinese culture which has developed originally in the small region of Huang
River about 4000 BC and gradually was accepted or shared by a much larger population in a much

9
《宋会要辑稿》，蕃夷七之五一。
10
The ruling class of Yuan Dynast of China was Mongolian which was recognized as barbarians by Han people,
the most part of Chinese.
11
《明太祖实录》，卷三八，洪武二年正月乙卯条。

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broader land in East Asia. Namely, this international system cannot be understood by modern
international politics but only by Chinese culture.
About 4000 years ago, feudal system was constructed in Zhou Dynasty (about 11st century BC-
476 BC), in which the King of Zhou, called as ‘the son of Heaven’, was recognized as the core of
all other lords who often were the relatives of the King. In the name of the son of Heaven, King of
Zhou dynasty allocated lands to his subordinates, and in return those subordinates ought to
contribute native products and troops to the King and had to have audiences with the King, strictly
complying the protocols and regulations made by central authority.
Although this feudal or enfeoffment system (Fen Feng Zhi) and patriarchal clan system (Zong Fa
Zhi) were replaced by prefecture system (Junxian Zhi)-- a kind of bureaucratic system built in Qin
Dynasty, and the principle of approach to choose officials was changed from consanguinity to
ability-- the hierarchy order was kept in political system which stemmed from ethical culture
which was recognized as the foundation of China’s continuity and development after
Confucianism was acknowledged to be the most dominant culture in China when Emperor Wu of
Han Dynasty followed the suggestion of one of his ministers, Dong Zhongshu.
In general, there are two important elements—Ren and Li in Confucian codes which were mainly
originated from Zhou Dynasty’s cultural and political traditions. Ren is a mixture of many virtues
mainly including humanity, justice, love and benevolence, etc, and Li also has many meanings
wherein order, propriety, hierarchy are highlighted. In general, Ren is the ethical performance, and
Li is a special societal structure.
According to Confucianism, a perfect family is a family fastidiously complying with both Ren and
Li, and this kind of family is also the foundation of a perfect state, and this kind of state is the
foundation of a perfect ‘Tianxia’ (all under heaven). In one classical Confucian book ‘The Great
Learning’ (Da Xue) reads that ‘those in ancient times who will preach great virtue in all under
heaven must make their states be in peace and prosperity firstly; those who will make their states
be in peace and prosperity must keep order in their families firstly’.12
Accordingly, the political system in China is constructed on the foundation of the structure of one
family grounded in Confucian code, as is the external relations with ‘barbarians’. That is, Chin-
centered tributary system was dependent on Ren and Li as well.
As for Li, it’s necessary to introduce the Five Responsibilities System (Wu Fu Zhi) which is a
potential part of Confucian code and worked even in Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties and
gradually became a core ideological base of patriarchal clan system. In Yu Gong chapter of Shang
Shu, it argued that different political units had different responsibilities for the King of Central
Kingdom, where these five different responsibilities included ‘responsibilities of Dian, jie, Sui,
Yao and Huang’, according to different distances of political units in geography from the capital of
Central Kingdom. For example, the scope of responsibility of Dian was much broad, but the
responsibility of Huang was in limitation. 13 Namely, the King as the core of a concentric circle,
those living in different circles have different responsibilities, more distance from the King, then
less responsibilities. In general, as Hamaheta said, tributary system is the expansion and utilization
of internal basic political relations based on Five Responsibilities System.14
Maybe Li can be recognized as the practice of a hierarchical political and societal system, but it
12
《大学》。
13
《尚书·禹贡》。
14
滨下武志：《近代中国的国际契机——朝贡贸易体系与近代亚洲经济圈》，北京：中国社会科学出版社
1999 年版，第 29 页。

6
cannot be used to explain thetributary system clearly and completely if neglecting another
ideology—Ren.
If Li is the element makes tributary system be hierarchical, notwithstanding, Ren is the guarantee
of peace and stability within the hierarchic system. Confucius said ‘if one manages people by
virtue, he should be like the Big Dipper, staying in the center surrounded by other stars’, 15 and ‘if
those who live far-off aren’t obedient, please cultivate your own refinement and virtue to attract
them to come’.16 Generally the peace and stability within this hierarchical system is kept not by
force but by Ren. It indicates the ruler of China cannot freely invade and even interfere in its
vassals’ domestic affairs if they don’t offend his authority, and at the meantime, he should
humanely treat his people (including barbarians who voluntarily want to be naturalized into
China-centered system) in all under heaven, civilizing them with Chinese culture.
In a sum, in the light of Confucianism, China as an empire is just the big model of one family in
which all members act firmly in terms of their own status in the family, which could assure the
stability, peace and harmony under a hierarchical political framework. Namely, this kind of
hierarchy defined by Confucianism in a common family was practiced in China’s political system,
where the emperor is the head and others including his ministers, vassals, and all other people as
subordinates should act like his younger brothers and sisters or even his children. China-centered
tributary system is the duplication or the amplification of Chinese internal political and social
system which is also the duplication or the amplification of Chinese family based on Confucian
codes, wherein Li and Ren are basic ideologies.
- Chinese-Barbarians Order
In terms of the History Inscribed on Bamboo-slips (Zhujian Ji’nian), we can know that from the
Dynasty of Xia (about 21st century- 17th century BC), those people living in Central Plains of
China called neighboring people Yi, and later Rong, Di, and Man. Finally, Chinese in Central
Plains called all of those neighboring people Four Yis. So the people living in the world (of course
it’s very small for knowledge-limited Chinese at that time) were assorted to two parts—Chinese
(Hua) and barbarians (Yi).
In accordance with a Confucian classical masterpiece The Book of Rites, it says that ‘there are Yis
living in the East, tattooed and with scattered hair, without eating cooked food; there are Mans
living in the South, tattooed on their foreheads and the inner-side of thighs, without eating cooked
food; there are Rongs living in the West, wearing leather and with Scattered hair, without eating
grains; there are Dis living in the North, wearing feathers and staying in caves, without eating
grains. All of them—Chinese, Man, Yi, Rong and Di have their own residences, temperaments,
dress, and daily necessities.’17
Nonetheless, this classification doesn’t make a difference or even discrimination from the angle of
ethnicity or race but only from the perspective of culture. A great Confucian scholar in Ming
Dynasty, He Tang argued clearly that ‘the difference between Chinese and barbarian is not based
on the place they live and the blood they have, but based on the culture they believe in.
Consequently, according to the opinions of the Spring and Autumn (a historical work by
Confucius), if Chinese accept barbarian proprieties, they will be barbarian; if barbarians accept
Chinese proprieties, they will be Chinese.’18
15
《论语·为政》。
16
《论语·季氏》。
17
《礼记·王制》。
18
何瑭：《河内祠堂记》，（元）许衡：《许文正公遗书》，卷末。

7
This theory of Chinese-barbarian order (Hua-Yi Zhixu) was supported by some historical incidents
and stories. For example, it’s said that the royal family of Shang Dynasty came from the eastern
Yi, and the royal family of Zhou Dynasty came from the western Rong. The Great successor of
Confucianism Mencius also said that ‘Shun (a great pre-historical Chinese leader), a person from
the eastern Yi, who was born in Zhufeng, moved to Fuxia, and died in Mingtiao; and the King
Wen of Zhou Daynasty, a person from the Western Yi, was born in Qizhou, and died in Biying’. 19
Since those great Chinese Saints are from barbarians, so Zi Xia, one student of Confucius, said
that ‘all people within the world are brothers. Could it be that a man of honor be worried about no
brother?’20
As regards of Chin-centered tributary system, obviously it was influenced deeply by the paradigm
of Chinese-barbarian Order albeit this paradigm has the potential logic of the position replacement
between Chinese and Barbarians because those barbarians could change themselves to be Chinese
if they accepted Chinese culture, in return, Chinese could be changed to be barbarians if they lost
or abandoned Chinese culture in typical contexts.
Especially in Yuan and Qing Dynasty, the Chinese-barbarian Order stimulated Japan (in some
times, Korea) which had the willing to replace China, to be the Chinese centre in the period of
those two dynasties in which China was ruled by Mongolians and Manchu people, both of whom
were in the list of barbarians according to Chinese-barbarian Order. This idea of position
replacement of Chinese-barbarian in Japan was called ‘Changing from Chinese to Barbarians’
(Hua Yi Biantai), which means the Chinese-Barbarians positions were changed between Chinese
and Japanese since China were ruled by barbarians yet Japan still kept Confucian culture well.
Obviously, Chinese-barbarian order is very different from colonialist system where the
colonialists are brutal rulers, and the colonized countries are absolute subordinates exploited and
ruled by colonialists by coerce or even by force. Conversely, in accordance with the paradigm of
Chinese-barbarian order, all vassal countries have independent status and China’s emperor
normally would not interfere in their domestic affairs actively, unless they didn’t have audience
with him at Chinese court within given years. To preserve stability and promote common
prosperity within this system were Chinese emperor’s objective and responsibility and according
to the code of Confucianism, those people in vassals were treated as his own families.
- Tianxia Idea
Another quite important idea as one pillar of tributary system’s ideologies is the idea of Tianxia
(all under heaven). In one of the earliest Chinese poems collection The Book of Odes writes that
‘all lands under heaven belonged to the King’, which implies in early time such as in Zhou
dynasty, the Tianxia idea was one part of ideology in forming the base of ancient Chinese political
thoughts and social philosophy.
Based on Confucianism, Tianxia, is a harmonious “world” where the people who live fully accept
Chinese culture as their dominant ideology in both daily lives and political activities by keeping
each social and political position at peace. Somehow Tianxia is formed with many other
independent countries in which China is the core and dominant actor, or the head of others. Thus
Tianxia is different from a country with clear borders or boundaries.
To understand the difference between “Tianxia” and a “world” is necessary to understand China-
centered tributary system which is quite different from the suzerain-colonized system, hegemonic

19
《孟子·离娄下》。
20
《论语·颜渊篇第十二》。

8
system or nation-state system. To Chinese emperors, Tianxia is one part of his ‘big family’ that he
has the responsibility to take care, although there is a distinction between China and its vassals.
For instance, the first emperor of Ming dynasty Zhu Yuanzhang in his Edict to adjacent countries
said that ‘Given that I became the head of Tianxia, thus there will be no difference between
Chinese and barbarians. Though you have different family names, I will nevertheless look after
you all without discrimination.’21 Zhu Yuanzhang’s son, Zhu Li, the third emperor of Ming
Dynasty, soon after ascending the throne also stated in an edict that ‘now I ascend the throne, and I
will look after both Chinese and barbarians without discrimination’.22
Not only the emperor and high-level officials but also each ordinary man had the responsibility to
keep the stability and prosperity of Tianxia, in line with Confucianism. One Confucian classical
book, writes that the first step to comprehend the ideal of a man is to promote his cultivation in
order to keep the stability and harmony in his family; and after keeping stability and harmony in
his family, he can commit himself to country’s governance through which he can access to the
final ideal -- pacifying all under heaven. 23 Just according to this doctrine, a famous philosopher
living in Ming Dynasty Gu Yanwu claimed in his book that ‘Every individual has the
responsibility for the rise and fall of all under heaven’.
So this idea of ‘non-discrimination’ and the responsibility of everyone for Tianxia makes China-
centric tributary system not be a relationship among sovereign states but an enlarged and
duplicated relationship between central political system (China) and other local political system
(barbarian regimes), wherein Tianxia geographically including China and its adjacent countries in
a segregated, self-functioned and harmonious world, quite different from nation-state system in
which there are lasting tension and rivalry within which state are being preserved by self-helps. In
addition, the identity in nation-state system has to be constructed by discriminating heterogeneous
actors according to nation and ethnicity. Furthermore, Tianxia idea also makes the tributary
system be utterly different from colonial system which was constructed by western colonialists in
17th-19th centuries, adhering strictly the difference of the west and others in the world and
maintained by force in common.

Function of China-centered Tributary System

- Political Legitimacy
For Chinese emperor, to control a great empire with large territory and huge population was not an
easy job, and he also had to carefully comply with Confucian doctrine if he wanted to be a so-
called sensible emperor. Namely, Confucianism was the sources of legitimacy of emperor’s ruling
in China.
Because Confucian basic code and other Confucian ideas were ideological pillars of the tributary
system, thus, abiding by Confucian codes was the main responsibility of Chinese emperor who
was recognized by his subjects as the model to comply with the Confucian codes. So to keep a
sound tributary system based on Confucian codes was an important task for the emperor to acquire
political legitimacy in central kingdom. At the same time, through this system, he could be
accepted by foreigners as the orthodox successor of Chinese emperor as well. In particular, it
became a tradition that the re-canonization of vassals was one approach for Chinese emperor to
21
《明太祖实录·卷五十三》。
22
《明史·郑和列传》。
23
《大学》。

9
consolidate his political legitimacy.
Thus we can understand why those emperors of China were very eager to invite foreign
delegations to come to their courts, especially the influence of their dynasties or regimes were
quite weak in that time. For an example, Song dynasty was not strong and often threatened by
nomadic troops from the north and the north-west. But its emperor had much interest to maintain
and consolidate the tributary system, in order to tell all under heaven that any other regimes like
Liao and Jin were not orthodox Chinese dynasties, but except for Song dynasty. 24
On the other hand, those vassals also had the motion to join in and maintain China-centered
tributary system if they thought it was necessary for them to consolidate the legitimacy in their
domestic politics. Because of the Chinese culture and military powerful influence in East Asia,
those small countries had to be absorbed into Chinese cultural circle, in which only those countries
recognized by Chinese emperor had full legitimacy to rule their people. For instance, after Korea
(once a part of Tang Dynasty’s territory) became an independent country built by Yi Song-gye,
King Yi Song-gye was keen to get the official canonization document of the emperor of China’s
Ming Dynasty, but he failed at first, because Ming emperor didn’t recognize him as the legitimate
successor. But King Song-gye didn’t give up until a new Ming’s emperor sent him the imperial
‘certificate’.25 The same requirement to Chinese emperor was raised by Japan’s governor
Toyotomi Hideyoshi after he failed in the war with Korea in 1598.
- Economic Interests
Nonetheless, the tributary system in Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) and Qing Dynasty (1644-1912)
played a typical function by which the limited international trade between China and other eastern
countries became a case. In Ming dynasty, central government made the policy against maritime
trade, forbidding common people trading with overseas foreigners. Correspondingly, tributary and
bestowal between vassals’ delegation and China’s emperor became the single approach of
international trade between China and other countries. Certainly, this trade didn’t have an
influence on common people’s life, since most of those tributes from vassals were luxury goods;
meanwhile, the scale of trade was very limited.
Basically, Qing Dynasty continued the tributary trade system of Ming Empire. Qing’s emperors
forbade Chinese people personally to address to trade with foreigners for several times. Qing set
out some complicated rules and especial institutes to manage tributary trade business, such as the
trade spots, time, and number of persons when tributary delegates arrived in China. Those rules
regulated that tributary trade should be completed within 3 or 5 days in appointed market places,
except for Korea and Loo-choo (nowadays known as Ryukyu).
Generally, apart from the trade in markets, the exchange of emperor’s good deeds toward the gifts
from vassal’s delegates was not in equilibrium, which means that what the delegates acquired
from China’s emperor were much more than what they gave him. This unequal ‘trade’ resulted
from the idea of China’s emperor who held that as a great status that ‘China should be generous to
her subdominants’. In this sense, the economic interests resulted from tributary system was
profited by those overseas delegates in special markets.
- Regional Stability and Security

24
It’s recorded that the number of vassals having tributary relations with Song Dynasty is 26, and it happened 302
times. See《宋会要辑稿蕃夷》，cited from 李金明、廖大珂：《中国古代海外贸易史》，广西人民出版社
1995 年版，第 104 页。
25
（韩）郑容和：《从周边视角来看朝贡关系：朝鲜王朝对朝贡体系的认识和利用》，《国际政治研究》 ，
2006 年第 1 期。

10
In practice, regional stability and even peace in East Asia was kept for a very long time in China-
centered tributary system. Two reasons can be used to shed light on this long peace and stability.
The first reason is the super-power of China (in the China tributary system era); next, the Tianxia
idea.
For China’s super power was not only in the field of military and economy, but also in filed of soft
power—Chinese culture, and no vassals had the will to fight against China, simultaneously, if any
one of them intervened in or even invaded others, China would without hesitation use its power to
help the bullied country, if China’s military was invited to intervene. For instance, when Korea
was invaded by Japan (1592), Chinese military entered Korea to fight against Japan, and helped
Korea revive the former order in this region. But it should be highlighted that Chinese military
never stayed in any other country longer until inter-state or civil war had ended.
That the regional stability could be maintained was also due to another reason that china adhered
to Tianxia idea in which China’s emperor considered himself to have the responsibility to keep
regional stability and prosperity under the heaven, meanwhile, those barbarians or vassals would
benefit from the tributary system partially based on Tianxia idea since they were politically
independent from China domestically, and national security and were safeguarded by China at the
same time. Additionally, they could enhance the degree of their civilization through absorbing
Chinese culture.
In 1369, Zhu Yuanzhang in his Ancestor’s Allocution of Emperor said that ‘The Four Yis, are
constrained in limited land by mountains and seas, and the people cannot be fed sufficiently by
their land, and order cannot be effective without sufficient population. It’s a misfortune if they
don’t recognize their own limited strength to annoy our frontiers. Also, it’s a misfortune that we
attack them by force if they are not the potential trouble for China. I’m worried my future
generations will start wars leaning on China’s strength and richness against them without any
reasonable causes leading to bloodbath. Remember, it can never be a case!’26
Emperor Zhu Di in one of his edicts promulgated by his representative Zheng He (who was well-
known to lead the sail to the Atlantic in seven times) said to those South-east Asians that ‘today I
appoint Zheng He to promulgate my edict and will. If you abide by the Heaven’s will, comply
with my suggestions, stay in your own positions and don’t arrogate them, at the same time, don’t
insult the minority and bully the weak in your countries, then you can enjoy together with us the
happiness of peace and security.’27
J. Fairbank had concluded that ‘It must not be assumed that the Chinese Court made a profit out of
… tribute. The imperial gifts bestowed in return were usually more valuable than tribute… On
China’s part the permission to trade was intended to be a mark of imperial boundary and a means
of keeping the barbarians in the proper state of submissiveness…’ 28

Collapse of China-centered Tributary System

26
《皇明祖训》，《明史纪事本末》，卷五五。
27
“今遣郑和赍敕普谕朕意，尔等只顺天道，恪守朕言语，循理安分，勿得违越，不可欺寡，不可凌弱，
庶 几共享太平之福”。
28
J. K. Fairbank and S. Y. Teng, On the Ch'ing Tributary System, Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol. 6, No. 2,
(Jun., 1941), p.140.

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In the late of Qing Dynasty, China-centered tributary system gradually lost its influence,
consequently collapsed after the end of Yellow Sea War between China and Japan, the symbol of
Japan’s rise and China’s fall in the round of 20 century.
- Japan’s Meiji Restoration
In 1868, Japanese governors launched a far-reaching domestic reform which was called Meiji
Restoration. Before this reform, many Japanese elites started to ponder the strategy for Japan’s
promising future when Japan was forced to open door by America, among whom there was a
thinker Fukuzawa Yukichi who was well known for his many radical thoughts in which the
suggestion of escaping from Asia to join Europe was most outstanding, according to which Japan
should aim at join-in the group of western countries by separating from Asia, if Japan wanted to
make great progress in the future. He also argued Japan should invade Korea to seek for more
living space, which somehow was the ideological resource of Japanese Militarism which was in
fashion in 1930s-1940s.
Meiji Restoration as an all-around reform launched top-down was grounded on the ideas of
Japan’s elites and enlightenment thinkers whose aim was to make Japan grow to be a nation-state
and of course, escape from China’s influence and China-centered tributary system. After the
success of Meiji Restoration, and with Japan’s successful invasion of Korea, China lost its position
of suzerain both in Japan and in Korea.
- Falling of China’s Qing Dynasty
Since Qing Dynasty failed in the first Opium War with Britain and in the second Opium War
with Britain and France, Chinese suddenly faced ‘the biggest challenge for Chinese who have not
faced within 3000 years before’, according to Li Hongzhang, the Northern Commerce Minister of
the late Qing Empire.
But the greatest failure of China’s Qing was taken place in the Yellow Sea War with Japan, and
this war imposed much more pressure on China, having changed Chinese idea on traditional
political system and even Chinese culture. Many Chinese intellectuals were confused by China’s
failure in the wars with those ‘vassals’ and ‘barbarians’. The Yellow Sea War (or Jiawu War)—the
first Sino-Japanese war-- happened in 1894-1895 which opened the preface of tributary system’s
collapse, and Li Hongzhang who represented Qing Dynasty signed the shameful treaty with Japan
in Shimonoseki.
Additionally, with China’s falling, Korea couldn’t resort to China to defend its national security
when being threatened by Japanese military, and China-centered tributary system also lost its
attraction from Korea. Korea thus utterly became a colonized country of Japan after China lost in
the battle field in Korea with Japanese military. In general, from 1840s, after China lost several
wars with western states and Japan, the treaty system gradually replaced tributary system in East
Asia.
- China’s Vassals Colonized by the West
Malacca, a vassal of China in Southeast Asia, had to be cut away from China’s tributary system
since being occupied by Portuguese colonists in 1511. After that time, those small island countries
as China’s vassals in Southeast Asia fell into colonized destiny one by one in front of the western
colonists’ despotic power and cunningness. For example, Java Island was colonized by the
Netherlands in 1571, and the Philippines became the colony of Spain in 1851. Of course, because
of China’s weakness, especially in the late of Qing Dynasty, those countries could not revive with
China’s support to be independent from colonists like before.

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The similar process of colonization of China’s vassals took place not only in Southeast Asia, but
also in South Asia, East Asia and West Asia. Nearly all China’s vassals were forced to break away
from China-centered tributary system after western and Japanese colonizers settled to those
regions. It is comprehensible that the collapse of tributary system happened together with the
colonization of those China’s vassals embracing today’s part or all of Afghanistan, Cambodia,
Bhutan, Laos, Myanmar, Vietnam, Loo-choo and Korea.

Conclusion

In the light of upper analysis, we can draw some conclusions as follows. Firstly, the failure or
collapse of China-centered tributary system was inescapable. As we know, this system was
dependent on agricultural civilization and Chinese strength due to the wealth accumulation partly
by the Chinese great unity, so when confronting industrial civilization created by the West and the
modern economic and military system, the tributary system had to make room for modern
international system-- nation-state system.
Secondly, although china-centered system collapsed, the aftermath of it cannot be neglected and in
some cases it still plays a role in East Asian region since it existed for such a long period of time.
For example, Japan’s invasion of China in the 20 th century was partly stimulated by the idea of
Tianxia which recognizes ‘all under heaven’ as a community and the strongest had the
responsibility to address regional prosperity and stability, but Japan chose a quite wrong approach
—aggression war. Meanwhile, this idea perhaps also influenced the mentality of Chinese,
Japanese and Korean, who are all influenced deeply by Confucian code and philosophy and this
mentality, even nowadays, will further have an influence on their idea of states’ status in
international society in East Asia.
Thirdly, in the era of nation-state system and globalization, we can borrow ideas from the case that
the regional stability and prosperity was safeguarded successfully by tributary system, in which
generally both stability and prosperity were guaranteed and realized through peaceful approaches,
especially through the Chinese cultural charm and attraction and an especial hierarchical order
partly based on Li and Ren, two key Confucian codes. Regardless of the unequal ranks among
China and its vassals, at least, maintaining regional peace and security by peaceful approach rather
than by force and coerce is much more attractive to Asian nations and peoples.

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