Math 22: Elementary Analysis II 2nd Sem A.Y.

2020 -2021
Taylor and Maclaurin Series K.E. Manaloto

Theorem. Assume that the function f has a power series representation about the number a ∈ dom f. Then the derivatives of f
of all orders exist at a, and
+∞ (n)
X f (a)
f (x) = (x − a)n
n=0
n!

for all x in the interval of convergence of the series, where f (0) := f.

Remarks.
1. If f is a function such that f (n) (a) exists for all n ∈ N, we can associate to f the power series
+∞ (n)
X f (a)
(x − a)n .
n=0
n!

this is called the Taylor series of f about a.

2. The Taylor series for f about 0 is called the Maclaurin series for f, that is,
+∞ (n)
X f (0) n
x .
n=0
n!

3. It is sometimes true that a function is equal to its Taylor series at all points in the interval of convergence of the series, but
not always.

Maclaurin Series of Some Functions:

f (x) Maclaurin series radius of convergence

+∞
X xn
ex ∞
n=0
n!

+∞
X (−1)n 2n+1
sin x x ∞
n=0
(2n+)!
+∞
X (−1)n 2n
cos x x ∞
n=0
(2n)!
+∞
X (−1)n 2n+1
tan−1 x x ∞
n=0
(2n + 1)
+∞
X 1
sinh x x2n+1 1
n=0
(2n + 1)!
+∞
X 1
cosh x x2n ∞
n=0
(2n)!

Definition. Let f be a function whose first k derivatives exist at a. The kth degree Taylor polynomial of f about a, denoted
by Pk , is the polynomial defined by
k
X f (n) (a)
Pk (x) = (x − a)n .
n=0
n!
The remainder is the function Rk given by
Rk (x) = f (x) − Pk (x).
Remark. A Taylor polynomial of f is a partial sum of the Taylor series for f. Hence,
+∞ (n)
X f (a)
(x − a)n = lim Pk (x).
n=0
n! k→+∞

Theorem. Suppose that f is a function whose derivatives of all orders exist at a. Let Pk (x) denote the kth degree Taylor polynomial
of f about a. Then f (x) is equal to its Taylor series about a if and only if lim Rk (x) = 0.
k→+∞
Theorem (Taylor’s Inequality). If |f (k+1) (x)| ≤ M for |x − a| ≤ d, then the remainder function Rk (x) satisfies inequality

M
|Rk (x)| ≤ |x − a|k+1 for |x − a| ≤ d.
(k + 1)!
+∞
R. It can be shown that the power series (x − a)n
R. Hence,
X
Useful Fact: Let a ∈ absolutely converges for any x ∈
n=0
n!

(x − a)n |x − a|n
lim = 0 and lim = 0.
n→+∞ n! n→+∞ n!
Equivalently,
(x − a)k+1 |x − a|k+1
lim = 0 and lim = 0.
k→+∞ (k + 1)! k→+∞ (k + 1)!

Remark. If a function f is equal to its Taylor series about a, we can use a Taylor polynomial to approximate f. For k ∈ N,
k
X f (n) (a)
f (x) ≈ Pk (x) := (x − a)n .
n=0
n!

Additional Exercises:
1. Determine the Taylor series of the following functions centered at the indicated value of a.

1 1 √
3
(a) f (x) = , a = −1 (b) f (x) = ,a = 1 (c) f (x) = x, a = 8
x x+2

2. Determine the Maclaurin series of the following functions.

(a) f (x) = e4x (b) f (x) = ln(1 + x) (c) f (x) = sinh(2x)

3. Use the Maclaurin series for the natural exponential function and the sine function to show that the following equalities hold.
1 ∞ 1 ∞
(−1)n
Z Z
x5
X 1 X
sin x2 dx =


(a) e dx = (b)
0 n=0
n!(5n + 1) 0 n=0
(2n + 1)!(4n + 3)

∞
X n+2
4. Find the Maclaurin series of x2 e−x and use it to show (−2)n+1 = 4.
n=1
n!
2
5. If f (x) = ex , find f (2020) (0).
6. Find the nth degree Taylor polynomial of the function about a.

1 3
(b) f (x) = x 2 , a = 1, n = 4
(a) f (x) = , a = 5, n = 5
(x − 4)2

7. Find the third degree Taylor polynomial of f (x) = ln(x − 1) about 2 and use the result to approximate ln(1.5).
√ √
8. Find the third degree Maclaurin polynomial of f (x) = 1 + x and use the result to approximate 1.5.
+∞
X (−1)n 2n+1
9. Given: tan−1 x = x for all x ∈ [−1, 1].
n=0
2n + 1

(a) Use the fifth degree Maclaurin polynomial for tan−1 x to approximate tan−1 (0.3).
(b) If f (x) = tan−1 x, find f (33) (0).
(c) If g(x) = x tan−1 (x2 ), find g (33) (0), g (34) (0), g (35) (0), and g (36) (0).
Z
1
(d) Write 0 2 x2 tan−1 (x2 ) dx as a series.
10. Find the sum of the series by associating it with some Maclaurin series.

π3 π5 π7 π 2n+1 (ln 3)2 (ln 3)3 (−1)n (ln 3)n

(a) π − + − + . . . + (−1)n (c) 1 − ln 3 + − + ... + + ...
3! 5! 7! (2n + 1)! 2 6 n!
4 8 16 2n 1 1 1 1
(b) 2 + + + + ... + + ... (d) + + + ... + + ...
2! 3! 4! n! 0! · 3 1! · 4 2! · 5 n!(n + 3)

11. Use theMaclaurin polynomial of degree 6 for cos x to estimate cos 1 and cos 2. in each case, determine the number of decimal
places to which the approximation is correct.
Z 1
sin x
12. Use a series to approximate dx to three decimal places.
0.5 x