BEHAVIOUR OF GRANULAR MATERIALS

UNDER CYCLIC LOADING

A DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree
of
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
in
CIVIL ENGINEERING
(With Specialization in Transportation Engineering)

By
SATYA RAMA RAJIENDRA NEMANI

ofTj

LL ;J

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
ROORKEE - 247 667 (INDIA)
JUNE, 2007
ti
 CANDIDATE'S DECLARATION

I hereby certify that the work which is being presented in the dissertation entitled

"BEHAVIOUR OF GRANULAR MATERIALS UNDER CYCLIC LOADING",

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of MASTER OF

TECHNOLOGY with specialization in TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING of

the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee is an authentic record of my own work

carried out from September 2006 to June 2007 under the guidance of Dr. Satish

Chandra, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering and Dr. Praveen Kumar,

Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology

Roorkee, Roorkee.

The matter embodied in this dissertation has not been submitted by me for the

award of any other degree.

Date: June, 2007

jQd
Place: Roorkee (SATYA RAMA RAJENDRA NEMANI)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the above statement made by candidate is correct to the best of

our knowledge.

(Dr. Satish Chandra)Zs4t~'~ (Dr. Praveen Kumar)

Professor Associate Professor
Transportation Engg. Section Transportation Engg. Section
Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
IIT Roorkee IIT Roorkee
Roorkee Roorkee

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude and sincere thanks to Dr. Satish

Chandra, Professor and Dr. Praveen Kumar, Associate Professor, Transportaion

Engineering Section, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee, for their spirited

guidance in completing this dissertation. Without their help, this work would have

never materialized and would have remained a dream. I would like to express my

wholehearted appreciation for the commitment delegated by them through out my

dissertation.

Next, I am indebted to all those endless researchers all over the world, whose

work I have referred for my dissertation.

Friends, who have formed an important part of my life, deserve a very special

note of thanks for their vicarious support and enthusiastic help especially A.K.Sinha

(Research Scholar) and all of my Classmates. Special words of thanks are due to the

staff of Transportation Engineering Section for their cooperation in the conduct of the

experiments.

It is a distinct pleasure for the author to acknowledge and record heartful

gratitude to his parents for the inspiration and understanding that are the source of

successful completion of this thesis.

Date: June 2007

Place: IIT Roorkee (SATYA RAMA RAJENDRA NEMANI)

ii
 ABSTRACT

The main objective of present research on granular materials is to establish the

constitutive relationships to predict resilient and permanent strains accurately. The

quality of pavement design is dependent on the manner in which the material

properties are evaluated. Static testing of material does not simulate the repeated

loading caused by the traffic. The traffic type loading is defined by the resilient

response, which is important for the load carrying ability of the pavement and a

permanent strain response, which characterizes the long-term performance of the

pavement and the rutting phenomenon. India has vast material resources. The cost of

construction of roads can be reduced and the economy also be enhanced, if the locally

available materials are used. Present study deals with the study of behavior of

granular materials under cyclic loading. Four different types of materials namely

reinforced fly ash,. stone dust, granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS), steel making slag

(SMS) are considered. To evaluate the material properties, Proctor's tests, CBR tests,

static and dynamic tests are conducted on the materials.

It is observed that SMS brought from Visakhapatnam steel plant,

Andhra Pradesh, has good CBR, modulus of elasticity, resilient modulus and low

permanent strain. Stone dust is having more permanent strain, which is the indicator

of rutting phenomenon. Reinforced fly ash has low CBR and low permanent strain

compared to stone dust. Out of the four materials, SMS is the best material and it can

be used in subbase layer.

iii
 CONTENTS

CANDIDATE'S DECLARATION i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii
ABSTRACT
CONTENTS iv
LIST OF FIGURES vi
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS x

Chapter-1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General 1
1.2 Type of Subbase Materials 1
1.3 Objectives of the Present Study 12
1.4 Thesis organization 12

Chapter-2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Work Done Abroad 13
2.1.1 Resilient Response of Unbound Aggregates 13
2.1.1.1 Effect of stress 13
2.1.1.2 Effect of density 14
2.1.1.3 Effect of moisture content 14
2.1.1.4 Effect of aggregate type and particle shape 15
2.1.1.5 Effect of load duration, frequency and load sequence 15
2.1.1.6 Effect of stress history and number of load cycles 16
2.1.2 Permanent Strain Response of Unbound Aggregates 16
2.1.2.1 Effect of stress 17
2.1.2.2 Effect of density . 18
2.1.2.3 Effect of moisture content 18
2.1.2.4 Effect of principal stress. reorientation 19
2.1.2.5 Effect of number of load applications 20
2.1.3 Modeling of Granular Materials in Pavements 20
2.1.4 Comparison of VCP and CCP Test Results 22
2.1.5 Characterization of Granular Materials 24
2.1.6 Resilient Modulus Related to Engineering Index Properties 25
2.1.7 Resilient Characteristics of Dune Sand 26
2.2 Work Done in India 28

Chapter-3 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

3.1 Material Selection 30
3.1.1 Reinforced Fly ash 30
3.1.2 Stone Dust 31
3.1.3 Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS) 32
3.1.4 Steel Making Slag (SMS) 34

iv
 3.2 Proctor's Test 35
3.3 California Bearing Ratio Test 36
3.4 Static Triaxial Test 36
3.5 Repeated Triaxial Test 37

Chapter-4 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

4.1 Proctor's Test Results 43
4.2 CBR Test Results 43
4.3 Static Triaxial Test Results 44
4.4 Repeated Triaxial Test Results 50
4.4.1 Resilient Strain 50
4.4.2 Permanent Strain 51

Chapter-5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Conclusions 59
5.2 Recommendations 60

REFERENCES 62

v
LIST-. OF FIGURES

Figure No Description Page

No

2.1 Strains in Granular Materials during One Cycle of Load Application 17

2.2 Influence of Drainage on Permanent Deformation Development 19

2.3 Examples of Triaxial tests with CCP and VCP 22

2.4 Effect of Water Content on Parameters kl and k2 for Dune Sand 27

3.1 Gradation Curve for Stone Dust 39

3.2 Gradation Curve for Granulated Blast furnace Slag (GBFS) 39

3.3 Gradation of SMS using Parallel Curve Technique 40

4.1 Modified Compaction Curve for Reinforced fly ash 45

4.2 Modified Compaction Curve for Stone dust 45

4.3 Modified Compaction Curve for GBFS 46

4.4 CBR Curves for three Granular Materials 46

4.5 CBR Curve for SMS 47

4.6 Relationship between E value and confining pressure 49

4.7 Variation of Resilient Modulus with Number of cycles

at a confining pressure of 70 kPa 56

4.8 Variation of Resilient Modulus with Number of cycles

at a confining pressure of 120 kPa 56

4.9 Variation of Resilient Strain with Number of cycles

at a confining pressure of 70 kPa 57

4.10 Variation of Resilient Strain with Number of cycles

at a confining pressure of 120 kPa 57

4.11 Variation of Permanent Strain with Number of cycles

vi
 at a confining pressure of 70 kPa

4.12 Variation of Permanent Strain with Number of cycles

at a confining pressure of 120 kPa 59

vii
LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Description Page

No

1.1 Grading for Close-Graded GSB Materials 2

1.2 Grading for Coarse Graded Granular Subbase Materials 3
1.3 Gradation Requirement of Gravel 4
1.4 Physical Requirements of Coarse Aggregates for WBM 5
1.5 Grading Requirements of Coarse Aggregates in WBM 6
1.6 Grading for Screenings 7
1.7 Approximate Quantities of Coarse Aggregates and Screenings
required for 100/75 mm compacted thickness of WBM
Subase Course for 10 m2 areas 7
1.8 Range of Physical and Chemical properties of Indian Fly Ashes 8
1.9 Results of Physical Tests on Blast Furnace and Steel Slag 10
1.10 Chemical Composition of GBFS 10
1.11 Chemical Composition of Steel Making Slag 11
2.1 Variable B for Different Aggregate Types at Different Bulk Stresses 25
2.2 Density CBR values of Moorum mixed with Admixture 29
3.1 Physical properties of Reinforced Fly ash 30
3.2 Chemical Properties of Fly ash 31
3.3 Chemical Properties of Fiber 31
3.4 Grain Size Distribution of Stone Dust 32
3.5 Physical Properties of Stone Dust 32
3.6 Grain Size Distribution of Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS) 33
3.7 Physical Properties of Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS) 33
3.8 Chemical Properties of Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS) 33
3.9 Gradation for GSB as given in MORT&H-2001 34
3.10 Gradation of SMS Mix 35
3.11 Physical Properties of SMS 35
4.1 Results of CBR Tests 48
4.2 Modulus of Elasticity values for Sub base materials 48
4.3 Results of Failure stress and axial strain 48

viii

4.4 Resilient Modulus values of Stone Dust 52

4.5 Resilient Modulus values of Reinforced fly ash 52

4.6 Resilient Modulus values of GBFS 53

4.7 Resilient Modulus values of SMS 53

4.8 Strain values of Stone Dust 54

4.9 Strain values of Reinforced fly ash 54

4.10 Strain values of GBFS 55

4.11 Strain values of SMS 55

ix
LIST OF PLATES

Plate No. Description Page No

1. CBR TEST SETUP 41

2. TRIAXIAL SET UP 41

3. TRIAXIAL SAMPLES 42

4. REPEATED TRIAXIAL TEST IN PROGRESS 42

x
 Chapter-I
INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Subbase is an intermediate laver between the base course and the subgrade. The

function of subbase is to dissipate the load coming on subgrade. Subbase enhances the

strength properties of subgrade. In rigid pavements, it provides a uniform and firm

support to the concrete slab and also provides a leveling course on distorted and

undulated subgrade. In flexible pavements, it reduces the stresses coming on the subgrade

by distributing the loads over a larger area.

Subbase is a layer of inexpensive locally available but relatively inferior

materials. It may be natural sand, moorum, gravel, kankar, brick material, fly ash,

crushed or any combinations of these materials. Strength properties of subbase play a

vital role in the design. The subbase material should have minimum soaked CBR of 20

per cent.

The transport system can function properly only when the pavements provide

adequate, smooth. durable and serviceable support for the loads imposed by traffic at all

time in all weather conditions. Present study deals with the utilization of various granular

materials in subbase layer of a pavement and the comparison of their behavior under

static and dynamic load conditions.

1.2 TYPE OF SUBBASE MATERIALS

Subbase layers are made of broken stones, bound or unbound aggregate. Some

times, a layer of stabilized or selected granular soil is also used in subbase layer. In some

places boulder stones or bricks can also be used as a sub-base or soling course.
~~
1.2.1 Granular Subbases

Granular subbases are extensively used because of their lesser cost, local

availability and the diminishing stresses in the lower layers. The material to be used for

the work may be natural sand, moorum, gravel, crushed stone, or combination thereof

depending upon the grading required. Materials like crushed slag crushed concrete, brick

metal and kankar may also be used. Ministry of road transport and highways (MORT&H,

2001) have provided grading requirement for material to be used in subbase layer as

shown in Tables 1.1 and 1.2. while gradings in Table 1.1 are in respect of close-graded

granular subbase materials, each one for maximum size of aggregate of 75 mm, 53 mm,

26.5 mm, the corresponding gradings for the coarse graded materials for each of three

maximum particle sizes are given in Table 1.2.

TABLE 1.1 Grading for Close-Graded GSB Materials

Sieve Per cent by wt. passing the sieve

Designation
Grading I Grading II Grading III

75 100 ----- -----

53 80-100 100 -----

26.5 55-90 70-100 100

9.5 35-65 50-80 65-95

4.75 25-55 40-65 50-80

2.36 20-40 30-50 40-65

0.425 10-25 15-25 20-35

0.075 3-10 3-10 3-10

PA
TABLE 1.2 Grading for Coarse Graded Granular Subbase Materials

IS Sieve Per cent by wt. passing the sieve

Designation
Grading I Grading II Grading III

75 100 --- ---

53 --- 100 ---

26.5 55-75 50-80 100

9.5 --- --- ---

4.75 10-30 15-35 22-45

2.36 ---- ---

0.425 ---- ---
0.075 <10 <10 <10

The material passing 425 micron (0.425 mm) sieve in all the cases when tested according

to IS :2720 (part 5) shall have liquid limit and plasticity index not more than 25 and 6 per

cent respectively.

1.2.2 Gravel

Gravel is naturally occurring material consisting of small pebbles, stones or

fragments of stones intermixed with finer materials such as powdered rock, sand, loam,

silt or clay. Sometimes by the term gravel is also meant rounded or worn stones or

pebbles which have no fine material in them and it is then known more popularly as

shingle.

3
 The material to be used should be graded and should contain a fair proportion of all

particle sizes together with sufficient fines to provide proper cohesion. The maximum

aggregate size should generally not exceed one third the thickness of compacted layer.

The grading requirement of gravel (Vishal, 2004) is given in Table 1.3.

TABLE 1.3 Gradation Requirement of Gravel

Sieve designation Per cent by weight passing

Coarse graded Intermediate graded Close graded

50 100 100 100

40 70-100

25 50-80 50-80 55-85

20 50-80

10 40-70

4.75 15 -35 20-50 30-60

2.00 20-50

.425 10-30

.075 <10 <12 5-15

Naturally occurring gravel can ideally be used as selected sub-bases since they are

cheap and have adequate strength to withstand the stresses coming in the lower layers of

pavements.

4
1.2.3 Water Bound Macadam

Water bound macadam (WBM) consists of clean, crushed aggregates mechanically

interlocked by rolling and bonding together with screening, binding material where

necessary and water laid on a properly prepared subgrade, subbase, base or existing

pavement.

Coarse aggregates are either crushed or broken stone, crushed slag, overburnt (Jhama)

brick aggregates or any other naturally occurring aggregates such as kankar and laterite

of suitable quality. The physical requirement of coarse aggregates for WBM (MORT&H,

2001) is given in Table 1.4. The grading requirement for coarse aggregates in WBM

(MORT&H, 2001) is shown in Table 1.5.

TABLE 1.4 Physical Requirements of Coarse Aggregates for WBM.

Test Test methods Requirements

1. * Los Angeles IS:2386 40 per cent (max)

Abrasion value (part-4)

*Aggregate IS:2386 30 per cent (max)

Impact value (part-4) or
IS:5640**

2. Combined Flakiness and

Elongation indices (part-1)
IS:2386 30 per cent (max)
(Total)
(part-1)

* Aggregate may satisfy requirements of either of two tests.

** Aggregates like brick metal, kankar, laterite etc, which gets softened in presence of

water should be tested for impact value under wet conditions in accordance with IS:

5640.

5
TABLE 1.5 Grading Requirements of Coarse Aggregates in WBM

Grading No. Size Range IS Sieve designation Percent by weight

passing
1 90 mm to 45 mm 125 mm 100
90 mm 90-100
63 mm 25-60
45 mm 0-15
22.4 mm 0-5

2 63 mm to 45 mm 90 mm 100
63 mm 90-100
53 mm 25-75
45 mm 0-15
22.4 mm 0-5
3 53 mm to 22.4 mm 63 mm 100
53 mm 95-100
45 mm 65-90
22.4 mm 0-10
11.2 mm 0-5

Screenings

Screenings to fill voids in coarse aggregates generally consist of same material as the

coarse aggregate. However, predominantly non-plastic material such as moorum or

gravel (other than rounded river borne material ) may also be used for this purpose

provided LL and PI of material are below 20 and 6 respectively, fraction passing 75

micron sieve does not exceed 10 per cent. Grading of screening (MORT&H, 2001) is

shown in Table 1.6. The consolidated details of quantity of screenings required for

various grades of stone aggregates (MORT&H, 2001) are given in Table 1.7.
TABLE 1.6 Grading for Screenings

Grading Size of screenings IS Sieve distribution Per cent by weight

Classification Passing the IS Sieve
A 13.2 mm 13.2 mm 100
11.2 mm 95-100
5.6 mm 15-35
180 micron 0-10
B 11.2 mm 11.2 mm 100
5.6 mm 90-100
180 micron 15-35

TABLE 1.7 Approximate Quantities of Coarse Aggregates and Screenings required

for 100/75 mm compacted thickness of WBM Subase Course for 10 m2 areas

Grading Size Compacted Loose Screenings

no. range thickness quantityof
Stone screening Crushable Type
(mm) (mm) coarse
such as Moorum
aggregate, m3 or Gravel
Size(mm) Loose Size Loose
quantity Qty in
in m3 m3
1 90-45 100 1.21-1.43 Type A 0.27 to Not 0.3 to
13.2 0.3 uniform 0.32
2 63-45 75 0.91-1.07 Type B 0.12 to -do- 0.22
13.2 0.15 to
0.24
3 53- 75 0.91-1.07 Type B 0.18 to -do- 0.22
22.4 11.2 0.21 to
0.24

7
Binding material

Binding material to be used for WBM as a filler material meant for preventing

raveling, comprises of suitable fine grained material having plasticity index (PI) value of

less than 6.

1.2.4 Fly Ash

It is the waste material from thermal power stations. About 100 million tons of fly

ash is produced annually in India. It is a finely divided residue thrown out as a waste

material in large quantities at the thermal power plants. The Indian fly ashes (Vishal,

2004) are characterized by their physico-chemical properties as given in Table 1.8.

TABLE 1.8 Range of Physical and Chemical properties of Indian Fly Ashes

Property Range

Si02 (%) 49.2-66.7

A1203 (%) 22.0-26.6
Fe203 (%) 6.6-21.8
CaO (%) 1.3-21.8
MgO (%) 0.5-5.3
Na2O (%) 0.1-0.2
K20 (%) 0.3-0.5

Fly ash is used in manufacture of Portland cement and as a raw material in the

manufacture of ordinary Portland cement. Due to having pozzolanic properties, it has

t

potential use in stabilized base/sub-base of pavement with or without aid of lime and

cement.
1.2.5 Blast Furnace Slag

It is the waste material from iron and steel industries. The steel industry slags have

their unique properties and are exploitable for road works. There are mainly two different

type of slag produced i.e. Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) and Steel Making Slag (SMS). Blast

Furnace Slag is subdivided into two types: air cooled and granulated slag.

Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS)

It is produced when the molten slag from blast furnace is chilled rapidly by a water jet

resulting in vericular, vitreous material of predominantly coarse sand size particles. -

GBFS has the ability to hydrate in the presence of water to more stable compound.

GBFS, therefore, seems to have *a great potential for use as a binder for stabilization of

road bases and sub-bases.

The physical state of aggregation of granulated slag is in the form of granules

(Mathur et al., 1997) as given in Tablel.9 and the chemical composition of GBFS is

given in Tablel.10 (Kumar et al., 2002).

0
TABLE 1.9 Results of Physical Tests on Blast Furnace and Steel Slag

S.No Physical properties Blast Furnace Steel Slag

Slag

1. Aggregate Impact value (%) 18-24 8-11

2. Aggregate Crushing value (%) 24-26 15-18

3. Los angeles value 28-32 9-10

4. Flakiness % 12 12
Elongation %
9 8
5. Water Absorption % 1.5-2.5 1-1.4

6. Specific Gravity kg/cum 2650 3220

7. Bulk Density kg/cum 1800 2100

TABLE 1.10 Chemical Compositions of GBFS

Chemical Component Percent(in terms of oxide)

Si02 31-37
CaO 26-33
A1203 22-27
MgO 4-10
MnO 6
Fe203 Up to 2.5

10
Steel Making Slag (SMS) or Steel Slag

SMS results from furnaces where iron and/or steel scraps are converted to steel. This

slag is often called converter slag in European literature. The steel slag typically has a

high free lime and a high steel content also. The waste steel slag material has a useful

grading and high strength. It has aggregate impact value of about 10%, aggregate

crushing value of 17% and Los Angeles abrasion value of 10%. The physical and

chemical characteristics of steel slag are obtained from Table 1.9 (Mathur et al., 1997)

and Table 1.11 (Kumar et al., 2002).

TABLE 1.11 Chemical Composition of Steel Making Slag

Chemical Component Percent

Si02 12-18
CaO 30-50
MgO 2-8
A1203 2.5
Fe203 15-30
MnO 8-14
P205 2
Ti02 -
Free Lime 1-2.5% when fresh and
<1% when weathered

11
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF PRESENT STUDY

The present study was undertaken to study the strength characteristics of granular

materials like reinforced fly ash, stone dust, Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS),

Steel Making Slag (SMS) for their use in road base or sub-base. The major objectives

of this study are;

i. To evaluate CBR values of different granular materials selected for this study.

ii. To study the stress-strain behavior of granular materials and thereby evaluate the

effect of confinement on E- value.

iii. To study the behavior of different granular materials under cyclic load and to

establish relationships between elastic and plastic deformation and number of load

cycles.

iv. To judge the suitability of these materials as subbase.

1.4 THESIS ORGANISATION

The present report has been prepared in the following manner:

Chapter 1 presents the description of type of sub-base materials and objectives of the

present study.

Chapter 2 presents the review of literature on the subject matter.

Chapter 3 deals with the details of experimental programme and test setups.

Chapter 4 brings out the results obtained in Chapter 3 in the form of tables and graphs.

Analysis and discussion of results have also been reported.

Chapter 5 gives the important conclusions drawn from this study along with

recommendations and scope of further work.

12
 Chapter-2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1.1 Resilient Response of Unbound Aggregates

The resilient response of aggregates is affected by several factors with

varying degrees of importance. It is well known that granular pavement layers show a

non-linear and time-dependent elastoplastic response under traffic loading. To deal with

this nonlinearity and to differentiate from the traditional elasticity theories, the resilient

response of granular materials is usually defined by resilient modulus and Poisson's ratio.

The various factors which affect the resilient behavior of granular materials are as

follows

2.1.1.1 Effect of stress

Many studies [Mitry (1964), Monismith et al. (1967), Hicks (1970), Smith

and Nair (1973), Uzan(1985), and Sweere (1990)] have shown a very high degree of

dependence on confining pressure and sum of principal stresses for the resilient modulus

of untreated granular materials. The resilient modulus is said to increase considerably

with an increase in confining pressure and the sum of principal stresses. Monismith et al.

(1967) reported an increase as great as 500% in resilient modulus for a change in

confining pressure from 20 to 200 kPa. An increase of about 50% in resilient modulus

was observed by Smith and Nair . (1973) when the sum of principal stresses increased

from 70 to 140 kPa. Compared to the confining pressure, deviator or shear stress has

much less influence on material stiffness. In a study conducted by Morgan (1966), the

resilient modulus was shown to decrease slightly with increasing repeated deviator stress

13
under constant confinement. Resilient Poisson's ratio is also believed to be influenced by

the state of applied stresses. Hicks (1970), Brown and Hyde (1975), and Kolisoja (1997)

reported that Poisson's ratio of unbound granular materials increases with increasing

deviator stress and decreasing confining pressure.

2.1.1.2 Effect of density

It is well known that increasing density of a granular material significantly alters

its response to static loading, causing it to become both stiffer and stronger. However, the

effect on resilient stiffness has not been thoroughly studied. Several studies [Trollope et

al. (1962), Hicks (1970), Robinson (1974), Rada and Witczak (1981), and Kolisoja

(1977)] suggested that the resilient modulus generally increases with increasing density.

Thom and Brown (1988) and Brown and Selig (1991) stated that the effect of density, or .

the state of compaction, is relatively insignificant. Hicks and Monismith (1971) found the

effect of density to be greater for partially crushed aggregate than for fully crushed

aggregates. They have further reported that the significance of changes in density

decreased as the fines content of the granular material increased.

2.1.1.3 Effect of moisture content

The degree of saturation or moisture content of granular materials affects the

resilient response characteristics of the material. The resilient response of dry and

partially saturated granular materials is similar, but as complete saturation is approached,

the resilient behavior may be affected significantly. Haynes and Yoder (1963), Hicks and

Monismith (1971), Dawson et al. (1996), have reported a notable dependence of resilient

modulus on moisture content, with modulus decreasing with growing saturation level.

Haynes and Yoder (1963), for instance, observed a 50% decrease in resilient modulus in

14
gravel as the degree of saturation increased from 70 to 97%. Hicks and Monismith (1971)

showed that the resilient modulus decreases steadily as the moisture content increase

above its optimum value.

Saturation of unbound granular materials also affects the resilient Poisson's

ratio. Hicks (1970) and Hicks and Monismith (1971) reported that Poisson's ratio is

reduced as the degree of saturation increases.

2.1.1.4 Effect of aggregate type and particle shape

Heydinger et al. (1996) found that gravels have a higher resilient modulus than

crushed limestone. However, many researchers (Hicks 1970; Hicks and Monismith 1971;

Allen and Thompson 1974; Thom 1988; Thom and Brown 1989) have reported that

crushed aggregate, having angular to sub angular shaped particles, provides better load

spreading properties and a higher resilient modulus than uncrushed gravel with sub

rounded or rounded particles. Barksdale and Itani (1989) investigated several types of

aggregates and observed that the resilient modulus of the rough, angular crushed

materials was higher than that of the rounded gravel by a factor of about 50% at low

mean normal stress and about 25% at high mean normal stress.

2.1.1.5 Effect of load duration, frequency and load sequence

The effect of load duration and frequency on the resilient behavior of granular

materials has no significance. Hicks (1970) and Allen (1973) studied the test sequence or

the order in which the stresses are applied to a specimen. These studies clearly showed

that the test sequence has almost no impact on the resilient properties of granular

materials.

15
2.1.1.6 Effect of stress history and number of load cycles

The stress history may have some impact on the resilient behavior of granular

materials. Hicks (1970) reported that the effect of stress history is almost eliminated, and

a steady and stable resilient response is achieved after the application of approximately

100 cycles of the same stress amplitude.

Moore et al. (1970) investigated the effect of number of load applications on the

resilient response of granular materials. They concluded that the resilient modulus

increases as the number of load repetitions increases, partly because of loss of moisture

from the specimen during testing. Hicks (1970), on the other hand, reported that the

resilient properties of the granular materials tested were virtually the same after 50-100

load repetitions as after 25,000 repetitions. Similar observations were also made. by Allen

and Thompson (1974).

2.1.2 Permanent Strain Response of Unbound Aggregates

The permanent strain behavior of granular materials under repeated loading has

been studied by Lekarp et al. (2000). The deformational response of granular materials

under repeated, traffic-type loading is defined by a resilient response, which is important

for the load-carrying ability of the pavement and a permanent strain response, which

characterizes the long-term performance of the pavement and the rutting phenomenon.

Fig 2.1 gives a simple illustration of resilient and permanent strains in granular materials

during one cycle of load application. The factors affecting permanent strain are as

follows.

16
 Strain

Fig 2.1 Strains in Granular Materials during One Cycle of Load Application

2.1.2.1 Effect of stress

The stress level is one of the most important factors affecting the development of

permanent deformation in granular materials. Repeated load triaxial tests, reported by

Morgan (1966), showed clearly that accumulation of axial permanent strain is directly

related to the deviator stress and inversely related to confining pressure. Lashine et al.

(1971) conducted repeated load triaxial tests on a crushed stone in a partially saturated

and drained condition and found that the measured permanent axial strain settled down to

a constant value directly related to the ratio of deviator stress to confining pressure.

Brown and Hyde (1975) reported the similar results. Raymond and Williams (1978),

Pappin (1979), Thom (1988), Paute et al. (1996), have attempted to explain permanent

strain behavior under repeated loading using the ultimate shear strength of the material.

In this approach, the static failure line is considered as a boundary for permanent strain

17
under repeated loading. This has been questioned by Lekarp and Dawson (1998) who

argued that failure in granular materials under repeated loading is a gradual process and

not a sudden collapse as in static failure tests. Therefore, ultimate shear strength and

stress levels that cause sudden failure are of no great interest for analysis of material

behavior when the increase in permanent strain is incremental.

2.1.2.2 Effect of density

The effect of density or the degree of compaction is important for the long-term

behavior of granular materials. Resistance to permanent deformation in these materials

under repetitive loading appears to be highly improved as a result of increased density.

Barksdale (1972) studied the behavior of several granular materials and observed an

average of 185% more permanent axial strain when the material was at 95% instead of

100% of maximum compactive density. Allen (1973) reported 80% reduction in total

plastic strain in crushed lime stone and a 22% reduction in gravel as the specimen density

was increased from proctor to modified proctor density.

2.1.2.3 Effect of moisture content

In a study conducted by Haynes and Yoder (1963), the total permanent axial

strain rose by more than 100% as the degree of saturation increased from 60 to 80%.

Barksdale (1972) observed up to 68% greater permanent axial strain in soaked samples

compared with those tested in partially saturated condition. According to Thom and

Brown (1987), a relatively small increase in water content can trigger a dramatic increase

in permanent strain rate. The stress-strain behavior of soils and granular materials can be

improved significantly by draining the system. An example of the positive effect of

18
drainage on permanent strain development in granular materials is illustrated in Fig 2.2

for triaxial tests with different drainage conditions.

F7 -7A,.r..I

Undrained
-

1 10 102 103 104 105 106

Number of stress cycles

Fig 2.2 Influence of Drainage on Permanent Deformation Development

2.1.2.4 Effect of principal stress reorientation

Reorientation of principal stresses during shear is a feature of the induced stresses

associated with many field loading situations. The influence of reorientation on soil

strength and stress- strain response needs to be considered for a reliable prediction of in-

situ behavior. The effect of principal stress reorientation on permanent strain is not yet

fully understood. This is probably due to the fact that repeated load triaxial testing, the

most common means of reproducing traffic conditions in the laboratory, fails to provide

for the continuous change in the direction of principal stresses. Youd (1972) investigated

19
the behavior of sands in a cyclic shear box and noted a marked increase in density as a

result of rotation of the principal stress axes. The density increase was then shown to be

directly related to the magnitude of the observed cyclic shear. Similar observations were

reported by Ansell and Brown (1978) for crushed limestone.

2.1.2.5 Effect of number of load applications

The growth of permanent deformation in granular materials under repeated

loading is a gradual process during which each load application contributes a small

increment to the accumulation of strain. The number of load cycles is, therefore, one of

the most important factors to consider in the analysis of the long-term behavior of such

materials. Some researchers (Morgan 1966; Braksdale 1972; Sweere 1990) have reported

continuously increasing permanent strain under repeated loading. Paute et al. (1996)

argued that the rate of increase of permanent strain in granular materials under repeated

loading decreases constantly to such an extent that it is possible to define a limit value for

the accumulation of permanent strain.

2.1.3 Modeling of Granular Materials in Pavements

Brown and Pappin (1985) studied the modeling of granular materials. A detailed

stress-resilient strain model was used in a finite element configuration that is based on a

secant modulus approach. A parametric theoretical study involving 56 different pavement

structures with two granular materials (well graded crushed limestone and uniformly

graded material from the same source) provided extensive data on the in-situ stress

conditions in unbound layers and their equivalent stiffness. The incidence of failure

elements is discussed and the conclusion is drawn that the simple k —0 nonlinear model

FA
and linear elastic layered systems are inadequate for computing stresses within the

granular layer. The concept of a fixed modular ratio between a granular layer and a sub-

grade was found to be inappropriate because a particular granular material has an

essentially constant equivalent stiffness.

The model developed from repeated load triaxial test results is

M r = k,B k2

(2.1)

Where

M, = resilient modulus, which is the repeated deviator stress by the axial resilient

strain.

k, = peak value of the sum of the principal stresses.

k2 = material constants.

9 = sum of principal stresses.

A detailed study of the structural behavior of granular materials in pavements

requires an accurate stress-strain model to define nonlinear elastic response. A well

graded crushed limestone base has an equivalent stiffness of 100 MPa, whereas a poorly

graded material has a stiffness of only 40 MPa for the range of conditions investigated. It

is noted that linear elastic layered system programs can determine surface deflections and

maximum asphalt tensile strains to an acceptable accuracy for design when the correct

equivalent stiffness is assigned to the granular layer. The finite element method

incorporating the k —9 model can be used to determine surface deflections and asphalt

tensile strains but is unable to determine the stress conditions with in the granular layer.

21
2.1.4 Comparison of VCP and CCP Test Results

Allen and Thompson (1974) studied the resilient response of granular

materials subjected to time- dependent lateral stresses and compared the results of

variable-confining-pressure (VCP) and constant confining pressure (CCP) tests. The

object of this study was to assess the effects of no constant lateral pressures on the

resilient response of granular materials. The stress history test, stress sequence test, and

stress pulse test on the three types of materials namely- a well graded crushed lime stone,

well graded siliceous gravel and a blend of the gravel and lime stone. They found that the

resilient response of well graded granular materials was independent of stress pulse

duration. The resilient response of a specimen determined after 25' to 100 stress

repetitions was representative of the response after several thousand stress repetitions in

the field.

The state of stress affected the resilient response of granular specimens most

significantly. Fig. 2.3 illustrates the result reported by them.

0.7

0
0.4
0
a..
0.3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 20 40 60 80100
Stress ratio, cr1la3 Bulk stress, 0 (psi)

Fig.2.3 Examples of triaxial tests with CCP and VCP

22
 The stress dependent nature of the resilient parameters was predicted

by using equations.

£a =— (6a — 21)rar) (2.2)

r

£r = I 16a — V r (°a + 6r )} (2.3)

Er

Where

a-a = axial stress

6r = radial stress. -

sa = recoverable axial strain.

s1 = recoverable lateral strain

Er = resilient modulus

Vr = resilient Poisson's ratio.

In general, resilient modulus increased as the density increased. It showed that Poisson's

ratio was constant with changes in density. The effects of type of material on the resilient

parameters were less when compared to the effects of changes in stress.

As compared to the VCP test, the CCP test greatly overestimated Poisson's

ratio. Values of the resilient modulus compared from CCP test data exceeded Er values

computed from the VCP test for most stress levels.

23


2.1.5 Characterization of Granular Materials

Uzan (1985) evaluated the resilient modulus of granular material as used in design

and structural evaluation of flexible pavements. It was found that the well known

equation relating the modulus to the sum of principal stresses did not properly describe

granular material behavior. The effect of shear strains is neglected while deriving

equation 2.4.

M r = k10 k2 (2.4)

The results of analyses using equation 2.5 appeared to be in good agreement with

all aspects of granular material behavior, provided that a residual stress induced by

compaction was postulated.

M, = ki 0k2 a-d k' (2.5)

The modulus increased with decreasing load level and increasing granular layer

thickness.

2.1.6 Resilient Modulus related to Engineering Index Properties

Zaman et al. (1994) studied the resilient moduli of granular materials. Six most

commonly encountered aggregates that are used as sub-base/bases of road ways in

Oklahoma were selected and tested under cyclic load to evaluate their resilient modulus

(RM).

According to the testing procedure T292-911, the resilient modulus (RM) of

granular materials can be given by equation 2.6.

RM (in psi) = k,f k2 (2.6)

Where 0 = Bulk stress (in psi)

24
 They established a correlation between RM and CBR for bulk stress at B = 14,

20, 30& 100 psi. The relationship is given below

RM (in psi) =B. CBR (2.7)

B is a constant and depends upon the type of material and bulk stress. The typical values

are shown in Table 2.1

Table 2.1 Variable B for Different Aggregate Types at Different Bulk Stresses

County CBR 0=100 0 =30 0=20 0=14

(PS1)a (pSj)a (pSi)a
(psi)a

Comanche 67 423 243 174 165

Cherokee 132 181 106 96 88
Creek_ 116 226 156 112 97
Choctaw 284 78 38 26 25
Johnston 226 101 50 42 38
Murray 150 164 91 72 65
Average 132 193 96 82 74

1 psi=6.89 kPa

A linear model relating cohesion C and friction angle 0, with the RM in terms of the

major principal stress and bulk stress was formulated.

RM (in psi) =Ao +A1 .0+A2 .a, tan 0 +A3 .0 . (2.8)

Ao , Al , A2 , A3 = regression constants

8= bulk stress

C and 0 = cohesion and angle of friction.

2.1.7 Resilient Characteristics of Dune Sand

Lee et al. (1995) performed resilient modulus tests on compacted dune sand

following standard test procedure described in 1982 AASHTO Designation T 274-82.

25


The samples were prepared by impact and vibratory- compaction methods. Impact-

compacted samples were prepared using standard Proctor energy while vibratory

compacted samples were prepared using a vibration table generating vibrations of 60 Hz

at peak to peak amplitude of 1.73 mm. the results were analyzed based on effect of

compaction method, effect of water content and effect of dry density.

It is noted that resilient modulus of vibratory compacted specimen is higher than

that of the impact- compacted specimen even though the latter has slightly higher density

and lower water content. The permanent strain of impact-compacted specimen was about

2.5 times larger than that of vibratory-compacted specimen. Resilient strain of the

impact-compacted specimen was also 20-40% larger than that of the vibratory-compacted

specimen. To investigate the effect of compaction water content on the resilient

characteristics of dune sand, the parameters k, and k2 were plotted with water content as

shown in Fig 2.4. Both the parameters are affected insignificantly by water content for

both compaction methods. It is also noted from Figure 2.4 that the parameter k, of

vibratory —compacted soil is about 40% larger than that of impact-compacted soil, but

parameter k2 is same. The average value of k, is 3,126 for vibratory-compaction and

2,247 for impact compaction. The average value of k2 for both compaction methods is

0.595. Therefore, the resilient modulus of vibratory compacted dune sand is defined by

M r = 3,12600.595 (2.9)

The resilient modulus of impact-vibratory compacted dune sand is predicted by the

following equation:

Mr = 2,24780.195 (2.10)

Where M r and 0 are in psi

26
 5000
VIBRATORY COMPACTION
o . IMPACT COMPACTION
4000
I-
. ■
3000
Li
Li D o a o ❑
2000

1000

. 0

(a) 0 5 10 15
MOISTURE CONTENT (%)

1.2
• VIBRATORY COMPACTION
o IMPACT COMPACTION

' To 5 10 15

(b) MOISTURE CONTENT a1uff {~12 for Dune Sand

Fig 2.4 Effect of Water Content on Parameters kl

27
2.2 WORK DONE IN INDIA

Kumar et al. (2006) conducted the CBR and static and cyclic triaxial tests on the

four most frequently encountered local sub-base materials namely fly ash, coarse sand,

stone dust and river bed material (RBM). They found that fly ash had the lowest CBR of

9%, but its behavior under dynamic load was better than that of stone dust, which had

shown the maximum value of CBR. Stone dust showed the highest permanent strain,

followed by fly ash, coarse sand and RBM. The static and resilient moduli were higher

for RBM. Based on the results, it was found that RBM is the best material for sub-base

layers because it had good CBR, high resilient modulus, and low permanent strain values.

The K- 0 model developed in this study would be useful in the mechanistic design of

flexible pavements.

The behavior of water bound macadam (WBM) and wet mix macadam (WMM) type

mixes was studied under identical static and dynamic load conditions by Chandra et al.

(2001) Compressive strength tests, permeability tests, plate load tests and fatigue tests

were conducted. It was found that the unconfined compressive strength of WMM mix is

11.21 per cent more than that of WBM mix and the modulus of elasticity of WMM mix at

no confinement is 22.22 per cent more than that of WBM mix. While the construction

cost of WMM is about 10 per cent more than that of WBM, its fatigue life is 27 per cent

more than that of the WBM. Ultimate load carrying capacity of 75 mm thick WMM

section was found to be 20 per cent more as compared to the WBM section of same

thickness.

28
Srinivasan (1993) studied use of blast furnace slag and fly ash in road construction. The

studies were carried out on various combinations/ admixtures to evaluate the CBR and

determine suitable proportion for a CBR more than 30. The materials were soaked for 4

days in water prior to testing. Results of the admixtures prepared and CBR obtained are

given .in Table 2.2. It was observed that the admixture of moorum, slag and sand has

resulted in a CBR of 31, while the admixtures of slag, powder slag and fly ash has given

CBR of 82.

Table 2.2 Density CBR values of Moorum mixed with Admixture

S.No Admixture Density CBR (%)

(g/cm3)

1 75 percent moorum+ 25 percent sand 2.08 22

2 75 percent moorum+ 15 percent granite chips 2.26 31

+10 percent sand

3 75 percent moorum+ 15 percent hard slag +10 2.24 31

percent sand

4 60 percent hard slag + 30 percent powder slag + 2.24 82

10percent fly ash

29
 Chapter-3

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME

3.1 MATERIAL SELECTION

Various materials are selected to study their strength properties. The materials

are reinforced fly ash, stone dust, granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) and steel making

slag (SMS).

3.1.1 Reinforced Fly ash

The fly ash used in the present study was obtained from National Thermal Power

Plant (NTPC) situated at Dadri (Ghaziabad) in Uttar Pradesh. The physical properties of

fly ash are given in Table 3.1. The chemical properties of fly ash (VishaI, 2004) are given

in Table 3.2. It was reinforced by 0.2 % fiber to get higher strength required for subbase.

Fiber used in the present study is polypropylene fiber manufactured from high density

polypropylene and polyethylene. It is totally resistant to sea water, acids, alkalis and

chemicals. The chemical properties of fiber (Singh, 2006) are given in Table 3.3.

Table 3.1 Physical properties of Reinforced Fly ash

Property Value
IS classification ML
Maximum Dry Density (g/cm) 1.434
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) (%) 17
Specific Gravity 2.1
Uniformity coefficient, Cu 3.69
Coefficient of Curvature, Cc 1.442

30
Table 3.2 Chemical Properties of Fly ash
Property Value
Silica (Si02) (%) 59.0
Iron Oxide (Fe203) (%) 4.5
Alumina (A1203) (%) 27.0
Calcium Oxide (CaO) (%) 1.8
Magnesium Oxide (MgO) (%) 0.7
Total Sulphur (SO3) (%) 0.1
Sodium Oxide (Na2O) (%) 0.28
Potassium Oxide (K20) (%) 1.44
Loss of Ignition (% by weight) 0.72

Table 3.3 Chemical Properties of Fiber

Particulars Value
Molecular formula of poly propylene (CH2-CH2),
Diameter (d), mm 0.3
Unit weight, kNim3 9.2
Aspect ratio (1/d) 100
Specific gravity 0.92
Tensile strength, Mpa 1.274 x102
Melting Point, degree Celsius 85
Young's modulus GN/m2 7.0

3.1.2 Stone Dust

The stone dust, used in this study is obtained from a stone crusher near Hardwar

(UA). The material is clean and free from any deleterious material. The grain size

distribution is shown in Table 3.4 and the gradation curve is shown in Fig 3.1. The

physical properties of the stone dust are shown in Table 3.5.

31
Table 3.4 Grain Size Distribution of Stone Dust
Sieve Size in mm Percentage of Passing
4.75 97.55
2.36 86.45
1.18 64.15
0.6 57.1
0.3 38.6
0.15 21.32
0.075 11.92

Table 3.5 Physical Properties of Stone Dust

Property Value
IS classification system SW-SM
Maximum Dry Density (g/cm) 2.112
Optimum Moisture Content (%) 6.13
Specific Gravity 2.28
Uniformity Coefficient, Cu 14.90
Coefficient of Curvature, Cc 1.429

3.1.3 Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS)

The Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS) was obtained from the Visakhapatnam

Steel Plant (VSP) at Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh). The grain size distribution is

shown in Table 3.6. The physical properties of GBFS are shown in Table 3.7. The

chemical properties of GBFS (Kumar et al., 2002) are shown in Table 3.8. The gradation

curve is shown in Figure 3.2.

In order to retain the shape of the specimen in triaxial and repetitive triaxial tests,

6 % clay was required to be added. MORT&H has suggested f that material passing

32
through 425 micron sieve should have Liquid Limit and Plasticity Index less than 25 and

6 percent for Granular material.

Table 3.6 Grain Size Distribution of Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS)
Sieve Size in mm Percentage of Passing
4.75 100
2.36 98.77
1.18 85.19
0.6 47.75
0.3 5.37
0.15 1.67
0.075 0.85

Table 3.7 Physical Properties of Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS)

Property Value
IS classification system SP
Maximum Dry Density (g/cm) 1.467
Optimum Moisture Content (%) 9.5
Specific Gravity 1.95
Uniformity Coefficient, Cu 2.0
Coefficient of Curvature, Cc 1.02

33
Table 3.8 Chemical Properties of Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS)
Chemical Component Percent(in terms of oxide)

Si02 31-37
CaO 26-33
A1203 22-27
MgO 4-10
MnO 6
Fe203 Up to 2.5

3.1.4 Steel Making Slag (SMS)

The material Steel Making Slag was obtained from the Visakhapatnam Steel

Plant (VSP) at Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh). The material was clean and free from

any deleterious material. MORT&H-2001 has specified grading for granular subbase

material (GSB), which is given in Table 3.9. In the present study, the maximum size of

the material is kept 20 mm. The gradation of aggregate is obtained through parallel curve

technique as shown in Fig 3.3.

The grading so obtained is shown in Table 3.10. In order to retain the shape of the

specimen in triaxial and repetitive triaxial tests, 8 % clay was required to be added.

MORT&H has suggested that material passing through 425 micron sieve should have

Liquid Limit and Plasticity Index less than 25 and 6 percent for Granular material. The

physical properties of SMS are shown in Table 3.11.

34
Table 3.9 Gradation for GSB as given in MORT&H-2001
Sieve size in mm Percentage of passing
53 100
26.5 77.93
4.75 19.48
0.075 4.38

Table 3.10 Gradation of SMS Mix

Sieve size in mm Per cent passing Grading as per Fuller's
equation (%)
20 100 100
10 70 70.7
4.75 48 48.73
2.36 34 34.4
1.18 24 24.29
0.6 17 17.32
0.075 6 6.12

Table 3.11 Physical Properties of SMS

Property Value
Maximum Dry Density (g/cm) 2.67
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) (%) 6.73
Water Absorption (%) 1.5
Specific Gravity 3.22

35
3.2 PROCTOR'S TEST

The laboratory test using dynamic compaction was carried out to determine

maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC). Proctor test using

IS heavy compaction was carried out as per IS 2720 (part VIII 1983) on materials viz;

reinforced fly ash, stone dust, GBFS, SMS. A cylindrical mould of capacity 2250 cm3

with an internal diameter of 15 cm and height 127.3 mm was used for SMS. For other

materials, a cylindrical mould of 1000 cm3 with an internal diameter 10 cm and height

127.3 mm was used. Each layer was compacted by 25 blows of 4.89 kg rammer for all

materials except . SMS, for which, each layer is compacted by 56 blows of 4.89 kg

rammer. The results of the MDD and OMC for different materials are given in Tables

3.1, 3.5, 3.7 and 3.11.

3.3 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST

The laboratory California Bearing Ratio (CBR) tests were conducted as per IS

2720 (part XVI) - 1979. The test consists of causing a cylindrical plunger of 50 mm

diameter to penetrate through the material at 1.25 mm/ minute. The loads for 2.5 mm and

5.0 mm are recorded. This load is expressed as a percentage of standard load value at

respective deformation level to obtain CBR value. A cylindrical mould of 15 cm diameter

and 17.5 cm height provided with a collar of about 50 mm length and detachable

perforated base are used for this purpose. The CBR test was conducted on each material.

For reinforced fly ash, a layer of Roorkee soil was laid at top and bottom and the

remaining three layers were of reinforced fly ash. Each material is compacted in five
layers by dynamic compaction with the help of 4.89 kg rammer. To find the soaked CBR,

the moulds were kept in water for four days. The load readings were taken at penetration

of 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0 and 12.5. The test set up is shown in

Plate-1.

3.4 STATIC TRIAXIAL TEST

The test apparatus for triaxial test consists of a high pressure cylindrical cell,

made of Perspex or transparent material, fitted between the base and the top cap. Three

outlet connections are generally provided through the base cell fluid inlet, pore water

outlet from the bottom of the specimen and the drainage outlet from the top of the

specimen. A separate compressor is used to apply fluid pressure in the cell. The

cylindrical specimen is enclosed in rubber membrane and based on the drainage

conditions of the test, solid non porous discs or caps, or porous discs are placed. The cell

pressure is applied on the three sides of the specimen. The load is applied through a

proving ring, with the help of mechanically operated load frame. The height of the

specimen is generally kept about 2 to 2.5 times its diameter. A cylindrical mould of 5 cm

diameter and 10 cm height was used for all the materials except for SMS, where a

cylindrical mould of 10 cm diameter and 20 cm height was used. These samples were

prepared as per standard procedure given in IS 2720 part XI. The test equipment is shown

in Plate-2.

3.5 REPEATED TRIAXIAL TEST

Repeated triaxial tests were conducted on samples prepared in the same manner

as described above shown in Plate-3. The repeated compressive deviator stresses were

37
applied at confining pressures. The deviator stress to be applied for a particular confining

pressure was taken 50% or less of failure stress in static triaxial tests. The frequency of

load repetitions in all the tests was kept 70 cycles per minute. The repeated loads were

applied up to 5,000 cycles of load application and behavior of various parameter such as

resilient modulus, permanent strain, resilient strain were observed at 1, 10, 100, 1000 and

5,000 load repetitions. .

Axial deformations were measured by the linear variable differential transducer

(LVDT) at different number of load repetitions. LVDT was mounted on apparatus as

shown in Plate-4. For estimating the recoverable deformation, specimens were kept free

of deviator stress till the needle of LVDT recorder was stabilized. This recoverable

deformation can simply be found by the difference of reading of the recorder with applied

deviator stress and on removal of it when needle of the recorder got stabilized.

The samples were tested at different deviator stresses in a fatigue testing machine.

The deviator stress values can be changed by fixing the piston-arm to different

eccentricities.

38
 100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Particle size in mm

Fig 3.1 Gradation Curve for Stone Dust

100
90
80
70
N 60
a
m
50
40
a 30
20
10

0.1 1 10
Particle size in mm

Fig 3.2 Gradation Curve for Granulated Blast furnace Slag (GBFS)

39
 -*- MORT&H-GSB

100

C)
70
v 60
(Cl
Q- 50
cv 40
,w 30
a
C
10

0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Particle size in mm

Fig 3.3 Gradation of SMS using Parallel Curve Technique

 Plate-i CBR TEST SET UP

I j .

Plate-2 TRIAXIAL TEST SET UP

Em
 r

TRIAXIAL SAMPLES

I'W7
. 1
IF'
-

Platc-4 I(E1'EA I FL) I RIAXIAL I ESI 1\ PRO( I I

42
 Chapter-4

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

4.1 PROCTOR'S TEST RESULTS

Modified Proctor's tests were conducted on four different types of sub base

materials. Typical compaction curves are shown in Figures 4.1 to 4.3. The optimum

moisture content and maximum dry density as determined from these curves were used to

prepare the specimen in subsequent experiments. The SMS has the highest dry. density of

2.67 g/cm3 and reinforced fly ash has the lowest dry density of 1.434 g/cm3 .

4.2 CBR TEST RESULTS

CBR tests were conducted on four different materials. The standard size of the

specimen is 15 cm diameter and .127.3 mm height. For reinforced fly ash, a layer of

Roorkee soil was kept at bottom and at top because it was unable to take the load after

four days of soaking. The CBR test results obtained are the average of three tests

conducted on each material. The results obtained from CBR tests are given in Table 4.1.

The SMS has the highest and fly ash has the lowest CBR value. According to IRC 37-

2001, the subbase material for a road having traffic less than 2 msa should have a CBR

value of 20 percent. From the table, it is clear that the CBR value of fly ash just meets

this requirement. The load versus penetration curves for different materials are shown in

Figs 4.4 & 4.5.

43


4.3 STATIC TRIAXIAL TEST RESULTS

Triaxial tests were conducted on four different granular materials at three

different confining pressures of 40, 70, and 120 kPa. Stress—strain curves were drawn for

each material at these confining pressures. The failure deformation recorded and modulus

of elasticity calculated at different confining pressures is given in Table 4.2. The Table

4.3 shows the axial strains and deviator stresses at failure for different confining

pressures.

Table 4.2 shows that the modulus of elasticity of material increases with increase

in confining pressure. The modulus of elasticity of steel making slag (SMS) is larger than

that of reinforced fly ash, granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) and stone dust. At a

confining pressure of 70 kPa, SMS has the E value of 34 MPa, reinforced fly ash has 17

MPa, GBFS has 15 MPa and stone dust has 11.5 MPa.

Figure 4.6 shows the variation in modulus of elasticity with confining pressures for

four different materials. The relationship between modulus of elasticity and confining

pressure is linear. Mathematical equations relating E- value with confining pressure are

given below.

E (SMS) = 0.4041 *C+ 7.0204 (4.1)

E (Reinforced fly ash) = 0.1622*C+5.5612 (4.2)

E (GBFS) = 0.1582*C+2.5408 (4.3)

E (Stone dust) = 0.1235*C+2.3673 (4.4)

Where E = modulus of elasticity

C = confining pressure
 1.44 C)T%4C 1 7 0O
1.43
/cc
1.42
$ 1.41
1.4
y 1.39
a 1.38
0 1.37
1.36
1.35
1.34
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Moisture content (%)

Fig 4.1 Modified Compaction Curve for Reinforced fly ash

2.12
2.11
OMC6.13%
2.1
2.09
v
rn 2.08
.' 2.07
c 2.06
° 2.05
p 2.04
2.03
2.02
2.01
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Moisture content (%)

Fig 4.2 Modified Compaction Curve for Stone dust

45
 1.48

1.47

1.46
a
1.45

t1.44
1.43
o 1.42

1.41

1.4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Moisture content (%)

Fig 4.3 Modified Compaction Curve for GBFS

700.

600

,.. 500
D) stone dust
400 GBFS
m
0 —k— flyash
300

200

100

w 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Penetration (mm)

Fig 4.4 CBR Curves for three Granular Materials

,ri
 9 000

8 000

7000

6 000

5000

—J 4 000

3 000

2000

1000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 9 10 11 12 13 14
Penetration (m)

Fig 4.5 CBR Curve for SMS

47
Table 4.1 Results of CBR Tests

Material Soaked CBR (%)

Reinforced fly ash 19.50
GBFS 24.08
Stone dust 29.19
SMS 227.00

Table 4.2 Modulus of Elasticity values for Sub base materials

Material E values, MPa at

Confining pressure kPa
40 70 120
Stone dust 7 11.5 16
GBFS 8 15 21
Reinforced fly ash 12 17 25
SMS 24 34 56

Table 4.3 Results of Failure stress and axial strain

Failure stress kPa at Axial strain (%) at

Material Confining pressure kPa Confining pressure kPa
40 170 120 40 70 120
Stone dust 127.8 189.5 390.06 5.5 4.75 3.0
GBFS 170.8 275.03 431.5 5.0 4.0 3.5
Reinforced fly ash 126.1 175.5 357.8 6.75 5.75 3.5
SMS 386.9 482.7 614.1 2.5 1.8 1.6
 stone dust ■ reinforced fly ash • GBFS x SMS

60

50

40

a.
3 30

W
20

10

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Confining pressure (kPa)

Fig 4.6 Relationship between E value and confining pressure

4.4 REPEATED TRIAXIAL TEST RESULTS

Repeated load triaxial tests were conducted on four different materials. The

confining pressures of 70 and 120 kPa and deviator stresses of 74 and 124 kPa were

applied on the four materials. Resilient strain, permanent strain and resilient modulus

were determined from this test. Figures 4.7 and 4.8 present the plots of resilient modulus

versus number of cycles, which shows that the resilient modulus values at constant

deviator stress and confining pressure decreases with the number of load repetitions.

Further, the change in resilient modulus is not linear and effect of number of load

repetitions becomes less for larger number of cycles. Furthermore, for increase in

deviator stress level, the resilient modulus increases. Tables 4.4 to 4.7 show the variation

in resilient modulus with number of load cycles for stone dust, steel making slag (SMS),

granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) and reinforced fly ash. From these tables. it is

clearly observed that at a confining pressure of 70 kPa and at a deviator stress of 124 kPa,

the resilient modulus value of SMS, reinforced fly ash, GBFS and stone dust is 275.55,

137.7, 206.67 and 103.33 respectively at 100 cycles load repetitions. This means that out

of these materials, SMS is the strongest material as i as highest value of resilient

modulus. i~•ti

4.4.1 Resilient Strain

Figures 4.9 and 4.10 show the applied deviator

stress and number of load cycles at constant confining pressures. From the figures. it can

be clearly understood that the resilient strain increases with number of load cycles. The

data given in Tables 4.8 to 4.11 show that as the deviator stress increases, the resilient
4

50
strain also increases. The resilient strain at deviator stress of 74 kPa is 0.04% for SMS

and at 124 kPa deviator stress the resilient strain is 0.045% after 100 cycles. For constant

confining pressure and constant deviator stress, the SMS is having less resilient strain

than GBFS, reinforced fly ash and stone dust. The resilient strain for SMS at a deviator

stress of 74 kPa is 0.04%, whereas it is 0.05% for GBFS, 0.08% for reinforced fly ash

and 0.085% for stone dust at 100 cycles load repetitions.

4.4.2 Permanent Strain

As the permanent strain increases, the fatigue also increases and the pavement may

fail due to rutting. Figures 4.11 and 4.12 show the variation in permanent strain with

number of load cycles. The results are summarized in Tables 4.8 to 4.11. It is observed

that permanent strain increases with number of load cycles. As the deviator stress

increases, the permanent strain also increases as in the case of resilient strain. For

constant confining pressure and constant deviator stress, the SMS is having the least

permanent strain as compared to other materials. The stone dust showed the highest value

of permanent strain followed by reinforced fly ash, GBFS and SMS. The permanent

strain is an indicator of rutting potential of the material. Therefore, stone dust has the

highest rutting potential or the least resistance to rutting as compared to other three

materials used in this study.

51
Table 4.4 Resilient Modulus values of Stone Dust

Confining pressure Deviator stress No. of cycles Resilient Modulus

(kPa) (kPa) (MPa)
1 137.8
10 118.09
70 124 100 103.33
1000 85.51
5000 75.15
1 123.33
10 98.66
120 74 100 87.05
1000 67.27
5000 56.92

Table 4.5 Resilient Modulus values of Reinforced fly ash

Confining pressure Deviator stress No. of cycles Resilient Modulus

(kPa) (kPa) (MPa)
1 225.45
10 177.14
70 124 100 137.77
1000 107.82
5000 88.57
1 164.44
10 113.84
120 74 100 92.5
1000 82.2
5000 61.67

52
Table 4.6 Resilient Modulus values of GBFS

Confining pressure Deviator stress No. of cycles Resilient Modulus

(kPa) (kPa) (MPa)
1 413.33
10 275.55
70 124 100 206.66
1000 155.0
5000 103.33
1 296.0
10 211.4
120 74 100 148.0
1000 105.71
5000 74.0

Table 4.7 Resilient Modulus values of SMS

Confining pressure Deviator stress No. of cycles Resilient Modulus

(kPa) (kPa) (MPa)
1 620
10 413.33
70 124 100 275.55
1000 177.14
5000 112.72
1 493.33
10 296.0
120 74 100 185.0
1000 123.33
° 5000 82.22

53
Table 4.8 Strain values of Stone Dust

Confining Deviator stress No. of cycles Resilient strain Permanent

pressure (kPa) (kPa) (%) strain (%)
1 0.09 0.655
10 0.105 1.115
70 124 100 0.120 1.580
1000 0.145 1.975
5000 0.165 2.375
1 0.06 0.445
10 0.075 0.665
120 74 100 0.085 0.915
1000 0.11 1.365
5000 0.13 1.79

Table 4.9 Strain values of Reinforced fly ash

Confining Deviator stress No. of cycles Resilient strain Permanent

pressure (kPa) (kPa) (%) strain (%)
1 0.055 0.725
10 0.07 0.995
70 124 100 0.09 1.115
1000 0.115 1.435
5000 0.14 1.805
1 0.045 0.415
10 0.065 .0.525
120 74 100 0.08 0.695
1000 0.09 0.885
5000 0.12 1.320

54.
Table 4.10 Strain values of GBFS

Confining Deviator stress No. of cycles Resilient strain Permanent

pressure (kPa) (kPa) (%) strain (%)
1 0.03 0.395
10 0.045 0.53
70 124 100 0.06 0.66
1000 0.08 0.87
5000 0.11 1.435
1 0.025 0.31
10 0.035 0.46
120 74 100 0.05 0.61
1000 0.07 0.765
5000 0.09 1.05

Table 4.11 Strain values of SMS

Confining Deviator stress No. of cycles Resilient strain Permanent

pressure (kPa) (kPa) (%) strain (%)
1 0.02 0.14
10 0.03 0.185
70 124 100 0.045 0.285
1000 0.07 0.43
5000 0.10 0.81
1 0.015 0.11
10 0.025 0.14
120 74 100 0.04 0.22
1000 0.06 0.34
5000 0.08 0.59

55
 -s--- stone dust ---reinforced fly ash – & GBFS --SMS
700

a
500 Confining pressure 70 kPa
400 Deviator stress 124 kPa
V
0
B 300
N 200
d
W 100
01
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000

Number of cycles

Fig 4.7 Variation of Resilient Modulus with Number of cycles

-stone dust ---reinforced fly ash —*—GBFS )ISMS

— 500
a Confining pressure 120 kPa
2 Deviator stress 74 kPa
400

0 300
E
•cai 200
.N
a)
L 100

0-I--
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000

Number of cycles

Fig 4.8 Variation of Resilient Modulus with Number of cycles

 ----stone dust —*—reinforced fly ash —GBFS --SMS
0.18
0.16
Confining pressure 70 kPa
0.14 Deviator stress 124 kPa
c 0.12
I- 0.1
N
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Number of cycles

Fig 4.9 Variation of Resilient Strain with Number of cycles

--•—stone dust --*-- reinforced fly ash --GBFS —--SMS

0.14

0.12
Confining pressure 120 kPa
Deviator stress 74 kPa

12 0.08

0.06
U)
0.04

10 100 10.00 10000

Number of cycles

Fig 4.10 Variation of Resilient Strain with Number of cycles

57
 2.5
--4-_ stone dust --*—reinforced fly ash —,k—GBFS -ISMS

2
Confining pressure 70 kPa
3U)
1.5 J Deviator stress 124 kPa

a)
m 1
E
a)
0.5

0 '

0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000

Number of cycles

Fig 4.11 Variation of Permanent Strain with Number of cycles

2 —stone dust —reinforced flyash —A—GBFS —*—SMS

1.8
1.6
1.4
Confining pressure 120 kPa
Deviator stress 74 kPa
1.2
N
caD 1
r- 0.8

I
m
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000

Number of cycles

Fig 4.12 Variation of Permanent Strain with Number of cycles

58
 Chapter-5

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions are drawn from this present study.

1. Out of the four materials taken in the present study, the CBR of the reinforced fly

ash is minimum, 19.5 %. According to IRC: 37-2001, the CBR of subbase material

for roads having traffic up to 2 msa -should be 20 per cent. Therefore, this material

just satisfies the requirement. However, it may be used in rural roads where CBR

requirement is 15 % for subbase.

2. Of all the materials tested in this study, steel making slag (SMS) has the highest

CBR followed by stone dust, granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) and reinforced

fly ash.

3. Modulus of elasticity of SMS is found to be more than that of reinforced fly ash,

GBFS and stone dust.

4. The factors which affect the resilient strain and permanent strain in a material are

stress level, confining pressure and number of load applications. In the present

study, it was observed that resilient strain and permanent strain increase with stress

level and decrease with confining pressure. With the increase in number of load

cycles, the resilient and permanent strains in a material increase gradually.

5. The stone dust has shown the highest value of permanent strain followed by

reinforced fly ash, GBFS and SMS. The permanent strain is an indicator of rutting

potential of the material. Therefore, stone dust is expected to have the highest rutting

59
 potential or the least resistance to rutting as compared to other three materials. The -

SMS has the least rutting potential.

6. It was observed that the resilient modulus decreases with the increase in load cycles.

Out of the four materials tested, the SMS has the highest resilient modulus

7. The present study shows that SMS is the best material to be used in subbase because

it has high CBR, E value, resilient modulus and low permanent strain as compared

to other materials, used in this study.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

1. The advanced research has to be done on permanent deformation of the granular

materials. The study of the behavior of granular materials is difficult due to some

practical problems.

2. Further research is required to better -understand the material properties and

construction techniques that govern the induction of residual stresses.

 REFERENCES

1. Allen J.J. and Thompson, M.R. (1974), "Resilient response of granular materials

subjected to time dependent lateral stresses." TRB-510, D.C., pp 1-13

2. Barksdale, R.D and Itani, S.Y. (1989). "Influence of aggregate shape on base

behavior." TRB 1227, TRB, D.C., pp 173-182.

3. Brown, S.F., ad Pappin, J. W. (1985). "Modeling of granular materials in

pavements." TRR 1022, TRB, Washington, D.C., pp 45-51.

4. Choubane, B.,Wu, Mang Tia., (1996). "Coarse aggregate effects on elastic moduli

of aggregate." TRR 1547, TRB,Washington, D.C., pp 29-34.

5. Chandra, S., Vasan, R.M and Sagar. S, (2001). "Comparative study on WBM and

WMM mixes." HRB-65, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, pp 17-26.

6. Heydinger, A.G., Xie, Q.L., Randolph, B.W., and Gupta, J.D. (1996). "Analysis

of resilient modulus of dense and open-graded aggregates." Transp. Res.

Rec.1547, TRB, Washington, D.C., pp 1-6.

7. Indian Road Congress "Guidelines for Design of Flexible Pavements" IRC-37,

2001.

8. Kamal, M.A., Dawson, A.R., Farouki, O.T., Hughes, D.A.B., and sha'at, A.A.

(1993). "Field and laboratory evaluation of the mechanical behavior of unbound

granular materials in pavements." TRR 1406, TRB, Washington, D.C., pp 88-97.

9. Kumar Praveen, Jain S.S. and Singh L.N., "Lab study on use of steel industry slag

in bituminous mixes, HRB No.67, IRC, Dec 2002, pp 13-26.

10. Kumar .P, Chandra .S and and Vishal .R. (2006)."Comparative study of different

subbase materials."J. Transportation Engineering. ASCE, 132(4), pp 576-580.

11. Lekarp, F., Richardson, I.R., and Dawson, A. (1996). "Influences on permanent

deformation behavior of unbound granular materials." TRR 1547, TRB,

Washington, D.C., pp 68-75.

12. Lekarp, F., Isacsson, U., and Dawson, A. (2000). "State of the Art I: Resilient

response of unbound aggregates." J. Transportation Engineering, ASCE, 126(1),

pp 66-75.

13. Lekarp, F., Isacsson, U., and Dawson, A. (2000). "State of the Art II: Permanent

strain response of unbound aggregates." J. Transportation Engineering, ASCE,

126(1), pp 76-83.

14. Loizos.A., Boukovalas.G and Karlaftis .A., (2003). "Dynamic stiffness modulus

for pavement subgrade evaluation." J. Transportaion Engineering., ASCE, 129(4),

pp 434-443.

15.Mathur, S., Murty A.V.S.R., Sharma V.N and Kumar P. (1997) "Application of

steel plant by-products to road work." Highway Research Bulletin No.57, Indian

Road Congress, New Delhi, pp 35-51.

16. Methods of Test for Soils: IS 2720.

17. Raad, G., and Witczak, M. W. (1981). "Comprehensive evaluation of laboratory

resilient moduli results for granular material." TRR 810, TRB, Washington, D.C.,

pp 73-82.

18. Raad, L., Minassian, G., and Gartin, s. (1992). "Characterization of saturated

granular bases under repeated loads." Transportation Research Record 1369,

TRB, Washington, D.C., pp 73-82.

19. Shalendra Pratap Singh (2006). "Reinforced fly ash in rural road subbases." PhD

thesis, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee.

20. Srinivasan, S.V. (1993), "Use of blast furnace slag and fly ash in road

construction", Indian Highways, Vol.121, pp 1-3-17.

21. "Specification for road and bridge works" Ministry of Road Transport and

Highways, Published by IRC, New Delhi 2001.

22. Uzan, J. (1985). "Characterization of granular material." TRR 1022, TRB,

Washington, D.C., pp 52-59.

23. Vishal .R (2004). "Comparative study on different subbase materials." M-.Tech

Thesis, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee.

24. Woojin Lee, Bohra, N.C. and Altshaeffl, A.G. (1995). "Resilient characteristics of

Dune Sand." J. Transportaion Engineering., ASCE, 121(6), 502-506.

25. Zaman, M., Chen D.H and Laguros., (1994). "Resilient moduli of granular

materials." J. Transportaion Engineering., ASCE, 120(6), pp 967-988.

63