0.

1 Small signal analysis and circuits

In order to design or study a linear amplifier we need components to be linear and time-
independent.
This is because:
• LTI components and networks are easier to study
• We wish amplifiers to be linear
However, most semiconductor devices are not linear!

Anyway, since their characteristic equations are smooth enough (differentiable functions), we
may approximate the behavior of such devices for small variations in time with respect to a
constant (DC) working point with a linear equation.

Such equation is given by Taylor’s formula and the approximation is sufficiently good when
variations are small.

Given a nonlinear device, it is described by a set of equations:



 Y1 = f1 (X1 , X2 , ..., XN )

Y2 = f2 (X1 , X2 , ..., XN )

..


 .

YM = f1 (X1 , X2 , ..., XN )


We can choose a working point (X0,1 , X0,2 , ..., X0,N , Y0,1 , Y0,2 , ..., Y0,M ) that satisfies the charac-
teristic equations: 

 Y0,1 = f1 (X0,1 , X0,2 , ..., X0,N )

Y0,2 = f2 (X0,1 , X0,2 , ..., X0,N )

..


 .

Y0,M = f1 (X0,1 , X0,2 , ..., X0,N )


We can apply Taylor’s formula at the working point to get:

  
∂f1 (X1 , ..., XN )  ∂f1 (X1 , ..., XN ) 
Y1 ≈ Y0,1 + (X1 − X0,1 ) + ... + (XN − X0,N )


∂X1 ∂XN

  

 X1 =X0,1 X1 =X1,0
.. ..





 . .

XN =X0,N XN =X0,N







 ..
.






  
∂f (X , ..., X ) ∂f (X , ..., X )

 M 1 N  M 1 N 
YM ≈ Y0,M + (X1 − X0,1 ) + ... + (XN − X0,N )

  



 ∂X1 
X1 =X 0,1
∂XN 
X1 =X 1,0
.. ..






 . .


 XN =X0,N XN =X0,N



1
We can move the constant term to the left:

  
∂f1 (X1 , ..., XN )  ∂f1 (X1 , ..., XN ) 
Y1 − Y0,1 ≈ (X1 − X0,1 ) + ... + (XN − X0,N )


∂X1 ∂XN

  

 X1 =X0,1 X1 =X1,0
.. ..





 . .

XN =X0,N XN =X0,N







 ..
.






  
∂f (X , ..., X ) ∂f (X , ..., X )

 M 1 N  M 1 N 
YM − Y0,M ≈ (X1 − X0,1 ) + ... + (XN − X0,N )

  



 ∂X1 
X1 =X 0,1
∂XN 
X1 =X 1,0
.. ..






 . .


 XN =X0,N XN =X0,N



We can introduce the variations in the controlled and controlling quantities:


x1 = X1 − X0,1


x2 = X2 − X0,2





 ..
 .



xN = XN − X0,N

y1 = Y1 − Y0,1





 ..
.





yM = YM − Y0,M


With X0,i and Y0,i the DC components of the signals Xi and Yi respectively (all variations are
defined with respect to DC working points)
The Taylor approximation becomes:
  
∂f1 (X1 , ..., X N )  ∂f1 (X 1 , ..., X N ) 
y ≈ x + ... + xN

1 1
  
∂X1 ∂XN

  

 X1 =X0,1 X1 =X1,0
.. ..





 . .

XN =X0,N XN =X0,N







 ..
.






  
∂f (X , ..., X ) ∂f (X , ..., X )

 M 1 N  M 1 N 
yM ≈ x1 + ... + xN

  



 ∂X1 
X1 =X 0,1
∂XN 
X1 =X 1,0
.. ..






 . .


 XN =X0,N XN =X0,N



2
We can rewrite this system of equations in matrix form:
   
y1 x1
 ..   .. 
 .  = A . 
yM xN

With A the m × n matrix:


∂fi (X1 , ..., XN ) 
[a]i,j =
∂Xj 
X1 =X0,1
..
.
XN =X0,N

The result of this procedure is that for small signals we have a linear characteristic for the
nonlinear element, described by the matrix A.

0.1.1 Small signal circuit

Once we have found a matrix equation:
   
y1 x1
 ..   .. 
 .  = A . 
yM xN

we can build an equivalent circuit described by the same matrix equation.

Such circuit relates the small variations of the variables on the nonlinear element.
These circuits do not give any information about the working point of the circuit, just about
the small signal components of the signals.

Small signal circuits will be built using:

• resistors

• open circuits

• short circuits

• controlled sources

We can derive the equivalent circuits for the basic components in electronic circuits.

In order to do this, since their equations are already linear, we will just split the variables into
a DC component and a small signal component.

3
0.1.2 Small signal models of common components
RESISTOR

V
V = RI
I
(Ohm’s law)

R
v = V − V0 = RI − RI0 = R(I − I0 ) = Ri
So, we have:

27
v = Ri
Therefore, a resistor remains a resistor in small signal analysis and it keeps the same resistance
value:

V v
I ss i

R R

7
DC INDEPENDENT VOLTAGE SOURCE

VS
V = VS

v = V − V0 = VS − VS = 0
So, we have:
v=0
Therefore, a DC voltage source becomes a short-circuit in small signal:

VS
ss

4
DC INDEPENDENT CURRENT SOURCE

IS
I = IS

i = I − I0 = IS − IS
So, we have:
i=0
Therefore, a DC current source becomes an open-circuit in small signal:

IS
ss

7x
CAPACITOR

V
dV
I I=C
dt

C
dV dV0 d(V − V0 ) dv
i = I − I0 = C −C =C =C
dt dt dt dt
So, we have:

27x
dv
i=C
dr
Therefore, a capacitor remains a capacitor in small signal:

V v

I
ss i

C C