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THIS
THIS paper deals with the problems con-
with high-speed loop-scavenged 2-
HIGH-SPEED,
stroke diesel engines. The theoretical proc-
esses of scavenging are described, and
methods for their calculation are discussed. It
is shown that it is possible to predetermine,
to a considerable extent, the most important
characteristic values of scavenging and, thus,
HIGH•OUTPUT,
to shorten the development work.

Various arrangements for the supercharg-

ing of 2-stroke engines are treated, and the
problem of turbocharging this type of engine
is described.

IN this paper I shall consider only one group of high- increase in power strokes can, however, be, achieved
output diesel engines, namely, high-speed, loop- by changing from a 4-cycle to a 2-cycle design.
scavenged 2-stroke engines. By high-output engines The endeavor to increase the output per power
we mean engines which have a low weight/power stroke leads to supercharging, that is, to filling the
ratio. Since weight is roughly proportional to cubic cylinder with a charge at higher than atmospheric
capacity, these engines also have high output per unit pressure. It is, of course, possible to supercharge a
of swept volume. High-output engines are used where 4-cycle as well as a 2-cycle engine, but it is obvious
low weight and compactness is required and where that particularly intense utilization of the piston dis-
only limited engine space is available. This means they placement is achieved by supercharging high-speed
can be used for automotive application, locomotives, 2-cycle engines.
and certain types of marine and semiportable instal- I shall confine my remarks mostly to one group of
lations. 2-stroke engines, namely to the loop-scavenged type.
Two methods to increase the power output of an In these, the charging process is controlled by the
internal-combustion engine are possible. The first pistons only, and valves are not used. The speed of
consists of increasing the number of power strokes these engines is not restricted by mechanical limita-
per unit of time, the second in increasing the output tions and can, therefore, far exceed that of valve-
per power stroke. It is, of course, possible to increase controlled 2-stroke engines. Owing to the absence of
the number of power strokes of both 4- and 2-cycle cams, valves, and valve gears, the engines are simple
engines by raising the crankshaft speed. A substantial and sturdy. Due to the simplicity of their cylinder-

Four Stroke •
Uni flOW •
Four Stroke • Two Stroke Loop '
Uni flow • Loop (List) o
Two Stroke { Loop
Loop ( List) 0 Trucks and Tractor Railcars
35
60 . .. . •

• 30
.. .
0 0
0 0 0
50

;.*.
. .
. .
25 •

•
4.x'0

11 . '
..
'.1 •
20

.0 30 ° . , • .. •... . . " . 0° 0'

., 15
. . .
. . •. • ..• • 6 • 1 .
,.. ..
. 5 . .

am ,
20 , .• . ..... .(
...• . . ..... : 10
.;.•:.!.V... : •
• . -.•-• • .. .
. • •
........ ......... .
. .
•
.
10
1110 •
. .
5 • . .M. V •••
.... .. •

50 po 1500 0 1000 1501 1 '. r.

100 I

1000

1500
300
HP 50 200 0 500
HP

Fig. 1—Weight/power ratio Fig. 2—Output per unit of swept volume

780 SAE Transactions

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LOOP•SCAVENGED TWO-CYCLE DIESEL ENGINES

P rof. Dr. Hans List, Anstalt fur Verbrennungsmotoren

This paper was presented at the SAE National Diesel Engine Meeting, Chicago, Nov. 1, 1956.

head design, they have a high resistance to thermal
stresses, and thus, are well suited to higher super-
charge.
The values of weight/power ratio and output per
unit of swept volume obtained from different engine
types in some applications requiring high-output en-
gines, are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. It can be seen that
the -results obtained from high-speed loop-scavenged
2-stroke engines are relatively high. This design,
therefore, is suitable for high-performance engines,
particularly as it combines high performance with
simple and sturdy design.
This simplicity, or the small number of moving
parts, is demonstrated in Fig. 3, which shows a com-
parison of the moving parts contained in two engines
having nearly the same output. One is a 4-stroke
diesel, the other a 2-stroke diesel; both give approxi-
mately 40 hp at 3000 rpm. The first engine needs
four, the second two cylinders to give this output; the
torque curves of both engines are approximately the

Fig. 3—Comparison of mov-

ing parts of 4- and 2-stroke
engines of same output

Volume 65, 1957 781
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Displacement &atone 844cte in. RPM 2800
&ine.p. 65 p s.
Fig. 4—Calculated exhaust pressure pulses and schematic
scavenging system
same, and so are the inertia forces. In the case of
the 2-cyl 2-stroke engine, this was accomplished by
the use of a balancing shaft.
It can be seen from these brief statements that the
high-speed loop-scavenged engine has its advantages
and that it deserves to be studied to a greater extent
than has been done heretofore. More development
work on this type is clearly worth while.
The apparent simplicity of the engine's layout does,
however, not mean that it is easy to design. Whenever
a single part has to perform several different func-
tions, it is almost always more difficult to design cor-
rectly such a part than if it had to fulfill only a single
function.
A relatively large number of functions is concen-
trated on each of certain parts of a loop-scavenged
engine so that these parts are not too easy to design.
These difficulties become greater, the higher the
engine speed and the higher the thermal stresses.
When the Institute for Internal Combustion En-
gines, Graz, Austria, was first formed with rather
limited facilities and finances, it was by no means cer-
tain that satisfactory solutions could .be found to all
problems posed by high-speed 2-cycle engines. Under
these circumstances, the decision to concern ourselves
primarily with these problems .required a certain
amount of courage and a good deal of conviction. The
782
same statement, of course, applies equally well to the
formerly existing group headed by the late Dr.
Schniirle, whose organization concerned itself exclu-
sively with high-speed 2-stroke engines.
I can say here that, thanks to cooperative effort,
most of the important problems of the high-speed
2-stroke engine have been solved so that it is now well
able to compete with the 4-stroke engine. As has been
proven by the latest developments in this field, the
former can now claim some advantages over the
latter.
I shall place the work of my institute in the fore-
ground. We have a certain right to this due to our
long experience with high-speed 2-stroke engines and
due to several completed developments in this field.
Furthermore, I feel that it is better to talk about
problems one has solved oneself, instead conveying
experiences of others.
Theoretical Basis
Among the problems inherent in loop-scavenged
2-stroke engines, the charging processes are the most
important. The burned gases contained in the cyl-
inder must be replaced by fresh air within a relatively
short period of time. In order that this process may
take place with the greatest possible efficiency, a num-
ber of factors must be adjusted to one another. With
the increasing number of possibilities the difficulty of
making the right choice increases also. Since we, in
Europe, are forced to carry out development work
at minimust cost and since, in general, calculation is
cheaper than experimentation, it was obvious that
mathematics should be employed for the investiga-
tion of the charging processes.
The charging process consists essentially of three
groups of events: first, the gas-flow process, that is,
the outflow of the exhaust gases from the cylinder
and the transit of the scavenging air from its con-
tainer through the cylinder to the exhaust; second,
the mixing and displacement process in the cylinder
by which the gases in the cylinder are replaced by
fresh air; and finally, the heat-exchange process, by
which heat is transferred from the hot gases to the
cylinder walls, and inversely, the cylinder walls warm
up the incoming scavenging air.
Gas-Flow Process—A great number of calcula-
tions, as well as experiments carried out to check
their accuracy, have shown that it is possible to calcu-
late flow-processes with sufficient accuracy by a step-
by-step calculation. Calculation is not only applicable
to the simplest case, where large containers are used
ahead and behind the cylinder, but they also aid in
the comprehension of the sometimes very complicated
flow and oscillation processes which result when the
duct system, through which the gases flow during the
gas exchange, consists of a combination of tubes,
orifices, and containers having variable cross-sections.
The calculation can also be applied to multicylinder
engines of different designs, Vee-form or in-line, and
it also affords a very good insight into the gas move-
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ment through the passages. To save time I must fore- in the cylinder. The exhaust system would be filled
go an exact description of the calculation, but I would with exhaust gases at mean temperature and, at first,
like to show its elementary basis, to describe briefly at external pressure. The exhaust ports open and the
the mathematical processes, and to give some results. outflow of the high-pressure exhaust gases into the
For the purpose of this analysis, one starts with two exhaust duct begins. A pressure wave is set up, which
differential equations which show the principal char- is propagated in the exhaust pipes and which finally
acter of the calculation. One equation makes it pos- reaches the exhaust container. There it causes an in-.
sible to calculate the change of pressure in the crease in pressure and finally causes the outflow of
cylinder, P,., taking into account the varying inlet the exhaust gases to the atmosphere through the tail
and exhaust port areas and the piston movement. For pipe. The course of these waves and of their reflections
use in the calculation these differential equations are and the variation of pressure in the exhaust container
transformed into a difference equation which has the can be determined by calculation.
following form: (See Appendix for nomenclature.) A certain pressure exists in the cylinder when the
AV, inlet port opens, and, according to the magnitude of
this pressure, the exhaust gases will either backfire
—,
AP, k t Pse) from the cylinder into the scavenging system, or the
(ttio-i)"Aa inflow of scavenging air into the cylinder will begin
z L 180 Wm; \P",.
at once. If the residual gases backfire, the pressure in
AV, the cylinder decreases until it is equal to the scaveng-
pr e pre\T
ing pressure. The movement is- then reversed, and the
— Az] backfired gases, whose quantity can be determined
180 W„,,,P",.) by calculation, will reenter the cylinder. After all
The first term in brackets, AV,, corresponds to the gases are pushed back into the cylinder, scavenging
admission into the cylinder, the second term, AV•, begins. Immediately after the opening of the inlet
corresponds to the discharge from the cylinder, and ports, a pressure wave and a velocity wave expand
the third, Az, represents the piston movement. The from the inlet ports into the inlet system. However,
change in pressure in containers, inserted in the duct scavenging-air admission into the cylinder also influ-
system through which the scavenging gases flow, is ences the pressure variations within the cylinder and
calculated by using the same equations, but omitting the pressure and velocity conditions in the exhaust
the term for the piston movement, Az. ducts. By calculation of the whole charging process
The pressure and velocity-waves in pipes can be the variations of pressure and velocity are obtained
calculated by the following system of equations: for any point in the system.
When the charging process is completed, that is
P = P [ F (t — — f (t ± after the ports have closed, the gases in the inlet and
v a a exhaust systems are not at rest but are in movement.
These movements can be followed by calculation for
W W + F (t — f (t x–)1 both systems and, thus, the state of motion at the
a a a
beginning of the new gas exchange may be deter-
This system shows that the pressure at a certain point mined. At the second gas exchange the system will, be
in the, pipe consists of the sum of a constant pressure near the actual working condition and, if the calcula-
and of the pressures due to outward and returning tion is continued long enough, the latter condition will
pressure waves. If one knows the waves leaving from be obtained. In general, it will suffice to calculate two
one pipe and the reflection conditions at the other, it or three cycles.
is possible to determine the reciprocating waves and, The calculation can now be evaluated in different
thus, to determine the pressure at any point of the ways: the pressure variations, before, within, and
pipe. after the cylinder and in the different containers are
The reflection conditions occurring at points of obtained; also, the variations of charge and discharge
change, as at orifices or at changes in cross-sectional in the cylinder and the velocity at any time and at any
area, as well as the passage of the waves through point of the systems are determined. The accuracy
conical parts of the pipe, can be calculated, and the of the calculation and its agreement with reality can
necessary equations can be determined. For the pur- be checked by indicators installed at certain points,
pose of calculation it is assumed that the contents of and from the conformity of measurable values with
the entire duct system are at rest and that the engine calculated results the exactness of those values which
suddenly begins to operate at a certain crankshaft are not measurable can be judged.
speed. For a 2-stroke engine, for instance, one would The calculation, therefore, furnishes the designer
begin with the following assumption: with valuable information as it shows the different
The scavenging system, as shown in Fig. 4, would processes in a kind of slow-motion picture. The in-
be filled with air at a scavenging pressure P„ the sight into the processes, obtained from repeated calcu-
combustion would have taken place in the cylinder, lations, will frequently be sufficient to let one judge
and the working gases (charge) would now expand correctly the results which will be produced by cer-

Volume 65, 1957 783
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6 Displacement volume 42.7 cu. in. 11.PM2800

Calculated

Q 4 NI Blowd9wn

II A
101 70 .4 POO
q mea ured R
1%
2 60
1 %

lOwilllig
i /200
\
ATM so 0os-temperature
00 120 f I 160 180 200 220 240 26 /000 V)
O
B.D.0 Crank angle deg. N,
800 -{4"
Fig. 5—Pressure in cylinder during scavenging for 2-stroke \
engine C Incier re
600 '5
...
Scavei e pessure--."----
Displacement volume 42,7cu.in. ; RpAl. 2800 ;b.mep 65 psi -
002 1.1 In 1 1

/ . /0
1
1
0 It
.... I t

I CF
I -C3
31 '8
200
a Of
.

I
/imp \ Iri
I I
..It I t V?,
.--Inlet 0 PI4J I s". Z-1.44:
Blowdown /00 f20 /40 /60 180 200 220 240 260 0
I. 0012 B.D.C. Crank angle deg.

g I
r, Mir Exhaust .
-..1
ti 0,1
c.?
,..,1
Fig. 7—Calculated pressure and gas temperature in cylinder
0.008

0.004
10, zg i
II I
101

I,. i
i
Illkifl .z 1 li 1 -0 1
g:
Llif
during scavenging

.92
...s:
,
1 I
140 1 f•
ABC.
•E".
wA.
0004
Backfiring gas
a we obtained invaluable knowledge, not only of the
t: I 0.008
Fig. 6—Air and gas flow through inlet and exhaust ports
tain measures, even though a specific calculation may
not have been performed.
In the following figures I should like to show the
results of such a calculation and in this way to demon-
state its efficiency and usefulness.
Fig. 5 shows the measured and the calculated pres-
sure variations during the scavenging process in a
low-speed 2-stroke diesel engine.
Figs. 6 and 7 show the variations in the inflow-
ing and outflowing masses and the variations of pres-
sure and temperature in a 2-stroke engine.
Fig. 8 shows the results of a calculation for a more
difficult process, namely the pressure variations in
the, suction pipe of a 4-stroke engine. Here also, the
measured and calculated pressures are in good agree-
ment.
Scavenging Processes—One of the most important
processes in the engine is the scavenging process. In
this process the scavenging air enters the cylinder and
drives out the exhaust gases. It is clear that the
effects of this process cannot be calculated and that
the determination of the scavenging efficiency must
be left to experiment.
Corresponding tests have been made with the
models as well as with running engines. Here it was
found that results of model tests, if correctly applied
784
to the engine, lead to quite useful conclusions as to
the processes in the working cylinder.
2 220 240
We have carried out many scavenging tests on a
Crank angle deg. model cylinder which was filled with carbon dioxide
and then was scavenged with air. Through these tests
efficacy of different scavenging systems, but also of
the effect of the different variables upon these sys-
tems. The results have been plotted as fractions of
the cylinder contents, with the quantity of the enter-
ing air as abscissa and with the air remaining in the
cylinder as ordinate.
These scavenging curves permit judgment of a
scavenging system. "Scavenging system" is understood
to mean the arrangement of the inlet and exhaust
ports within the cylinder. I shall show you only an
extract from many thousands of tests, a diagram
which is well-known and which has been used by
many research engineers. This diagram shows the
scavenging curves for three entirely different scaveng-
ing systems (Fig. 9).
The "cross-scavenging system" employs inlet and
exhaust ports placed in opposite sides of the cylinder
wall, the "loop-scavenging system" inlet and exhaust
ports in the same side of the cylinder wall, and
"uniflow-scavenging system," inlet and exhaust ports
at opposite ends of the cylinder. You can see that uni-
flow scavenging gives by far the best scavenging, that
loop-scavenging is good, and that, in general, cross-
scavenging is the worst.
The quantitative application of these results to the
actual engine has been tested by exact measurement.
Since the gas in the cylinder is stratified after scaveng-
ing, small gas samples lead to error. We have, there-
fore, developed a method for extracting larger samples
from the cylinder and, by the arrangement shown in
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Fig. 10, have even emptied the whole cylinder con- ing they are above and with cross-scavenging they are
tents into a rubber balloon. By this method the purity generally below., In many cases, the course of the
of the charge and its quantity can be accurately de- scavenging can be accurately expressed by calcula-
termined. This method is too complex for the normal tions following the assumption of dilution scavenging.
examination of an engine, but it gave us the basis for In order to introduce into the calculations scavenging
improving the procedure of calculating 2-stroke en- curves deviating from dilution scavenging, a coeffi-
gines. cient a is used and multiplied by the air consumption
For the development of actual scavenging systems L. If a is greater than 1, the, scavenging is better than
it is sufficient to extract samples of residual gases dilution scavenging, but if a is less than I, the scav-
from the blow-down part of the exhaust either by enging curve is below that for dilution scavenging.
means of a controlled valve or by a small relief valve. So far as their influences on the course of scaveng-
From these samples and from the measured fuel quan-
tity, it is possible to determine the air quantity in the
cylinder which is available for combustion. In this
fashion the "delivery ratio" is obtained.
Thus, proceeding from the so-called "dilution
scavenging," the introduction of scavenging curves
into the calculations is possible. In dilution scaveng-
ing, a theoretical concept, the incoming air mixes at
once and thoroughly with the residual gases, and an
equal volume of this mixture is then pushed out of
the exhaust. The course of scavenge can be calculated
and is represented by the following equation:
77, = I — e-
In engines with inlet and exhaust at one end of the
cylinder, the scavenging curves are, in general, near
those of dilution scavenging. With good loop-scaveng-
Delivery Ratio
Fig. 9—Scavenging systems.
U

9
" I Arim
LIMILSINOW
at
0.7 If " 4_4._,__..
4

"1=1MA/ill
i11141110111111011111 \E2
3 C
,,NLINIMINW
10

U
U
00
a kng=1
0. =111WEIRVIO
ML 7 .
10

04 A 4 ri111i. A 1
„,„,latrowilim
at 04 1. Scavenging air. 5. Connexion for clearing.
2. Exhaust pipe. 6. Rubber bag.
3. Gas taken here for analysis. 7. Measuring vessel.
4. Thermocouple. 8. Levelling vessel.
— — — — Calculated. Measured. 9. Loose piston head.
x -= admission stroke.
Fig. 10—Apparatus for testing total charge and scavenging
Fig. 8—Calculated and-measured pressures in admission pipe efficiency

Volume 65, 1957 785
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ing are concerned;, it can be said that the arrangement

O X experimental values
of the ports is of greatest importance while the lay-
out of the cylinder head is of minor consequence.
50 This also applies to the shape of the piston crown in
loop-scavenged engines. With increasing stroke/bore
ratio, the delivery ratio becomes somewhat Worse, but
Exh* ust °• • this effect is slight in loop-scavenging, and it also gets
Calculated worse with increasing scavenging pressure owing to
• . . r the greater turbulence of flow.
Today, fundamental examinations of scavenging
g arrangements have lost their interest, as the general
Inlet results are already known. Furthermore, as the perti-
nent patents have expired, it is generally possible to
design good scavenging systems. Scavenging arrange-
ments which have the exhaust ports in the center and
1 9nnn Anon anon Annn int. o the inlet ports on each side so that the intake air im-

Ai' ft per 'minute pinges on the cylinder wall opposite the exhaust ports
Fig. 11—Optimum port heights
are, according to our experience, the most successful
for high-speed 2-stroke engines in general. This de-
sign combines best scavenging efficiency with rela-
tively ample port areas. We have used this scavenging
arrangement, which was first introduced by Dr.
• experimental values Schniirle, for all our engine designs. With good
scavenging layouts a scavenging efficiency of 90% is
20
lam ' (at an air-consumption volume ratio usually

/00 of 1.4), that is, the charge in the cylinder contains

calculated approximately 10% residual gases. By careful design
80
. o o
of the ports following extensive tests, even the scav-
enging efficiency of loop-scavenged engines can be
improved further.
40 Approximation Method for the Calculation of Port
Dimensions—It is a disadvantage of the step-by-step
20 calculation that the pipe system, the manifolds, and
the timing of the engine must first be assumed. This
I o/1/1/1 zinnn Annn Annn 4nn 0
method, therefore, does not show an immediate way
Ai ',ft per minute for obtaining most favorable values for an actual
Fig. 12—Optimum bmep values scavenging system, but serves for comparison with
the chosen system.
A start for the layout of ports is offered by a con-
siderably simplified calculation method. Here, one
proceeds from a simplified system with large con-
k tainers before and after the cylinder. An orifice, multi-
AR 2
plied by a discharge coefficient which includes the
a other resistances, is substituted for the controlled
(1) 3 0
▪
ports.
To determine the most favorable port lengths, one
Calculated
proceeds from an approximate expression for the
Q., 20 brake mean effective pressure:
bmep = K(1 — cr — 0.00314VA,
7.3 . 10-6A,) (1 —
l0
o 8 A i2L3
Q P fr
0-1 3 b • 10-

By partial differentiation with relation to L and a-

n sin innn icon 9 nnn2 500 u oo
the conditions for P, maximum are obtained.
annn
R.P. A represents the high-speed figure of the engine.
Fig. 13—Maximum output of 2-stroke engines with 3.35-in. The greater A is, the more difficult are the gas-
bore exchange processes. Basically, the product D X n is
contained in this A, as are some values of ratios, espe-
cially that of the width of ports in relation to the cir-

786 SAE Transactions

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cumference of the cylinder and also the coefficient of

discharge.
Results show that the most favorable inlet- and
exhaust-port lengths of our engines are shown in Fig.
11. These were obtained experimentally, starting from
the calculated port until the optimum values were
obtained. Variations of port length were investigated
in both directions. As you can see, these values agree
well with our calculations. This method, therefore,
offers a useful starting point for the determination of
port length, but assumes that certain coefficients are
known, especially the discharge coefficients of the
scavenging system. In Fig. 12 the bmep is plotted on
a base of the high-speed figure. As you see, bmep
gets smaller with increasing high-speed figures, as an
increasing part of the stroke is lost to the working
process owing to the ports, and an increasing part of
the output must be used to drive the scavenging
pump.
The characteristic figure for the output of an
internal-combustion engine is the output per liter of
swept volume (specific output). If medium values for
the characteristics of a good scavenging system, such
as the Schniirle, are substituted in the high-speed
figure A, the bmep may be given as a function of Fig. 14—Leakage path
D X n. The output per liter is proportional to bmep
X n so that as the output per liter is higher, the cylin-
der diameter is smaller. However, diesel engines with
very small cylinders start badly. The smallest bore size by very accurate design of the sealing areas at the
which produces both good fuel consumption and good bottom of the piston can the oil distribution be kept
starting, is in the neighborhood of 3 3/8 in. This state- within reasonable limits.
ment does not apply to some special engines like those Variables affecting the performance of the sealing
used in model airplanes. The curve of output per liter areas are the finish of the piston surface, the clear-
for a cylinder diameter of 3.35 in. (85 mm) is given ances of the piston skirt, the finish of the oil-scraper
in Fig. 13 and shows a value of 34, or nearly 0.56 hp rings, and the finish of the liners. Tests on various
per cu in. of piston displacement. It is of interest kinds of oil-scraper rings, which extended over a long
that the engines we developed for Alfa Romeo (3.35- period of time, with variations in such things as ring
in. bore) give, in the latest stage of development, an width, oil drains, and ring tension, as well as varations
output of 34 hp per liter which corresponds well with in piston-skirt layout, were necessary before practical
the calculated results. This specific output is rela- solutions were found. It is now possible to control the
tively high but nevertheless can be obtained with a leakage of oil through the sealing areas.
loop-scavenged 2-stroke engine of comparatively This control of oil leakage was imperative for the
simple design. practical application of high-speed 2-stroke engines,
especially for speeds over 2000 rpm. The oil consump-
Mechanical and Thermal Problems tion of loop-scavenged 2-stroke engines is not only
a question of economy but also of reliability in opera-
The major mechanical problem with a loop- tion. In this respect, there is a difference between
scavenged 2-stroke engine is that of obtaining a suf- 4- and 2-stroke engines. The exhaust gases of a 2-
ficient, but not excessive, oil supply to the cylinder stroke engine, even at full load, contain considerable
walls and obtaining reasonable lubricating oil con- amounts of oxygen from the scavenging air which
sumption together with the smallest possible cylinder passes directly into the exhaust ports, and the danger
wear. Conditions here are considerably more unfa- exists that quantities of lubricating oil may ignite in
vorable than in a 4-stroke engine. When the piston is the exhaust ducts. This has happened to 2-stroke
at top dead-center (Fig. 14), only a comparatively engines with excessive lubricating oil consumption. It
narrow sealing belt prevents the leakage of oil from usually does not harm the engine but certainly is
the crankcase into the exhaust ports. Of course, high- unpleasant.
performance engines must have a well lubricated When we began our development on high-speed
mechanism, and in many cases oil is also used for 2-stroke engines such burning exhaust pipes some-
spray-cooling the underside of the piston crown. The times caused us difficulties. But now that we have
crankcase is thus filled with oil-saturated air. Only mastered the problem of oil consumption, this belongs

Volume 65, 1957 787

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Cyldldmelei
mil inremperature deg. F
minus 4
Fig. 15—Deformation of piston
to the past. I have not heard of such a case with our
engines for a long time. With small- and medium-
sized engines there is, in general, no separate oil sup-
ply to the cylinder, since this would complicate the
engine and make it more costly. The lubricating oil
leaking through the sealing area at the bottom of
the piston must, thus, be so adjusted that it provides
just enough oil for the lubrication of the cylinder but
so that it prevents undesirable oil leakage into the
exhaust system.
We found that the danger of a burning exhaust
began at an oil-leakage rate of 3 to 4 gal per hp-hr.
A rate of 0.5 to 1 gal per hp-hr is sufficient to form
an oil film. Thus, there exists a sufficiently wide dif-
ference between necessary and objectionable rates of
oil supply. In general, we design our engines with an
oil-leakage rate of 0.8 to 1.5 gal per hp-hr. This oil
consumption is only a trifle higher than that of a
high-speed 4-stroke engine, and it ensures effective
lubrication of the cylinder without any disagreeable
white oil smoke in the exhaust.
In larger engines, the oil leakage through the seal-
ing areas is made less than that necessary for the lubri-
cation of the cylinder, and the required additional
amount of oil is supplied separately. Such an arrange-
ment has the advantage that the oil supply can be
made dependent on the load so that at smaller loads
less oil burns or vaporizes from the oil film and less
oil needs to be supplied.
It is important that the oil be evenly distributed
on the cylinder surface and that an even lubrication
of the whole piston travel be effected. A special prob-
lem is the lubrication of the upper compression ring.
This ring works with extremely high surface pressure
and, owing to the efficiency of the scraper rings situ-
ated below, it receives the smallest amount of oil. The
part of the cylinder over which the top piston rings
travel is subject to the greatest wear. The oil quantity
reaching the upper piston ring can be influenced by
the tension of the compression rings. In order to pre-
vent ring and piston scuffing, uniform contact be-
tween rings and cylinder wall must be ensured. Exact
ring shapes, best obtained by form-turning, are
necessary.
Special attention has to be paid to the exact out-
side shape of the piston so that the side pressure, to
788 SAE Transactions
which the piston is subjected, is distributed as evenly
as possible over the sliding surface. A combination
of crowned and oval piston-skirt shape is used. In
this way, the deformation of the skirt by thermal and
mechanical forces is taken into account. The form of
the piston skirt is considerably influenced, in longi-
tudinal direction (Fig. 15), by the temperature
gradient. The oval contour of piston circumference
is changed by mechanical deformation. In short, the
shape has to be such that, after deformation, a close
and even contact of the piston surface with the cyl-
inder is produced. The more even this contact, the
better the operating conditions of the piston.
The determination of the shape of the piston, there-
fore, requires specific experience, and tests have to be
made in each individual case. We have obtained
satisfactory results with simple aluminum pistons.
These were, however, cast of an alloy specially devel-
oped in Europe for the purpose and which, I believe,
is similar to A-142.
Special attention must be paid to the cylinder wall
in way of the ports. The wall is interrupted by orifices
which, in high-speed engines, cover a great part of
the circumference, so that only comparatively small
lands remain as supporting areas.
When cylinder and piston have normal proportions,
the piston pin and, thus, the point of application of
the side pressure, coincides with the ports at the time
when the side pressure is greatest. (Fig. 16.) The
cylindrical surface area of the liner, in combination
with the deformed piston, results in considerable bear-
ing pressures which are imposed on the lands between
the ports. This may lead to scuffing at these points.
To prevent the possibility of scuffing, the port area is
VI=
Piston pin axis at lISC
n_
I I ! 11 I I
1, III
u LJ LJ U
cu
Piston pin axis at B.D.
Fig. 16—Course of side pressure relative to cylinder axis
 Downloaded from SAE International by Brought to you by RMIT University, Tuesday, April 07, 2020
very slightly barrel-shaped. In this way these areas
are freed of pressure or at least relieved, and the side
pressure is distributed over the uninterrupted part of
the cylinder liner with the result that maximum bear-
ing pressures are substantially reduced.
Since the most effective sealing occurs in areas
which are exposed only to slight wear, the oil con-
sumption of a loop-scavenged 2-stroke engine does
not, in general, increase with continued operation.
Usually the replacement of a cylinder liner is neces-
sitated, not by high oil consumption, but by wear in
its upper part. If this is the case, the compression rings
seal insufficiently and cause hard starting. A specific
rate of cylinder wear is the result of a particular con-
dition of cylinder-liner lubrication. Since purely
hydrodynamic lubrication of the cylinder running
surface is not possible, wear also depends on piston
and cylinder material and on the quality of their
finish.
It is now an established fact that the lubrication
condition in the cylinder of a loop-scavenged 2-stroke
engine, as obtained by the means described, results in
reasonable wear figures and that the 2-stroke is no
longer at a considerable disadvantage compared with
a 4-stroke engine.
In Europe, high-speed loop-scavenged 2-stroke
engines were first installed by the firm of Graf & Stift
in their buses and heavy trucks. This firm has limited
production but, up to now, has the most extensive
experience in Europe in the application of this type
of engine to automotive purpose. Graf & Stift report
cylinder wear as shown in Fig. 17. These values were
obtained under the severe operating conditions en-
countered in the mountainous areas of Austria and
in short-distance runs. The firm of Hanomag who use
in their tractors 2-stroke diesel engines rated 12-14
hp at 2200 rpm have not had any complaints about
excessive cylinder wear in three years of operation.
Approximately 25,000 cylinders are in use in these
tractors.
The experience with the test vehicles of the Ford
Works, Cologne, Germany, in which engines of our
design are installed, is also favorable. After 32,000
miles a cylinder wear of 0.05 mm (0.00197 in.) was
measured.
We have tried to obtain comparative material on
4-stroke engines. Steyr-Daimler-Puch, the biggest firm
in Austria producing light vans, gave us data as shown
in Fig. 17.
The Swiss Post Office authorities found, after ex-
tensive tests, that their 4-stroke engines have a cyl-
inder wear from 0.1 to 0.3 mm (0.0039 to 0.0118
in. ) after 32,000 miles of service.
It follows from these results, which I have inten-
tionally limited to such material as could be obtained
from nearby sources, that the cylinder wear of high-
speed, loop-scavenged 2-stroke engines compares fa-
vorably with that of 4-stroke engines.
So far it has not been necessary to introduce special
means to improve wear conditions, such as chromium-
Volume 65, 1957
plated or -hardened cylinder liners. This does not, of
course, mean 'that such measures could not bring ad-
vantages since they would, no doubt, further increase
the life of the cylinders.
The mechanism of a 2-stroke engine presents no
special problems and is subject to the same forces as
that of a 4-stroke engine. The forces which, in gen-
eral, always act in the same direction on the piston
pin, produce an unfavorable load condition on the
small end bearing. This condition can, however, be
rendered harmless by a special groove design.
Scavenging Blowers for 2-stroke Engines
The design of a 2-stroke engine is basically influ-
enced by the kind of scavenging blower used. The
engine is simplest and cheapest if the piston is used
to displace the scavenge air. "Crankcase-scavenging,"
however, has great disadvantages and is used less and
less and is only applied to small, low-cost engines.
Its disadvantages are: high oil consumption and, in
spite of this, a type of bearing lubrication not suffi-
cient to cope with the large forces acting on the
running gear of a diesel engine, and, in addition, the
amount of air so conveyed is limited and is not enough
for good scavenging. High-output 2-stroke engines
must, therefore, be equipped with a scavenging pump.
Piston-type blowers can be considered only for low-
speed and single- or 2-cyl engines. In all other cases,
either Roots- or centrifugal blowers are used. We use
Roots-blowers for engines of small and medium out-
put. We have found that the Roots-blower, due to its
steep characteristic, is only slightly sensitive to such
changes in flow resistance as can be caused by de-
= Dw-Do
o ardf *Stift 6 Cyl. 4.725 inbore; 525 instroke
+Ford-TwoStroke 6Cyl. 3.62 itzbore, 413 instroke
.FourStroke tigines (Swiss Post Office)
0.
o (;,'
....-- Four strok (Steyr)min m values
0.00
../...
Ai
o
.1-
0 20000 40000 6°000 ,9 f00000 120000
M iles
Fig. 17—Comparison of cylinder wear for three engines
789
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posits in the exhaust ducts. Fig. 18 shows a com-

parison with a centrifugal blower which has a flat
Psc characteristic. An increase of flow resistance has a
Po
much greater effect on the scavenging-air output of a
Centrifugal blower centrifugal blower than on that of a Roots-blower. If
deposits accumulate in the exhaust system, an engine
equipped with a centrifugal blower will, therefore,
Partially clogged acquire a smoky exhaust earlier than if it had a Roots-
exhaust system
blower.
Scavenge-pressure Roots-type blower For this reason it seems to us that whenever service
maintenance is not too regular or the exhaust system
has to be kept small because of space limitations the
Roots-blower is to be preferred. Furthermore, flexi-
bility as well as a torque curve, desirable for auto-
motive applications, can be obtained more easily with
Delivery ratio L a Roots-blower.
in ^r1oots
If engines operate over long periods at part load,
Lceninfugal like vehicles in city traffic, it is desirable to reduce
Fig. 18—Interaction of 2-stroke engine with centrifugal blower the part-load fuel consumption. This possibility exists
and Roots-blower in 2-stroke engines by decreasing the scavenge-air
quantity at low load. The shape of the scavenging
curve (Fig. 19) shows that, at part load, a consider-
100 able reduction in the quantity of scavenge air is pos-
es-
Delivery rat at full load sible. Such a reduction could, for instance, be accom-
U plished by a change-gear between scavenge pump and
c engine, actuated according to the engine load. How-
• i."3 Delivery ratio at ever, such change-gears are too expensive for auto-
Zo=
half load
.4•-••
motive engines.
is 50 A simple method of controlling the air output of a
•5 Roots-blower consists in a throttle-actuated bypass
a) between blower inlet and outlet (Fig. 20). So far as
a the airflow through the engine is concerned, the latter
U can be likened to an orifice with variable area.
(f)
If the bypass has the same effective section as this
orifice, the airstream will divide into two halves, and
0 0.5 1,0 1,5 only one half will pass through the engine. The
Delivery ratio L scavenge pressure, at same delivery ratio, will then
Fig. 19—Scavenge-air quantity at full and part load at equal decrease to 1/4 with approximately a proportionate
excess air factor of combustion reduction in blower power requirement. Thus, 3/4 of

Fig. 20—Installation of by-

pass valve in scavenging
system to adapt delivery
ratio to load

790 SAE Transactions
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the blower power input is saved, producing a sub-
stantial reduction in fuel consumption at part load.
If a change-gear were used, the savings would be Vs
of the blower input, since, in that case, only half of
the scavenge air would have to be delivered against
1/4 of the pressure. The difference in these savings,
7/8 for the change-gear against 3/4 for the bypass, is
insignificant and does not justify the considerable
additional cost of a change-gear. In the actual design
the bypass valve is controlled by the rack of the fuel
pump. The most favorable combination is determined
by tests. The Graf & Stift bus engines, used in city
operation, are equipped with such a device, and their
fuel consumption is reduced by approximately 17%.
Control of the air delivery of centrifugal blowers
can be effected by throttling the air on the intake
side. In this case, if the air quantity is reduced by
one half, the saving will be one half of the blower
input and is thus, smaller than the 75% saved in the
case of the Roots-blower.
Description of Existing High-Speed 2-Stroke Engines
The limit to the output of a 2-stroke engine is, in
general, defined by the thermal load on the piston.
This limit is increased considerably by cooling the
piston and the lower liner. If a simple piston design is
desired, the heat transfer from the gases to the piston
must be kept as low as possible. We, therefore, always
use a flat piston, that is, a piston crown having mini-
mum surface. The amount of heat to be transferred
also depends, of course, on the combustion system
used.
Some time ago we investigated the heat rejection
of certain 4-stroke engines having different combus-
tion systems. The tests were condutced under identical
operating conditions. Results of these tests are shown
in Fig. 23.
The heat-rejection rate of different direct-injec-
tion combustion systems also differs substantially.
Prof. Pischinger in Graz established experimentally
that the heat-transfer rate is greatly affected by the

For reasons stated earlier I shall restrict my report

to engines of our own design and shall describe them
in the order in which they were developed.
Graf & Stift Engine—The engine is Vee-form, and
4- and 6-cyl engines have been designed. The main
dimensions are: 4.725-in. bore by 5.52-in. stroke,
giving an output of 30 to 35 hp per cylinder at 2000
rpm. A definite limit in output has, however, not yet
been reached. Fig. 21 shows longitudinal and trans-
verse sections, and Fig. 22 shows the consumption
curves. In this design a plate covers the top of the
Vee, forming the scavenge-air container. The auxili-
ary machinery, namely blower, injection pump, gen-
erator and brake compressor are mounted on this Fig. 21—Longitudinal and transverse section of 4-cyl, 2-stroke
plate. Blower and injection pump are driven by gear- Graf & Stift engine
ing located at the fly-wheel end of the engine.
I shall discuss only the special parts of a 2-stroke
engine, particularly the cylinders. The type which we _Displacement volume 579 cu in.
have chosen for all our designs has a double wall in 90
the port area. This design provides adequate duct
length for the inlet ports, and thus, gives good control
of the airflow. It also permits surrounding the exhaust 80 A, AttAllinftn n
ducts with water and, particularly, allows water-cool-
ing the lands between the ports. 70 reAriliallti
The water jacket below the ports is connected with
that above the ports through passages in his double
wall. We consider the water jacket below the ports
to be essential for the success of a loop-scavenged 2-
60 ingellana
Mirm n 037iiffro'
stroke engine. The piston is below the ported section 50
for a considerable time, so that cooling of this part of
the liner is important for the transfer of heat from
piston to coolant. Since the heat entering the piston 40
1111161 :: WWI :
N 5
VI n., 0.40
is primarily transferred from the piston to the liner, 0
the cooling of the latter's lower part is important to n.... .. 0 n
effective piston cooling. Tests show that approxi- 800 1000 1200 1400 f600 f800 2000 2200
mately 20% of the transmitted heat passes to the R.P. M.
cooling water through the lower part of the cylinder Fig. 22—Characteristics of 6-cyl 2-stroke Graf & Stift engine
liner.

Volume 65, 1957 791
 Downloaded from SAE International by Brought to you by RMIT University, Tuesday, April 07, 2020

1,7 Direct injection 3,5,6 Precombustion chamber

2,8 Whirl-chamber 4 Lanova
50
\
\ \
"\\
\ . \\ \
ss \
40
\\ .s•\
• ' \

. •.- - .......
6bh,... •,.....
.4.1"..,...8
-z•‘
..._2
______
-..,,,5

10
10 40 60 8 1 120
b.m.ep.lb.persq in.
Fig. 23—Comparison of characteristics of heat transfer to
cylinder wall during combustion of 4-stroke engines

3.10s

Fig. 26—JW 2-cyl 2-stroke engine

squish velocity: in Fig. 24. In these experi-

ments the rate of heat transferred to the nozzle was
measured, but the findings apply equally well to the
• Motor A: E. -13.6 piston. As far as heat-transfer rate is concerned, flat
• 13: 16 pistons are, therefore, better than those of more in-
• C: 16.5 9.-(123.0735.vC,M.10
volved shape.
• D: 16.2
In developing the design of the Graf & Stift engine,
we first used a compact combustion chamber but
finally a flat and less compact design was chosen. It
resulted in lower thermal load on the piston and in
(1129
better efficiency. It was also possible to increase sub-
0 50 100 150 200 250
V ft per sec. stantially the engine output.
Engines of Ford, Cologne, Germany, Jenbacher
Fig. 24—Heat transfer to nozzle relative to displacement
velocity Works, Jenbach, Austria, and Turner Manufacturing
Co., England—This group of engines has a cylinder
bore of 3.62 in. and a stroke of 4.13 in. At 2800 to
3000 rpm they have an output of 20 hp per cylinder.
The 2- and 3-cyl engines are in-line, the 4- and 6-cyl
engines are in Vee-form. The 1- to 4-cyl engines were
designed by my organization, the 6-cyl engines by
Amok, Vaduz. These engines are primarily intended
for automotive purposes. It is planned to run them
at still higher operating speeds. Figs. 25 and 26 show
the 2-cylinder engine, Fig. 27 sections of the 6-
cylinder engine. To control combustion noise and to
reduce fuel-quality requirements, we designed the
engine with a swirl chamber. We knew, of course,
that heat transfer to the piston would be consider-
ably greater than with direct injection. But since the
danger of excessive thermal stresses decreases with
decreasing cylinder diameter and since this cylinder
Fig. 25—Transverse and longitudinal section of 2-cyl 2-stroke is small, we found the use of a swirl chamber permis-
engine
sible. Despite the relatively high engine speed, the
control of heat transfer to the piston proved effective,

792 SAE Transactions
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Fig. 28—Ford 6-cyl 2-stroke engine

and a simple piston design could be retained. The

piston crown is, however, cooled from below by an
oil spray from the small end of the connecting rod.
The fuel consumption of this engine is, of course,
somewhat higher than if direct injection had been
chosen. This increased fuel consumption is due not
only to the energy loss caused by the constriction of
the throat, but also to the increased heat transfer
following the intensified gas movement in the cyl-
inder. Despite this, fuel consumption is affected only
slightly by engine speed, as can be seen from Fig.
28. The accompanying curve, Fig. 29, of a modern
European 4-stroke engine, having about the same
combustion system, shows that the fuel consumption
of both engines is approximately the same, but that
the consumption of the 2-stroke engine is better in
the area of lower engine speeds.
The layout of the Vee-engine is, in principle, the
same as that of the Graf & Stift engine. Attempts were
made, however, to build the engine more compactly.
The power/weight ratio, at 2.6 kg per hp (5.73 lb per
hp) for the 6-cyl engine, is lower than that of any
other automotive diesel engine now on the European
market. The block is aluminum. The in-line engines
are equipped with balance shafts, so that the balance
Fig. 27—Ford 6-cyl 2-stroke engine
of inertia forces of a 2-cyl engine is the same as that
of a 4-cyl 4-stroke engine and that of a 3-cyl engine
Volume 65, 1957 793
 Downloaded from SAE International by Brought to you by RMIT University, Tuesday, April 07, 2020

150
hp

100 50
125

oe/
stl• 80 40
100 42e/ C C
..

i
.11
.41<A) qci.
1 60 30
75 sa)
s Q) a_
_m
40 20 /
50 1/ 06 s'z' 135
(1)
1 0,5 Q- s. f. c.
25 ......S. ec.
0,4
ti
ro 20 I0

tci
1000 2000 3000 4000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
R.P.M. r p.m.
Fig. 29—Fuel consumption of Ford 6-cyl 2-stroke engine, 256- Fig. 30—Fuel consumption of Alfa-Romeo 4-cyl 4-stroke engine,
cu in. displacement 121-cu in. displacement

is the same as that of a 6-cyl 4-stroke engine. Fig. 30 performance engine, it is described briefly here in
shows a comparison between a 2-cyl 2-stroke and a order to point out that the constructional principles
4-cyl 4-stroke engine in respect to heat transfer. It is given above also have their application in relatively
somewhat lower in the 2-stroke. low-speed marine engines. Fig. 34 shows the 4-cyl and
Engines JW 50 to JW 400 of Jenbach Works, Fig. 35 the 6-cyl Vee-form. The Vee-angle is 45 deg,
Jenbach, Austria—A series of relatively high-speed bore and stroke are 9.05 X 13.4 in. At 530 rpm the
2-stroke diesels was developed for installation in cylinder output is 75 hp. Fig. 36 shows the curves
shunting locomotives and as small stationary units. for output and consumption. A particularly simple
The engines have a cylinder diameter of 5.91 in. and reversing gear makes these engines very suitable for
a stroke of 6.70 in. and run up to 1500 rpm. The 1-, heavy-duty marine application. Centrifugal blowers
2-, and 3-cyl engines are in-line and are scavenged are used to supply the scavenging air.
by Roots-blowers. T1* 4-, 8-, and 12-cyl engines are So far, I have dealt only with unsupercharged loop-
in Vee-form with a 90-deg Vee-angle and are scav-
enged by centrifugal blowers. (Fig. 31, 32). Due to R.P.M. 2 800
the type of application for which these engines are 120 u
intended the use of centrifugal blowers would be
possible. Nevertheless, the engines up to 3-cyl are 0
equipped with Roots-blowers because centrifugal ../
../
blowers only work effectively if the air delivery out ../
8000 0
of the scavenging container is fairly uniform. If this .rourSlre
tro ..--
is not the case, they require very large scavenging q' ow 0 "
"o
containers to counteract uneven air delivery, and such TwoStroke
containers cannot be accommodated properly. The ti
co 400 0
centrifugal blower is designed to be assembled as a
separate unit and then mounted on the engine. Fig. 2 0
33 shows the ."inflexible" torque curve which, how-
ever, has no adverse effect on the practical operation
BHp
..„ ,
of these engines, as electrical or hydraulic torque con-
verters are used with them. Fig. 31—Comparison of heat transfer to cooling water between
A ndritz Engine—Although the Andritz engine, 2-stroke and 4-stroke engines of same output
with its low engine speed, cannot be called a high-

794 SAE Transactions

 Downloaded from SAE International by Brought to you by RMIT University, Tuesday, April 07, 2020
Fig. 32—Cross-section of
4-cyl 2-stroke engine JW
200
scavenged engines, and I showed that engines of this
design can produce relatively high output per unit of
swept volume. As with 4-stroke engines, an increase
of output can equally be obtained by supercharging
2-stroke engines.
The loop-scavenged 2-stroke engine can be super-
charged in two ways:
1. Supercharging by additional valve gear—By
the addition of some valve arrangement, the symmet-
rical timing diagram which is not favorable to ef-
fective charging, can be changed into a nonsymmetri-
cal one and, thus, a relatively limited increase in
output can be obtained.
An ideal layout with respect to the gas exchange
requires that the exhaust not only open earlier than
the inlet but also that the exhaust passage close earlier
than the inlet. This can be achieved by providing an
additional timing element either ahead of the inlet or
after the outlet. Fig. 37 shows such an arrangement,
and Fig. 38 shows the increase in brake mean pres-
sure obtained from a relatively low-speed engine
which was tested in Graz. More effective and, there-
fore, more often used is a rotary valve inserted after
the exhaust, a valve which either rotates uniformly
Volume 65, 1957
or oscillates. This design is often applied to slow-
speed engines, but it has not yet passed the experi-
mental stage so far as high-speed engines are con-
cerned. The latter are usually small engines, so that
simplicity counts. The considerable complication can-
not be economically justified when it is compared with
the relatively small increase in output obtainable. In
addition, the high-speed rotary valve limits reliability
since soot and oil may easily clog the sealing surfaces.
A final decision as to the applicability of these rotary
valves for high-speed engines will depend on the re-
sults of future tests.
2. Supercharging with turboblowers—For high-
duty engines of medium and high power, super-
charging by means of a turboblower is much more
important than the rotary valve. In this case the pres-
sure level of the gas exchange is raised and, theo-
retically, supercharge up to any desired level can be
obtained.
In some cases it is possible to compress the scav-
enging air by the turboblower alone, and this results
in a very simple engine.
If the compression of the scavenging air requires
relatively high power, either because greater air quan-
795

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Fig. 33—View of 8-cyl 2-stroke

engine JW 400

The most usual arrangement is seen in Fig. 40, in

Displacement volume 732,5 cu. in. which the turboblower is arranged ahead of the me-
chanically driven blower. As the arrangement with
INE.Mill M
,Fon-4.-TawatraN
turboblower alone allows a very simple engine design,
it is of interest to determine the field in which it can
be applied. Although only tests will permit a final
70 decision, the following calculation gives a good in-
t-
o)
c-
swoome sight into the basic relationshp. This procedure is
based on the method of examining processes in 2-

so "..c.:Lisiamingo
la I0.37 VP
0 nr" Fr
stroke engines by calculation developed by us in
Graz.
The calculation for the compression of scavenging
Q3

/40
IlImmem cmngm ...n nA air by the turboblower alone is derived from the fact
IIII RAMPIP APE that the output of the turboblower, to which gas at
pressure Pt and absolute temperature Tt is supplied,
30
ition must be sufficient to compress the equivalent scaveng-
20 ing air quantity to pressure P. This results in:
700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
R. R M. k-1
Fig. 34—Characteristics of 4-cyl 2-stroke engine JW 200 (Psc/Po) k — 1 Tt k — 1 ke Re
r ke-1 nbt 8
ke1 To k ke — 1 R
1 — (Po/Pt) k'
tities are required for scavenging or because high For air delivery the following relationship exists:
engine speed and short port opening periods necessi- k-1
tate a greater pressure drop, the scavenge air must be L = 11 360 cre,3/2 • (Pnse ) k
compressed by a mechanically driven blower in addi- i Po
1
tion to the turboblower. (Pty To .ti k-1
Fig. 39 shows the arrangement with turboblower NI 1 — (Pt/PO k
\ PO I N/Tsc
alone, and some of the possible combinations of
mechanically driven blowers and turbochargers. and for the temperature of the residual gases, tt:

796 SAE Transactions

 Downloaded from SAE International by Brought to you by RMIT University, Tuesday, April 07, 2020

Fig. 35—Longitudinal sec-

tion of 4-cyl 2-stroke engine
UZ4A (Andritz)

pp 0.37 Num
a 36
./
70
.n ,,_
so....
-4,
U
tr) 6d
ism .0A ",?)
• 0.355 •
ec‘'
'6".o
L n
_f C'O 4
0 36 .04)-
--ES 50 \S: ..,

vt*It 0.37 35-0

Qi a
40 O. 38 349
of °. ,
Al; ' n.

igt 00 - -- so
30 --- PIP"-
--.
-0.42 42
-- ..... - - <5.5.0
--.__
20
300 400 500 600
R.P.M.
Fig. 37—Characteristics of 6-cyl 2-stroke engine UZ6A, dis-
placement 5160 cu in.

1-1-1
Inlet Asi f xhoust
Rotary valve
at in/et at exhaust
t

Fig. 36—View of 6-cyl 2-stroke engine UZ6A (Andritz)

B.B.C. B..0 C.
Fig. 38—Nonsymmetrical port area diagrams

Volume 65, 1957 797
 Downloaded from SAE International by Brought to you by RMIT University, Tuesday, April 07, 2020

Basically it must be stated that pure turbosuper-

fi charge is only applicable for relatively low speeds, as
for instance with low-speed marine engines directly
coupled to their propellers. Real high-output engines,
therefore, cannot be designed for pure turboscav-
Rotary valve at enging.
8o
exhaust Fig. 40 shows the arrangement with exhaust-turbo-
Rotary valve at compression and with a mechanically driven blower.
70 It also shows the relationship between back-pressure
inlet
and supercharge. The increase in output by super-
60 ,'"----\ charging and the fuel consumption as shown in Fig.
. n
– n 42, resulted from tests on a high-speed, high-output
x
_ 1 engine. One sees that in the given case, at an effi-
ciency of about 50%, the fuel consumption remains
approximately the same with increasing supercharge.
B DC. 10 20 .30 40 50 60 If turbine and blower efficiency is improved, "the fuel
Crank angle deg. consumption decreases with increasing supercharge.
Closing lime of the rotary valve These efficiencies for turbocharging are not at all
Fig. 39—Supercharge by rotary valve (Niedermayer)
Utopian, but require careful layout of turbine, blower,
and gas and air passages within the engine.
In my opinion the matching of turboblowers to
8tt — to=
1510 • H,,•qe .ay,.
103
engine should be made individually so as to obtain
XVti,Cp/o" L really satisfactory results. In Germany, several en-
For the possible useful pressure the factor gine builders produce their own turboblowers, which
enable them to produce excellent matching.
bmep = K(1 — o-e) (1 — — P fr The limit to supercharging is established by the
is obtained, and for the scavenging efficiency increasing pressures and the increasing thermal
. stresses which result from supercharging.
1: " lc • 8'
7),, = 1 — e — p, •( — First, the conditions resulting from mechanical
r ce stresses will be examined.
is obtained. If Pomax is the maximum cylinder pressure and
Fig. 41 shows the evaluation of these equations for assuming that the specific load on bearings and the
scavenge air cooled to 50 C, assuming average con- specific stress of material must not exceed certain
ditions. For this evaluation scavenging curves with values, the weight of the running gear and of other
a = 1.2, corresponding to fair loop-scavenging, and force-transmitting parts and, thus, the engine weight,
with a = 1.5, corresponding to uniflow scavenging, is roughly proportional to:
were assumed. D21T
To limit the practical range, it can be assumed C1Pcmax — 0
4
that the mixture of residual gases with air must not
exceed a certain percentage. If one takes approxi- At a given speed the output is:
mately 10%, giving a scavenging efficiency of 90%, D2 ir
the shaded area shows the practical range. From this C2bmep • •S

it can be seen that exclusive turboblower scavenging

is possibly only up to a certain speed, and this limiting T= turbine B=blower mB mechanically driven blower
value of A, and its practical equivalent D X n, in-
a) $ b)
creases with increasing scavenging efficiency (increas-
ing a).
In determining the curves, an efficiency of the
turboblower of 7i bt = 55%, was assumed. An im-
provement of blower efficiency moves the limit curves
to the right, a deterioration to the left.
The relationship represented by the curves may be
evaluated in various ways, and the conditions at part
load are of particular interest.
The character of the curies shows that, in the field
of smaller load, the speed limit is lower than at
higher loads. This leads to the conclusion that diffi-
culties occur at part-load operation, unless, as is the
case with propeller drive, the engine speed decreases Fig. 40—Schematic arrangements of exhaust-driven blowers
during part-load operation.

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Thereby, at given engine speed, the weight per bhp

800
is:
Loop scavenging
lb =c P=. _ 'I
IL (2-stroke), or C P max (4-stroke)
hp 2bmep bmep 1 I
Considerable advantages in weight and cost result I hilik
160
from supercharging only if the ratio P \ /bmep de-
C11111 ,9; ,I. / ' I I I
creases.
Fig. 43 shows some results of tests on Deutz and r.S5149
Sulzer engines. Since the curves will later be used for Q. / &,
•"1,,,•'p ,„ t. .
comparison with conditions existing in 4-stroke en- 1 •
gines, 2 bmep has been plotted as abscissa for the
E,2,
.), . . .
2-stroke engine. One sees that with increasing bmep,
curves tend to fall so that reduction in the ratio of
weight to power results from supercharging. In the
f00
\.
range of higher supercharge, the course of the curves
become flatter. Therefore, from the point of view of 220

mechanical loads on the mechanism and of weight/ Uniflow scavenging

power ratio, there does not exist a definite limit to 2
supercharge. It is, however, assumed that, with in-
creasing supercharge, the driving gear must be rela-
tively heavy, that is, relatively small cylinders must 180
IktL
be mounted on a large engine block so that the cylin-
der center distance becomes greater.
In the loop scavenged-engine the greater cylinder E;',-
distance is necessary also to accommodate the scav-
enge-air passages between the cylinders. This added
;
i •
, .
Fdal I• i 7 I

space also permits the use of the strong connecting

rod and crankshaft needed by the supercharged en- X120 A n . .•
gine. It should be pointed out in this connection that
special care must be taken with the design of the
piston-pin bearing. Theare ical propeller ,..----
The fact that the bearing load always works in the characteristic
same direction can be used to advantage. This leads 80,
I 3 ---- 0
1000 2000
Ai' ft per minute
0 40 200 300 400 i00 obo 7bo aoo .loo
D. ft per minute
Fig. 42—Limits of scavenging in 2-stroke engine with pure
turbocharging

160
R.PM.1000
Displacement volume 14
.
..• .
50Z 5 cu. In. per cyl. ...• „..•

Ttb =Tturbine•blower
120
Mechanically driven 0- -
. ." .
blower: 2?„,b-0.60-const.
100
(0>

e L
60
0.42 ci
--tz)
Pressure 40 Mil 038 k'
-,---,..... 0.62

. 20 --07; .34 t.;

Psc
Pt 0 0.3
10 1.2 1.4 C6 1.8 2.0
_ _ _ _ r_ pressure rat/0 pt/p°
Atm. line Fig. 43—Calculated effect of efficiency n bt on turbocharged
Fig. 41—Turbocharge of 2-stroke engine with BBC arrangement 2-stroke engine

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stroke engine has the advantage of considerably

higher mean effective pressure, but it, has a limited
maximum speed owing to relatively high-acceleration
forces in the valve gear. The freedom in designing the
combustion chamber of loop-scavenged engines, in
-.....
...... four stroke general, results in low fuel consumption and, further-
......... ,...‘-- more, loop-scavenged engines are simple to make
8
and can be produced cheaply.
In both the loop-scavenged and the uniflow-scav-
6 enged 2-stroke engine, the limit in output is set by
0.-
Two stroke the thermal stresses. It seems, from results obtained
4 with large marine engines, that these limits are ap-
proximately the same with both scavenging systems
and that a higher output is obtained sooner with the
loop-scavenged engine (Fig. 45).
It is possible that an improvement in piston cooling
)0 80 100 f20 140 160 f80 200 22-14.75--2601 0 or, in cases where the thermal load on the piston does
b.m.e.p.(four stroke) , 2 binep.(two stroke) 1b.persq. not represent the limit, the loop-scavenged engine,
Fig. 44—Comparison of ratio P,„,.,,Ibmep of 4- and 2-stroke with its simple cylinder head, can better withstand
engines higher thermal stresses, so that a higher specific out-
put can be obtained.
to the design shown in Fig. 44. Thus, the greater
cylinder center distance actually is not a disadvan-
tage so far as highly supercharged engines are con-
cerned. As one can avoid difficulties due to mechani-
cal stresses by using a heavy running gear and still
profit in weight, (as is shown in Fig. 43 ), the limit
to the degree of supercharge is imposed by the thermal
stresses in the engine, particularly in parts subject to
continuous load, such as pistons and cylinders.
For loop scavenged engines a reliable cylinder
head can be designed even for high supercharge since
the cylinder is not pierced by large valves so that one
has freedom in choosing the most suitable design with
respect to heat flow. Care must be taken in designing
the combustion chamber, and especially in designing
the squish cbrners of the combustion chamber, since
these, under_ certain conditions, may be subject to
cracking. Cooling of the injection nozzles is of special
significance but, in general, sufficient space is avail-
able for this purpose.
It has been found, concerning thermal conditions
of the piston, that high supercharge is not possible
with uncooled pistons. Simple piston cooling is possi-
ble, however, by spraying the underside of the piston
crown through little holes in the small end of the
connecting rod or by separate nozzles. The latter
method is usually more effective. High supercharge
at high speeds would require pistons with ducts for
forced-oil circulation. Developments in this respect
are in full swing and we cannot yet see where the
limit for supercharge, as established by the piston,
will be. It may be assumed that a 50% to 100% in-
crease in output will be reached in the near future.
Finally, I would like to try to compare super-
charged loop-scavenged and uniflow 2-cycle engines
with the highly supercharged 4-stroke engine.
Loop-Scavenged 2-Stroke and Uniflow 2-Stroke Fig. 45—Piston-pin bearing for 2-stroke engine
Engines—When not supercharged, the uniflow 2-

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Uniflow scavenging has the advantage over a loop-

scavenged engine that it can function over a wider • Burmeisieranci Wain
Stor
lot E,
range of (D X n) values by pure turbocharging, that Mitsubishi C.
is, without a mechanical blower. The usual service and aotaverken
+ Werkspoor-Lugt
requirements for high output engines call for a me- M. A.N.
chanical blower in addition to the turboblower so that • British Polar
this particular advantage of uniflow scavenging does o Sulzer
not apply in this case. * Harland
land 8 Wolf
Supercharged Loop-Scavenged 2-Stroke Versus o Dox ford
Highly Supercharged 4-Stroke Engines—Good in-
sight into conditions existing in both engine types is
obtained by evaluating the results of extensive tests
which were carried out by Leiker on a Deutz loop-
scavenged engine and by Eichelberg & Pflaum on a
highly supercharged MAN 4-stroke engine. Fig. 46—Comparison of bmep of turbocharged 2-stroke
Fig. 43 shows that the relation P,.,,,;,,/bmep or engines
Pt...x/2 bmep is lower for the 2-stroke engine. Thus, at
the same output higher cylinder pressures are neces-
Heat Transfer Piston Temperature
sary in the 4-stroke engine, and, as a result, the weight r_BTUperHPperhr/ 2545 Degrees C Degrees F
56 JW
per horsepower of the loop-scavenged 2-stroke engine 700
will, in general, be lower than that of the 4-stroke 37 35 650
engine.
It can be shown that the heat transferred per unit 0 NO 6v
oke
of cylinder-wall area and thus the thermal load is Twostroke 550
\Al
roughly: i 270
/ffiur stroke siv
=CXDXnbmepXqn /
14 230 .
If the values of q, derived from these tests, are plotted
against bmep or (2 bmep) respectively, the curve 190 '
oo
P
shown in Fig. 45 is obtained. It shows that the ther- 350
mal stresses are higher in the 2-cycle engine than in 0 40 en 120 150 Pon P40 2R0 0 40 80 120 f60 200 240 A
the supercharged 4-cycle. The pistons were uncooled b.m.ep.,11). per sa in. b.m.e.p.,1b. per sq. in.
in both cases. b.m.ep. (four stroke), 2 b.m.ep(two stroke)
The temperature in the center of the piston crown Fig. 47—Comparison of thermal stresses in turbocharged l-
of the 2-stroke engine is higher at the same output, and 4-stroke engines
but the difference is not very large. It may be assumed
that the greater thermal robustness of the valveless
f = Specific fuel consumption (effective hp),
cylinder head of the loop-scavenged engine outweighs
the difference in thermal load. lb per bhp per hr
g = Acceleration of gravity, fps per sec
I am, therefore, of the opinion that the super-
charged 2-stroke engine can well compete with the Hn = Caloric value, btu per lb
K Mean indicated pressure with perfect
highly supercharged 4-stroke and will, very likely,
scavenging and without loss of stroke by ports, psi
be superior in cases where simple design and low
weight per rated output are important. k = Ratio of specific heat Cp /C„ for air, di-
mensionless
APPENDIX k,= Ratio of specific heat for exhaust gases,
dimensionless
Index of Symbols L = Delivery ratio, dimensionless
A, = C, X Dn; C, dependent on relative width Le = Delivery ratio at cylinder condition, di-
of inlet ports and their mean flow coefficient, fpm mensionless
A, = C, X Du; C, dependent on the relative n = Rpm
width of exhaust ports and their mean flow coefficient, P = Absolute pressure, psi
fpm P„ = Pressure in the cylinder, psia
a = Velocity of sound, fps P„ = Pressure in the cylinder at opening of ex-
a' = Coefficient of L in the scavenging curve, haust ports, psia
dimensionless P'„ = Pressure in the cylinder at closing of ex-
bmep = Brake mean effective pressure, psi haust ports, psia
bmip = Brake mean indicated pressure, psi P,„,;,,= Maximum pressure in the cylinder, psia
Cp/„" = Mean specific heat per mol at constant P,„ = Scavenge pressure, psia
pressure, Btu per mol F
D = Bore, in. APPENDIX continued on following page.

Volume 65, 1957 801


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nbt = Product of the efficiencies of turbine and

AIR DELIVERY RATIO. 4, • CONEY blower, dimensionless
IRECIFIC REDUCED AREA . li...141401•01 . 71„h = Charging efficiency, dimensionless
NEAT MAMEFER COEFFICtENT
LIL122LFLFID1 1t9 [DTV/f1 ..10. F) • e- DOW
(FOR On • VARIABLE)
= Scavenging efficiency, dimensionless
A = Excess air factor, dimensionless
= Flow coefficient of inlet ports, dimension-
less
I HEAT TRANSFER INTO COOLANT
[BTU/HP-hr fie = Flow coefficient of exhaust ports, dimen-
sionless
EI THERMAL LOAD OF LINER AREA COVERED = Relative height of inlet ports dependent
BY PISTON RING MOVEMENT on piston position, dimensionless
(13TU/0.111.
o cre = Relative height of exhaust ports depen-
+To -111- -a]
• 91.100 p LOIRO •ISTOM
dent on piston position, dimensionless
B ) - r'''''r.."'Ic.•9'.ct
o
LIN. MT. T = Coefficient of heating, dimensionless
In AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OF PISTON RINGS

DISCUSSION
Fig. A—Thermal load of liner and piston
Questions Advantage of Loop-Scavenged
Two-Cycle Engine over Present-Day Powerplants
Pt = Pressure at the entrance of turbine, psia —C. G. A. Rosen
P„= Ambient pressure, psi Caterpillar Tractor Co.
Pp.= Mean effective pressure of friction, psi
IN reviewing Dr. List's paper, we gain the impression that the
= Part of heat in the exhaust gases, dimen- 2-cycle engine in the loop-scavenged configuration has achieved
sionless a status where it is directly competitive to the 4-cycle engine in
q„. = Heat transfer to unit of surface of cylinder high-output performance. This is most interesting in evaluating
wall, Btu per sq in. per hr present-day powerplants. The remarks I wish to make will be
focused on the future, on some crystal-ball gazing. It is essential
q„ = Heat transfer to cooling water, Btu per that we evaluate the future in terms of multiple improvements in
bhp per hr/2545 performance in all types of powerplants. What is the outlook on
R= Gas constant for air ft per F the broad horizon with regard to the 2-cycle loop-scavenged
engine as a contender for supremacy in the powerplant field?
R. Gas constant for exhaust gases ft per F Our interests are directed toward powerplants which can take
s = Stroke, in. full advantage of high turbosupercharging and achieve not only
t = Time, sec comparable results but superior performance in the powerplant
t„ = Ambient temperature, F field.
It is apparent that Dr. List has made a notable contribution to
= Temperature of exhaust gases at entrance the 2-cycle loop-scavenged engine by achieving an extremely
of turbine, F short period of glow-down or travel of the crank between the
T„ = Absolute ambient temperature, R time the exhaust port opens and the inlet port opens. The graph
in Fig. 6 indicates that this period is less than 10 deg of crank
Ee= Absolute temperature of scavenge air, R angle.
T, = Absolute temperature of exhaust gases at This is achieved by a rather courageous design based upon a
entrance of turbine, R knowledge of the pulsating flows wherein the backfiring gases
v = Specific volume, cu in. per lb are even permitted to dilute the mixture of the incoming fresh air.
This fact, plus the situation in which the exhaust gas temperatures
V I h = Volume of air theoretically necessary for are relatively much lower than in the 4-cycle supercharged engine,
the combustion of 1 lb of fuel, cu in. 'per lb should permit a higher degree of supercharged boost in a 2-cycle
Wi = Velocity Yn the inlet ports, fps loop-scavenged turbocharged engine. The question is, what is the
limiting factor? Is the limiting factor in comparing 4-cycle turbo-
Wmi = Mean velocity in the inlet ports, fps charged against 2-cycle loop-scavenged turbocharged engines,
W, = Velocity in the exhaust ports, fps (1) the exhaust gas temperature' determining the critical blade
W„„ = Mean velocity in the exhaust ports, fps temperatures, or (2) the thermal loading of the piston? There is
x = Way of gas particle, in. reason to believe that the 2-cycle loop-scavenged engine has an
advantage in this regard. Is this true?
z = Relative volume of the cylinder, dimen- If we are to consider higher supercharged engines, say over
sionless 100% boost, what sort of problems would be anticipated with
11 1= Absolute pressure in the inlet ports, psi rings riding over ports in the liner? It is always known that an
interrupted cylinder surface or bearing surface is difficult to
P, = Absolute pressure in the exhaust ports, psi lubricate. Has anything been done in the way of utilizing an
= Crank angle, deg inverted loop-scavenged system in which the tiers of ports are
8 = Weight ratio of air to exhaust gases, di- in the upper portion of the liner, out of range of ring travel and
mensionless controlled by a sleeve valve. It is to be expected that the sim-
plicity of the loop-scavenged 2-cycle engine is its principal virtue;
8' = Ratio of volume of one mol air to one mol however, when high performance is a factor, this simplicity might
exhaust gases, dimensionless be deviated from to the extent of providing mechanisms which
E == Compression ratio, dimensionless would permit higher boost than are now possible with the con-
ventional loop-scavenged engine.
n„ = Adiabatic blower efficiency, dimension- In considering these factors and anticipating the development
less of 2-cycle loop-scavenged engines in multiple ratios of power or

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performance than now found available, one must consider, for
instance, the factor of oil control. In Fig. 14 the sealing belt is
indicated in which oil rings are providing effective control of the
lubrication to achieve the desired lubricating oil consumption.
However, it is also significant that this sealing belt has a reverse
function when high boost pressures are employed in sealing the
crankcase of the engine from the scavenge ports or the higher air
pressure from the scavenge box.
The writer is familiar with earlier developments in large-bore
2-cycle engines where cylinder lubricators Were employed and
various methods were attempted to avoid bridging the ports in
the distribution of an oil supply from the lower portion of the
cylinder to the upper portion of the cylinder. Some of these
methods employed ,timed lube oil injection pumps above the
ports and some attempted even to lubricate through the piston
into the ring belt as the piston approached top .center. All these
efforts were directed toward reducing cylinder wear. In Fig. 17
the mean wear values given for the Graf & Stift are considered
quite satisfactory for ordinary cylinder irons when compared
with the 4-stroke minimum values. However, the consideration
for higher supercharge pressures may provide a problem in per-
mitting oil to travel across the ports and distribute the film
properly in the upper portion of the cylinder.
Fig. 16 indicates that the maximum side pressure of the piston
is in the port areas. It is recognized that the bridges between the
ports are mae-wested in order to provide additional clearance
against the growth of the bridges into the bore diameter. How-
ever, the heavy side thrust in the port area would indicate the
skirt's opportunity to provide maximum heat transfer in this
portion of the cylinder where the skirt is permitted to have con-
tact under pressure on the cylinder wall.
The other factor in higher output or multiple outputs of pres-
ent engines is the port-clogging problem which again is dependent
on the lubricating oil consumption and the means of distributing
oil across the ports for the lubrication of the upper cylinder
surface. Would, therefore, the conventional-type port-scavenged
engines indicate higher port-clogging problems in higher output
engines than is presently permissible.
In Fig. 47, the heat transfer to the cooling water at 200 bmep
indicates a 30% rise for the 2-stroke cycle as against the 4-stroke
cycle, whereas the piston-crown temperature for the same bmep
only shows a 6% increase in the center of the piston crown. Isn't
this predicated on a high rate of heat transfer from the piston
to the cooling oil and not on any significant heat transfer to
the scavenge air during the scavenging period? Higher super-
charge means higher pressure levels and higher charging tempera-
tures which in turn would provide less cooling effect on the
piston crown. In this connection isn't the heat-transfer picture
incomplete unless the heat rejected to the oil is given considera-
tion in comparing the 2- and 4-stroke cycle engines to get a
balanced picture?
It was known to the author recently that an aircooled 2-cycle
engine showed as much heat rejection to the piston cooling oil
as would normally be expected in heat rejection to the water
jacket of a conventional engine. The total heat rejection should
therefore be evaluated in the comparison of the 2- and 4-stroke-
cycle engines or Fig. 47.
It is interesting to note that the piston temperature curve for
Fig. 47 is taken in the center of the piston crown. This tempera-
ture naturally would be a factor in the life of the piston. How-
ever, is this the critical area rather than the top ring belt? Under
Ordinary circumstances it would be considered that the tempera-
ture of the piston ring belt would have a greater influence on
engine durability than would the center of the piston crown.
In Fig. 46, it is interesting to note the high performance, high
bmep achieved in the British Polar loop-scavenged engine. What
is the reason for this outstanding accomplishment, and how can
it be accounted for? Its bmep values are so much more signifi-
cant than the other engines illustrated in the graph.
In Fig. 24 the work of Prof. Pischinger indicating the Btu heat
transfer in relation to squish velocity is of much interest. It
would be valuable to know what is the definition and the value
of E ranging from 13.6 to 16.2. In some of the author's review
of the experiments conducted by Triebnigg it would seem as
though the € values could be compression ratios. If this is true,
what values are kept constant during the experiment? Is the
area of the combustion chamber or diameter of combustion
Volume 65, 1957
chamber to diameter of cylinder kept constant and is the clearance
between the piston and cylinder head kept constant? It would
be interesting to know what factors were controlled to achieve
the velocities indicated and what compression ratios were applied.
It is of interest to note that, in the various engines which have
been designed by Dr. List, three different combustion chambers
have been employed. In two cases the piston is of the flat-top
design. In one, the swirl chamber is employed, and in the second
the direct-injection fuel system employed. The Ford engine shows
a swirl chamber. In this connection, what is the ratio of the swirl
chamber volume to the main chamber volume? In the direct-
injection engine what optimum number of orifices are best suited
for the type of combustion chamber employed? The third type of
combustion chamber in Fig. 32 shows a depression in the cylinder
head of a torous-type design, and the piston is fitted with a circu-
lar groove. Is this for purposes of encouraging directed velocities
to the fuel spray from the squish between the head and the piston
or are there other factors which are significant in this combustion
chamber?
Where are the limits determining the selection of a swirl
chamber, a direct-injection system, and the combustion chamber
fitted with a depression in the piston?
Discusses Development of Future
High-Output 2-Stroke Diesel Engines
—K. C. Karde
Harnischfeger Corp.
THE author's paper covers the entire field of the major prob-
THE
related to the design and operation of the high-output
loop-scavenged 2-stroke diesel engine. I would like to add a few
remarks covering, in a more detailed way, some of the essentials
in the future development of the exhaust-turbocharged version
of this engine. Dr. List's paper clearly indicates the necessity of
an additional mechanically driven blower supplying sufficient air
for starting, low load, and for operation under sudden load and
speed changes, as they prevail in the automotive application.
For this type of operation the combination of an exhaust-tur-
boblower plus a positive displacement blower of the Roots type,
arranged in series, seems to be a good solution for today and the
near future. Calculations and tests indicate that cutting down the
Roots-blower capacity to about 651.-80% of the nonsupercharged
version will, above certain load and speed conditions, result in
feeding energy back into the Roots-blower. Thus the disadvan-
tage of the rather low adiabatic efficiency of this blower will be
approximately eliminated in the higher bmep and speed range.
As already stated by Dr. List, the upper limitation of the
specific output will be imposed by the thermal load, which is
approximately proportional to D X n. In view of the paramount
influence of the thermal load upon the limitation of the highest
allowable bmep a more accurate approach to this problem seems
to be worth-while.
The schematic view on the left side of Fig. A illustrates the
heat dissipation at the shown piston position. At any small time
interval, that is, at any piston position, heat is transferred from
the high-temperature gas to the surrounding walls at approxi-
mately the same rate. It is apparent that both the cylinder-head
surface and the piston crown are exposed to the cylinder gas
during the entire cycle. The direct heat transfer to the cylinder
walls, however, is a function of the piston stroke, the upper end
of these walls absorbing heat during nearly the full cycle, the
lower end receiving only a small fraction, since the piston crown
uncovers this area for a short period only. In some instances
about 80% of the piston-crown heat is transferred through the
ring zone into the cylinder walls. The remainder is dissipated by
the lube oil and air at the underside of the piston. Friction be-
tween the piston and cylinder walls disappears as heat into the
portion of the cylinder walls covered by the piston-ring movement.
Assuming the indicator diagram being constant, the heat trans-
fer into the coolant, the thermal load of the liner area covered
by piston ring movement, and the average temperature of the
piston rings can be expressed for any size of an engine as it is
shown in the formulas 1, 2, and 3; in Fig. A.
For different engine types the piston friction and the constant
factors C., C2, C3, and C. can be determined by engine tests.
Evaluating such test data and the terms of the formulas of Fig. A
803
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Fig. B—Mushroom piston connecting-rod assembly
enables us to appraise the thermal conditions of a new engine
design as a function of the piston diameter D, stroke s, and the
engine rpm n.
Essential for the dependable function of an engine is a low
piston-ring temperature. It can be lowered by providing a suffi-
ciently high stroke s/bore D ratio according to formula 3, and
by decreasing the heat flow to the rings. Decreasing the heat flow
can be achieved by two basic means:
1. Restricting the heat transfer into the piston crown by se-
lecting a high-temperature material with a low coefficient of con-
ductivity for the top of the piston.
2. Artificial cooling of the underside of the piston crown by
arranging a sufficient flow of coolant, such as lube oil.
Exploring all possible means of diminishing the heat transfer
into the piston will be a must in the future of the highly super-
charged diesel engine, since the surface coefficient of heat transfer
from the gas into the surrounding walls is about proportional
P213 X T113. What can be achieved in this manner is best illus-
trated by the example of the Junkers aircraft diesel engine, Jumo
207D. Without any special protection of the piston crown it is
impossible to operate the engine under higher loads. When using
the high-temperature fireplate on top of the piston (average
temperature 1000 C or 1800 F) the heat flow into the ring zone
still amounts to about 30% of the total heat dissipation into the
coolant. Using, for example, quartz glass as plate material will
reduce the amount of heat going into the ring zone to about 5%.
Thus proper function of the piston rings and a minimum of wear
is fully obtained. This result has been confirmed by engine tests.
Recent and future development of materials in the field of
metals and ceramics will be the source for the piston crown
material of the highly turbocharged 2-stroke diesel engine.
In anticipation of the high mechanical piston loads of the
highly supercharged engine, we have successfully put into reality
an old engineering goal, namely the spherical-type piston support.
As shown in Fig. B, the piston connecting-rod assembly consists
of the following parts: the piston body itself which is very simple
in design, a spacer plate, a concave bearing cup, a convex rod
retainer, and the connecting rod itself. The upper end of the rod
is a mushroom-shaped carrier, suitably connected to the lower
end by a light-weight tube.
The advantages of this design can be enumerated as follows:
I. The mushroom design results in a bearing-area increase of
approximately 150 through 250%. Additionally the load distri-
bution is completely uniform.
2. The spherical piston support eliminates all misalignment
problems.
3. Rotational movement of the piston provides uniform thrust
and ring load distribution. Consequently, wear of the involved
parts is reduced to the lowest possible level.
4. The spacer plate allows a wide latitude with respect to the
thermal load conditions: it can be made of various materials,
having either a high or a low coefficient of heat conductivity.
Thus the heat flow can be adjusted to the best operating condi-
tions. It can be easily modified to intensive piston cooling by the
lubricant, if desired.
5. The weight reduction of this design amounts to about 15%,
resulting in lower disturbing forces with regard to balancing and
vibration.
Test results of the first units over a period of more than 4000
hr under extremely high-load conditions on our standard produc-
tion engine show exceptionally low wear. The aluminum bearing
804
carrier and the mushroom had no measurable wear at all and
were in perfect condition. This new design also proved its de-
pendability in supercharger test runs up to a bmep of 170 psi
at 1800 rpm in our 4-cyl uniflow-scavenged engine.
In view of these excellent results we immediately started a
rather extensive tooling program, to enable us to produce this
mushroom piston connecting-rod assembly for our line of 2-stroke
diesel engines.
Evaluates Claim of Lower Weight
Per Horsepower for 2-Cycle Engine
—Ralph Miller
Nordberg Mfg. Co.
BSERVATIONS and experience with both 2- and 4-cycle en-
O gines confirm Dr. List's conclusion that the loop-scavenged
2-cycle engine is superior from a standpoint of simplicity.
The claim of lower weight per horsepower is less readily ac-
cepted.
Let us look at the horsepower equation:
For 4-cycle:
_ PLAN
'"13 — 33,000 x 2 (I)
For' 2-cycle:
_PLAN
(2)
'"P — 33,000
This gives rise to the popular misconception, founded on ig-
norance of other factors affecting output, that 2-cycle engines
develop twice the ihp of the 4-cycle engine of equal dimensions.
If we now compare engines of equal cylinder dimensions,
piston area A, can be dropped and the values of P,. L, and N
only need be considered.
However, the evaluation must be based upon equal air mani-
fold pressure and temperature and the fact that the clearance
volume is such that the ratio of compression pressure to manifold
pressure is the same in both engines. Further, consider that the
4-cycle engine is supercharged and operates with scavenging.
The mean indicated pressure P, is a function of the weight of
oxygen in the cylinder charge, and we have:
37,150 X P 2 x
P, ' (3)
(R — 1) x 7' 2 X W
or
37 150 X P:;.72 x P,,,f .23 X E.
' (4)
(R — 1) X T„{f X W
where:
P,= Compression pressure, psia
Scavenging or supercharging pressure, psia
Pry,f =
R= Actual volume compression ratio
Tmf = Temperature of scavenging or supercharging air, R
ER = Scavenging efficiency (purity factor)
W = Air, lb per ihp per hr
Showing, what is obvious, that at constant W the imep is
proportional to the scavenging efficiency.
Properly designed supercharged 4-cycle engines operate with
100% scavenging efficiency.
A supercharged port-scavenged engine of the types being dis-
cussed is shown to have a scavenging efficiency of 90% (Fig. 9).
We then have 2-cycle imep = 90% of 4-cycle imep, and where
the power stroke in a port-scavenged engine terminates when the
scavenging ports open.
From Fig. 11 and the equation for calculation of port height,
an inlet port height of 25% of the stroke (also confirmed by
scaling Fig. 25) is used in these high-speed engines.
The imep expressed on the basis of 100% stroke and used in
the horsepower equation (2) is then reduced to 75% of the
actual imep calculated from equation (1).
The factor L x N expresses piston speed in feet per minute.
When L is increased in the 2-cycle engine, scavenging efficiency
suffers. When N is increased, port height must be increased, and
effective stroke decreases.
The 4-cycle engine does not suffer loss of scavenging efficiency
with increase in stroke or rpm. Other factors limit L X N in
4-cycle engines at much higher values.
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A review of successful engines in commercial use shows that
2-cycle engines in this class operate at about 75% of 4-cycle
piston speeds or less.
We now have:
I. 2-cycle scavenging efficiency = 0.9 of 4-cycle
2. 2-cycle effective stroke = 0.75 of 4-cycle
3. 2-cycle piston speed = 0.75 of 4-cycle
Hence, the product P L N in the 2-cycle•horsepower equation
(2) must be multiplied by 0.9 x 0.75 x 0.75, or 0.507.
This example, representing modern advanced design in both
2- and 4-cycle engines, proves that the output per unit cylinder
volume is about equal.
On the basis of rating at equal thermal load rather than equal
air/fuel ratio as above, the 4-cycle engine is far superior to the
2-cycle in output per unit cylinder volume. The heat-transfer
curve in Fig. 47 confirms this.
Dr. List's statement to the effect that the loop-scavenged en-
gine has greater thermal robustness is questionable, in view
of experience which shows that piston rings and liners and not
the cylinder head are first to fail with increasing thermal load.
This is borne out by a comparison of the bmep ratings of two
well-known high-output 2-cycle locomotive diesel engines. One is
an 81/2 X 10 uniflow, the other an 81/2 X 10 opposed-piston en-
gine. The latter has no cylinder head, yet it is rated at a lower
bmep and hence is operating at a lower thermal load than the
former.
In the Miller System of Supercharging 2- and 4-cycle diesel
engines, the weight of air entrapped in the combustion chamber
is increased by reducing the compression temperature which in
the conventional engine with good cold-starting characteristics
far exceeds the temperature required for ignition when operating
at high loads due to dilution and hot cylinder walls.
The weight of air in the combustion chamber is:
V,. x P, x 144 X E—
W — (5)
R x T,
where:
V,. = Clearance volume
P,= Compression pressure
R = Air constant
T,= Compression temperature, R
The mean indicated pressure is then inversely proportional to
the compression temperature or directly proportional to the
n—
manifold pressure to the exponent I . (See equation 4.)
In the conventional system, the ratio of compression to mani-
fold pressure is fixed for the engine.
In the turbocharged Miller System, the manifold pressure is
independent of the compression pressure which remains substan-
tially constant as the manifold pressure is raised to increase the
weight of air and thereby the bmep.
Then, since the maximum combustion pressure is a function of
compression pressure and only to a small degree increases with
bmep. the Miller System of turbocharging 2- and 4-cycle engines
fulfills better than any other system the requirement which Dr. List
correctly lays down, namely, "Considerable advantage in weight
and cost results from supercharging only if the ratio
bmep decreases."
Questions Aspects
Of 2-Stroke Engine
—D. S. Sanborn
Consulting Engineer
D R. LIST'S pioneering in the analytical research and practical
development of the 2-stroke engine has done much to raise
"Performance Barriers." The methods of scavenging analysis
that he , has developed will become even more important now that
mechanical and thermal limitations of the engine have been
largely overcome and problems of flow-dynamics become all-im-
portant at high speeds and outputs.
Dr. List's consideration of the following questions that arise
from reading the paper, will be greatly appreciated:
1. With regard to the proper reference volume upon which to
Volume 65, 1957
base scavenging efficiency; in the author's book: "The Charge
Exchange of Internal-Combustion Engines" (Vol. 4, Part 2),
"stroke volume" is apparently assumed as reference volume for
scavenging efficiency, while "average cylinder volume during
scavenging" is used as the reference volume for the air expendi-
ture which accomplishes this scavenging. Will this lead to er-
roneous impressions of scavenging performance in modern high-
speed engines having very wide port timings?
2. Have any investigations of Schniirle scavenging systems
disclosed whether or not the vortex system generated in the
cylinder during scavenging persists throughout compression and
combustion?
3. Has Dr. List any experience with or comments on the
possibilities of "Exhaust Pulse Supercharging" as developed by
H. D. Carter of Crossley Bros., Ltd.?
4. Comparing the effect of inlet rotary valve versus exhaust
rotary valve in Fig. 38, it would appear that both valve systems
reduce the losses that emanate from the exhaust port closing after
the inlet port. Inlet control, however, increases the expansion
ratio compared to the compression ratio and might be expected
to improve thermal efficiency. Exhaust control, on the other
hand, increases the compression ratio relative to the expansion
ratio, permits earlier closing of the cylinder (for a given scaveng-
ing time area), and provides an effective supercharge. Are these
the significant factors in the output 'comparison of Fig. 39?
5. How important is the rate of closing when a rotary exhaust
valve is used?
6. Does Dr. List recommend the pinning of compression rings?
7. Should round port upper edges be used only from a produc-
tion consideration or does the larger allowable unsupported Ting
arc justify the adverse effect on timing?
8. What maximum unsupported ring arcs are considered ad-
visable in the combinations of pinned and unpinned rings with
round and square port upper edges?
Discusses Work on Scavenging
Efficiency, Piston Construction
—G. Flynn, Jr.
General Motors Corp.
I WAS particularly impressed with the success of the mathemati-
cal analysis and with the excellent correlation of calculated re-
sults and experimental data, as evidenced by Figs. 8 and 11
in the paper. Having recently been associated with a somewhat
similar analysis of a two-stroke engine aided by a very modern
and expensive IBM calculator, I can fully appreciate the magni-
tude and value of the calculations Dr. List presents.
We have done considerable work in our laboratory using
models to evaluate scavenging efficiency of various port and
cylinder configurations. We used all sorts of air, smoke, and water
analogies and finally resorted to the quantitative method de-
scribed by W. H. Percival in his paper presented at the 1954
Diesel Engine Meeting. Here, however, we run into the problem
of defining scavenging efficiency. Does Dr. List use the volume
basis for determining scavenging efficiency as defined by Schweit-
zer, namely, the volume of fresh air trapped, divided by the total
volume of trapped gas; or does he use the weight method advo-
cated by Taylor and Taylor—that is, weight of fresh air trapped
divided by the total cylinder volume multiplied by a density
factor based on inlet air temperature and exhaust pressure. This
latter method, we feel, is more realistic since power output
depends on the weight of oxygen burned and not the volume. For
instance, in two identical cylinders with different port heights the
scavenging efficiency based on volume might show the cylinder
with the high exhaust ports to be superior. However, on a weight
basis the lower port cylinder would give a higher scavenging
efficiency, better fuel/air ratio, more optimum combustion, and
thus, more power.
One other point I would like to mention is in regard to pre-
formed pistons. A piston can be a complex structure subjected to
unknown loads and thermal stresses. Therefore, it is most difficult
to predict what shape the piston wants to assume under tempera-
ture, gas, inertia, and friction loading. Our experience has shown
that it is better in high output engines to take wristpin loads
805
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OUTPUT, HP per co in Displacement,
/o weight,
co ft space I &moll, widths height) of modern two-stroke
cycle diesel &Vines oeestfored to o typical modern tureocnoved lour-stroke
cycle engine
So
Zn
Saparehowe G.M. 5/ PM 71 Foden 5Sdwerke KM
4-stroke /oC' untflert uniffmr toil low Sop
Fig. C—Bar diagram for comparing performance of modern
engines
directly under the piston head and make the piston skirt flimsy
enough to conform to the cylinder, rather than to tell the piston
by cam grinding what shape to take. As Boss Kettering used
to say, "the piston is usually smarter than the piston engineer."
This type of construction is used on many engines and tends
to minimize the tendency to scuff at the port area. However, it
has been-our experience that most port bridge scuffing is due to
thermal distortion of the cylinder, rather than piston thrust
forces. We have had this problem even in free-piston engines,
which have no piston thrust forces and have easily corrected it
by relieving or "Mae Westing," as we call it, the port belt in
the cylinders.
I realize that Dr. List has presented a great deal of material,
but there was no mention of combustion problems in the paper.
In concluding, I would like to ask if, after having satisfactorily
worked out scavenging, was combustion control much of a prob-
lem? Also, what is Dr. List's reaction to the claim of MAN that
combustion should be controlled by spraying the fuel directly on
the piston heads?
Further Discusses
Aspects of 2-Stroke Engine such detail, in studying the application of various methods of
—P. H. Schweitzer
Pennsylvania State University
IN the middle of the Thirties I was engaged in 2-stroke-cycle
engine development and needed information on the scavenging
efficiency of such engines. Where did I find it? In a research
publication of a technical institute in Woosung, China. The author
of those reports was a Dr. Hans List who conducted an advanced
research on 2-stroke-cycle engines in China.
Dr. List was a pioneer then as he is a pioneer now. After the
war he has developed no fewer than eight loop-scavenged,
2-stroke-cycle engines, and all of them are in production now in
four different countries.
To you it is not new how partial I am to the loop-scavenged
engine. This preference is mainly based on the simplicity of port
scavenging. When there are no valves, rockers, pushrods, tappets,
and camshafts, these parts cannot go wrong, and they don't have
to be made in the first place. These parts do not add to the
engine displacement, but nevertheless they have bulk and weight.
Therefore, the valveless port-scavenged engine may have smaller
specific weight and installed volume than the uniflow engine in
spite of its 10-15-lb lower bmep, as shown in Fig. C.
The first bar is always the horsepower per cubic inch, the sec-
ond the horsepower per pound weight and the third the horsepower
per installed volume. The higher the bar the better. they all relate to
a modern turbocharged 4-stroke-cycle engine. The second bar rep-
resents uniflow engines; and the next bars, loop-scavenged engines.
You see the latter bars are generally higher than the former, and
both are higher than the first. The highest, bars are those on the
right end which represents the Ford-Amok engine to which Dr.
List referred.
806
Many people visualize the uniflow engine as havi,,g perfect
scavenging. The fresh 'air just pushes out the residual gases as if
it were a gas piston. This is not so. A uniflow engine generally
So
has angular intake ports for swirl. Then the scavenge airflow has
a center core where the flow is in the reverse (Fig. D). This is
the nature of the semifree vortex encountered in tornados. So
the scavenge air does not act as a gas piston in a uniflow engine.
On the other hand, a well designed loop-scavenged engine with
advanced Schniirle type porting has scavenge airflow similar to
the one shown in Fig. E. This is the result of tests we have made
at Penn State. Little short-circuiting, was observed and most of
the scavenge air went up and turned down later.
A little-used stunt to reduce the fuel consumption of a 2-stroke-
cycle engine is recirculation of scavenge air as explained by Dr.
List. The 17% saving in a city bus by such simple means is really
worth going after.
The part I have found most interesting in the paper is List's
prediction on the turbocharged 2-stroke engine. You notice
Graf BS/ill Ford from his Fig. 42 that when the pressure ratio is doubled with
loop loop 60% combined turbocharger efficiency the bmep is more than
doubled, and starting out with 64 bmep you can get 96 bmep
with only 1.4 pressure ratio. We have an engine under develop-
ment which will weigh a little under 3 lb per hp with 50% super-
charge so it will be lighter and occupy less space than present-
day automobile engines.
The future of the loop-scavenged diesel engine seems very
bright indeed. We are indebted to Dr. List for his pioneering
work and for this enlightening paper.
Questions Certain Aspects
Of Design of This Engine
—A. R. Schrader
USN Engineering Experiment Station
Dloop-scavenged
R. LIST is to be congratulated for his excellent and compre-
hensive paper on European practice as regards high-speed
diesel engines: Dr. List's contributions to the
design of these engines are obviously considerable. The high-
speed loop-scavenged engine has been largely neglected in this
country. The basic simplicity of the engine would seem to war-
rant greater attention by American manufacturers.
Dr. List's use of mathematical analysis in studying various
design factors and in forecasting engine performance is of great
interest. We have made use of this technique, although not in
turbocharging to a 2-stroke-cycle diesel engine. We found reason-
ably good correlation between the calculated results and sub-
sequent actual test operation. However, in calculations of this
nature, the final accuracy is dependent to a large degree on the
validity of the necessary assumptions and the correctness of the
constants used. A certain amount of empirical data from the
engine in question or from similar engines is required for best
results.
Regrettably, only a passing reference is made in the paper to
a difficulty that has often plagued the designers and operators of
engines with ported cylinders. I refer to the fouling of the ports
with carbon deposits. Has any significant difficulty in.this regard
been experienced in the loop-scavenged engines cited in this
paper? What would the author consider to be an acceptable or
normal period of operation between the required cleaning of
ports?
Fig. 11 in the paper shows the optimum heights of the exhaust
and inlet ports in terms of per cent of stroke. However, the basis
of selection is not clear. Are the optimum heights based on power
output, fuel economy, airflow characteristics, or other consider-
ations?
In referring to Fig. 43, the author concludes that, from the
standpoint of mechanical loads, there is no definite limit to the
degree of supercharge. This seems questionable. Whether the
plotted curves continue to drop or whether they flatten out, the
fact remains that the maximum cylinder pressure increases at a
rate five to eight times faster than the brake mean effective pressure.
Therefore, extremely high cylinder pressures can result if the
bmep continues to be increased. While the point at which the
pressure must be limited is debatable, there obviously are limits.
The fuel economy data shown in the paper for the several
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European engines are excellent. The fuel consumption of com-

parable American engines is not usually that good, at least as
judged from my own experience. Can the author suggest any rea-
sons for this apparent fuel economy superiority of the European
engines, that is, are there differences in test procedure, engine
equipment, and cylinder pressure?
The turbocharging possibilities of the high-speed loop-scav-
enged diesel engines, as analyzed in this paper, appear to offer
considerable promise. The simplicity of the engine, the prospects
of high unit output, and the relative compactness seem attractive.
However, the examples of turbocharged loop-scavenged engines
cited in the paper are of only moderate output, 100- to 115-psi
bmep. Does the author know of any European developments of
really high output turbocharged loop-scavenged engines, of per-
haps 150- to 160-psi bmep?
Note: The opinions or assertions made above are those of the
author and are not to be construed as official or reflecting the
views of the Navy Department or the naval service at large.

ORAL DISCUSSION

Reported by G. Flynn, Jr.

General Motors Corp.

Mr. Burrows, White Motor Co.: The successful operation of

the White loop-scavenged engine pleases us, particularly as re-
gards lubricating oil consumption. Unlike most of the engines
mentioned in the paper the White engine utilized a ductile cast-
iron piston for high strength and ring grove protection. The
decreased peak bearing loads are due to inertia unloading of the
iron pistons, and these higher strength materials would be re-
quired when turbocharging and higher engine outputs were
achieved. A 40% increase in output of the White engine has been
reached by turbocharging with satisfactory exhaust temperatures.
Fig. E—Model showing airflow by bent wires of loop-
scavenged engine

P
te, TOTAL PRESSURE C. F. Taylor, MIT: Other factors besides porting have a great
PRESSURE AT R
effect on the relationship of air retained to air supplied in 2-cycle
engines. Engine speed, load, operating condition, and the like
were mentioned.
CORE OF REVERSE .57A T/C PRESSURE J. E. Witzky, Studebaker-Packard Corp.: Why did one engine
AZOW/NG A/R Pc F7,7, (CONSr)R2 mentioned in the paper have a turbulent combustion chamber
while all the rest were direct injection?
Dr. List: The Graf and Stift engine chamber has been modified
N and is now a direct injection type. The turbulent chamber was
originally used with the knowledge of its higher heat transfer to
provide more quiet engine operation.

4A/611ZAR VE 7"Y CONS7• Author's Closure

To Discussion
HEport heights which were shown Fig. 11 had been calcu-
ANGULAR
veLocn-r
srAnc
PRESSURE
T lated in
on the assumption that the engine was to deliver the
CO, comsr highest obtainable bmep. It is possible also, from a similar rela-
R2 O. R2 tionship, to calculate port heights for minimum specific fuel
consumption. In the latter case one arrives at greater port height
and, consequently, lower scavenging pressures.
Fig. F shows the relationship which exists between blow-back,
output, and preexhaust (difference between inlet and exhaust port
heights). These curves were calculated for one specific case, and
0- ro rD
they show that bmep increases with decreasing port height
difference up to a certain point. If the port height difference is
v Ler /1/ZEt further reduced bmep begins to decrease also. In general it is
Am? A/R advisable to choose the preexhaust somewhat greater than that
which corresponds to maximum bmep.
Due to the unavoidable short-circuiting of some of the scaveng-
ing air, the exhaust gas is mixed with air so that the exhaust
temperatures of loop-scavenged, 2-cycle engines are substantially
lower than those of 4-cycle machines. The thermal load imposed
on the turbocharger. therefore, is considerably lower than in the
case of 4-cycle engines so that, in this type of engine, the turbo-
Fig. D—Schematic diagram of reverse flow theory charger does not limit the obtainable output. The degree of

Volume 65, 1957 807

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supercharge, and therefore, the output obtainable from the engine
is defined by the thermal load of the surfaces forming the com-
bustion chamber. As the shape of the cylinder head is very
simple, the thermal load to be carried by the piston, therefore,
usually establishes the output limitation.
The piston temperatures were measured on uncooled 4-cycle
and 2-cycle pistons. It can be concluded, therefore, that the
small difference in piston temperature is largely due to piston
cooling provided by the scavenging air.
The temperature in the center of the piston crown provides
a measure for the thermal condition of the whole piston. To
evaluate completely the heat condition of the piston it is, how-
ever, also necessary to measure the temperatures in the ring belt.
The points of a loop-scavenged engine which are subject to critical
thermal loading are shown in Fig. G.
In small high-speed automotive engines we usually use divided
combustion chambers because they are less sensitive to fuel
characteristics than open-chamber and because they permit keep-
ing combustion noise within acceptable limits. Furthermore,
single-hole or pintle nozzles can be used with this system, thus
avoiding extremely small nozzle holes. These considerations made
us decide on the use of a turbulence chamber in most of the
small engines, including the Ford engine. When using this type of
combustion system it is usually advisable to place a high percent-
age of the total volume in the turbulence chamber. The chamber
of the Ford engine contains 71 % of the total volume.
mum pressure does not increase in direct proportion to the gen-
eral pressure level of the working cycle. The higher pressures and
temperatures which exist in a supercharged engine tend to reduce
ignition delay so that the combustion process becomes "softer."
For the same reason, the ,highly supercharged engine is less
sensitive to fuel characteristics than an engine in which combus-
ton takes place under conditions which cause greater ignition
delay. It has been mentioned before that the favorable P=maxi
bmep ratio results in the highly supercharged engine having a
somewhat lower weight per horsepower than the naturally-
aspirated engine. This statement holds good for engines designed
for equal mechanical stresses. It is a matter of course that the
physical size of the crank drive has to be increased. Mechanical
stresses in the crank drive do not limit the output obtainable
from an engine, but it is to be expected that the mechanical
stresses imposed upon the piston rings and the cylinder head
gaskets will cause some difficulties.
I would like to repeat that, assuming suitable mechanical de-
sign, the output limitation is defined by thermal stresses occurring
in parts which are in contact with the hot gases. This refers par-
ticularly to the pistons. In the development of high-output engines
90
..-/-

Mill
Pischinger, in his experiments to establish the heat load on the
nozzle, measured the nozzle temperature with a thermocouple. 80 (3 a 20
By heating the nozzle electrically and simultaneously injecting
fuel at the same temperatures as previously measured in operat-
ing engines, the heat absorbed by the nozzle, was measured. The
squish velocities (v.) which were shown in Fig. 24 of the
paper, were determined mathematically; e is the compression
70 11 a 0 16 8
t3)
ratio of the engine. The squish velocity is a function of the i te,
a
aF
chamber entrance diameter, the clearance between piston and i.
cylinder head, the compression ratio, and the mean piston speed. 1/4 1.1 0,42 .sg,
tb
It was shown that, within the limits investigated, the heat transfer
to the nozzle depended solely on the squish velocity. a) 13
Port deposits largely depend on the lubricating oil consump- /\
13 9.
A.. <1
\I. -.1
tion of the engine, the quality of the lubricating oil, the quality qso -'1 ' o
of combustion, and the temperature of the port walls. We used cx
to consider it satisfactory if cleaning of parts became necessary \
\
after approximately 40,000 miles of road service. Present experi- t.)
ence, however, shows that 80,000-mile periods are normally
obtained.
Separate cylinder lubricating devices can, of course, not be
40 445 L
vii 111111111111 Q9 Q04

used in small engines as they would not be compatible with the

required simplicity of design. Thus, it is necessary to transfer a 30 0,40

*. 0
sufficient but not excessive amount of lubricating oil to the 20 25 30 35 40 45
upper part of the cylinder. The oil is transferred along the port a', relative height of &thous!
bridges and then along the cylinder surface up to the piston rings. ports
The tenacity with which a thin oil film adheres to a surface pre-
vents the port edges from stripping the oil from the piston. For Fig. F—Relationship between blow-back, output, and pre-
proper lubrication and small wear, it is necessary not only to exhaust
transfer a sufficient quantity of oil as far up as the top piston
ring but also to distribute it evenly over the whole circumference.
The fuel consumption data, shown in the paper, were meas-
ured on engines equipped with all accessories with the sole Injection
exception of the cooling fan. The satisfactory specific fuel con- Piston crown nozzle
sumption obtained with the direct-injection engines is largely due
to the shape of the combustion chamber which, due to the absence
of valves, can be designed specifically for efficient combustion. Edge of combustion
Development work on truly high-output, 2-cycle engines has chamber
only . just begun in Europe. Present production loop-scavenged,
2-cycle engines with supercharging are generally rated at approxi- First piston ring
mately 100-psi bmep. Some Deutz and British Polar engines Exhaust
reach 125 psi maximum. The information concerning the Polar ports
engine was taken from the October, 1955, issue of The Motor-
ship. This engine shows an excellently designed scavenging system.
It works with a low product of bore times rpm so that the con-
ditions for scavenging and thermal loading are very good. The
high-speed Napier Nomad has reached 205 psi. I am convinced
that, within the relatively near future, commercial .engines will
reach 140 to 160 bmep and will operate reliably at this rating.
A great deal of development work, particularly on cooling and
on parts which are highly loaded thermally, remains to be done. Fig. G—Thermal stress
The advantage of supercharging consists in the fact that maxi-

808 SAE Transactions
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of this type the main effort therefore, has to be directed at ambient. Three parameters are used to define the cylinder charge:
controlling thermal stresses. the total charge contained in the cylinder, the "purity" of the
With reference to some specific questions asked by discussers charge and the content of fresh air. The last is the product of
I would like to say the following: the first two.
The purity' of the charge depends on the ratio between the The investigation of turbocharged engines requires that the
volume to be scavenged to the volume of the entering air. To energy levels utilized by each of the two components, the piston
calculate the purity it is therefore necesary to use the mean engine and the turbocharger, be analyzed with reference to the
cylinder volume during scavenging as the basis. "ideal" cycle. Thus, the energy utilization in each component can
Generally speaking, very little is left, at the end of the com- be established, providing the basis for establishing the efficiency
pression stroke, of the turbulence produced by a symmetrical for each individual event. Space limitations prevent further dis-
Schntirle arrangement. In some cases a slightly asymmetrical cussion here of the proper selection of reference parameters.
arrangement of the inlet ports proves effective. This design creates
a rotation around the cylinder axis which improves mixing and
combustion. Unfortunately, this arrangement also reduces the
scavenging efficiency and, thus can only be employed to a very 96
limited degree.
We have done a great deal of work in connection , with tuned I/
60 co'yb
exhaust systems. It appears to us that a worthwhile result can
#4,
only be obtained with an exhaust system which is hardly appli-
cable. Thus, we have reached the conclusion that an increase in "eaY II 1
scavenge volume, compared to an open exhaust, cannot be ob- 4eQf
tained in practice. In fact, the best that can be hoped for is that
the production exhaust system will not reduce scavenging effi- l• II
ciency. 50 jaapflesv
in
Fig. 37 of the paper showed that, in accordance with our test gas exchange
results, the rotary valve in the exhaust is better than that in the III
intake so far as bmep is concerned. We were unable to ascertain
an improvement due to a rotary valve in the intake.
It is most important that the rotary valve, with a given closing II
point, produce a maximum scavenging-time area. This necessitates friction
the most rapid closing possible. Numerical data can, of course,
only be supplied for certain stated conditions.
We have had unsatisfactory experience with pinned piston rings
ti,1 "
as their are prone to sticking. Rounded port edges appear to be
absolutely necessary for satisfactory piston ring performance.
We have successfully used port width equal to 0.2 of the bore. .30
Fig. 1 of the paper showed the 2-cycle engines actually are
quite favorable in weight per horsepower , and that they are
actually better than 4-cycle in this respect. It is to be said, with
reference to Mr. Miller's discussion that high-speed, 2-cycle
engines, even those with symetrical timing diagrams, work with
a slight degree of supercharge as can be seen from Fig. 4; that
high-speed, loop-scavenged, 2-cycle engines can operate with the 30 40 60 80 100 115 1b./.59.in.
same piston speeds as those used in 4-cycle engines; that exact
tests have proven that the excess air requirement (with refer- Fig. I—Result of "loss analysis" for 4-cycle diesel engine
ence to the intake air volume) can be somewhat smaller when
exhaust gas is mixed with the charge. We have done a great deal
of work on the effect of exhaust gas content in the cylinder, sso
i
experiments which were conducted on 4-cycle engines and have 1
established that the smoke limit is a function only of the total 60 n
1
air content of the charge.
I might add the following with respect to the process of engine
research: combustion delay
The overall performance depends on output and specific fuel
consumption. To determine which are the most promising fields
for improvement, a functional cycle analysis is performed. The 50 heat traruter
complete cycle is divided into a sequence of events, and input
and result is determined for each event. It is best to start with
an assumed, conventional and "perfect" engine and to investigate
the relative losses which would result from each deviation from li
the ideal cycle. We call this our "loss analysis" and have used it frith n
effectively for the evalution of existing engines as well as for the 40
development of new designs. The insight into the events occurring
in an engine which is provided by this method of analysis, per-
mits us to predict what can be expected from anticipated modifi-
cations and, thus, points up the direction in which development
work should proceed. Figs. H and I show the result of a "loss 30
analysis" for a 4-cycle diesel engine. When performing an
analysis of this type, the various reference data must be estab-
lished in a manner which clearly shows the input into and result
produced by each event.
For this reason it seems best, in studying charge change events,
to use volumetric parameters rather than those based on weight.
The values can be rendered dimensionless by referring them to 1000 1500 2000 2500 rpm
cylinder displacement. The relationship to the volume of air
necessary to burn unit quantity of fuel can easily be established Fig. H—Result of "loss analysis" for 4-cycle diesel engine
by the introduction of a certain reference condition, usually the

Volume 65, 1957 809