CONCEPT AND TERMS

CONCEPT
 The representation of an object by the intellect through which man understands or comprehends a thing
 It is an “idea”- starts with an outside reality and apprehended by the sense
KINDS OF CONCEPT
1. First Intention: we understand what the thing is according to what it is in reality
Ex. A dog is an animal.
Second Intention: we understand not only what the thing is according to what it is in reality but also how it is in
the mind
Ex. “Monte Vista” (Mountain View) is the name of my subdivision
2. Concrete Concepts: expresses a “form” and a “subject”
Ex. The flower rose
Abstract Concepts: has a “form” only , has intangible quality, that which cannot be perceived by the senses Ex.
Beauty in a woman
3. Absolute Concepts: signifies the meaning of a concept, all definitions are absolute concepts
Ex. A triangle is a three-sided figure.
Connotative Concepts: signifies a characteristic existing in the concept, all modifiers are connotative concepts
Ex. Drummer boy
4. Positive Concepts: signifies the existence or possession of something
Ex. happy
Negative Concepts: signifies the absence of something
Ex. sa
THE TERM
 The external representation of a concept and the ultimate structural element of a proposition.
- External representation means it is always a sign of a concept or an idea
- Ultimate structural element means it could either be the subject or predicate of a proposition
EXAMPLE:
Hilda is a (nun).
Subject- Hilda
Predicate- nun
PROPERTIES OF A TERM
EXTENSION OF A TERM
- The sum total of the particulars to which the comprehension of a concept can be applied
- The denotation of a term
- The terms that are members of the domain of the concept

COMPREHENSION OF A TERM
- The sum total of all notes which constitute the meaning of a concept
- set of traits or characteristics that differentiates the term in a group
- The connotation of a term
Example is the term BAT
-for its extension it will include all animals, regardless of size, shape, colour, or breeding
-further analysis (comprehension), know the nature of bats – how?
- You must try to state the trait or set of traits and characteristics that differentiates bats from the rest of the
animal kingdom
-the important common trait of bats is: they are the only mammals capable of sustained flight like a bird
- Unlike birds, bats are able to fly at low speed with extreme manoeuvrability.
RELATIONSHIP
Comprehension and Extension are related to each other inversely
Meaning: the greater the comprehension of a term, the lesser its extension and vice versa
- The arrangement of the characteristics from general to specific
Ex. city, barangay, province, municipality, region, country, sitio

QUANTITIES OF TERMS
1. SINGULAR – it stands for a single definite individual or group
- Proper nouns ex. Raul, La Union, DMMMSU
- Nouns modified by adjective to the superlative degree ex. most charming
- Demonstratives ex. this book, that door
- Collective nouns ex. flock, class
- The article the ex. The man in blue shorts
- Personal pronouns – I, you, he, she, we, they, my, your, our

2. PARTICULAR - it stands for an indefinite subject

- Indefinite pronouns and adjectives ex. Some, several, many, few
- Use of numbers ex. Seven tickets
- Use of article “a” and “an”
- General propositions: which are true most of the time but not all the time ex. Filipinos are hospitable

3. UNIVERSAL – it stands for every subject signified

- Universal expressions ex. All, every, each, whatever, whoever, whichever, without exception, everything
- Universal ideas Ex. Men are mortal
- The use of articles “the”, “a”, “an” if the idea is universal Ex. The snake is a dangerous creature.

KINDS OF TERMS
1. UNIVOCAL – if they mean exactly the same thing in the last two occurrences
Ex. Man is rational.
Get that man!
2. EQUIVOCAL – if they have different meanings in at least two occurrences
Ex. Man the lifeboat!
The son of man
3. ANALOGOUS – if they have partly the same and partly different meanings in at least two occurrences
KINDS:
1. Intrinsic analogy: used in technical terms and as definitions
2. Extrinsic analogy: used as a metaphor
Ex. The heart of the forest
3. Analogy of Proportionality: when the terms use are similar
Ex. The stepmother is cruel.
The sea is cruel.
4. Analogy of Attribution: attribute the term to its denotation
Ex. I am drinking Coke.

SUPPOSITION OF TERMS
 It is functional – the way it is meant in the proposition
 Examples:
1. A square is a rectangle with four equal sides.
2. Square has six letters
 3. Square is the subject the sentence
4. A black-rimmed square clock is classy in my living room.

KINDS OF SUPPOSITION
1. MATERIAL SUPPOSITION: is that which uses a word for itself alone, for its spoken or written sign, not for its real
meaning
Examples: #2 and 3
2. FORMAL SUPPOSITION: is that which uses a word for its real meaning
Example: #1
OTHER KINDS
A. LOGICAL SUPPOSITION: is that which uses a word for its second intention; that is the way the mind thinks it to be
Example: #4
B. REAL SUPPOSITION: is that which uses a word in its first intention
Example: #1
UNDER REAL SUPPOSITION:
1. Absolute Supposition: is that which uses a word for essence, but without excluding existing reality
Example: Proposition #1
Personal Supposition: is that which uses a word for the subject containing the essence signified by the
word
Example: Proposition #4
2. Essential Supposition: is that which uses a word for qualities necessary to the subject
Example: #1
Accidental Supposition: is that which uses a word for qualities not actually necessary to the subject
Example: #4

OTHER TYPES
IMAGINARY SUPPOSITION: exists as a product of imagination
Ex. Fictional character
METAPHORICAL SUPPOSITION: term is used as a figure of speech
Ex. The smiling sun
SYMBOLIC SUPPOSITION: signifies a group of men
Ex. L.A. Lakers

THE PROPOSITION
- A special type of sentence
- An enunciation of truth or falsity
- Verbal expression of mental judgment

STRUCTURAL ELEMENT
S- C- P
[subject]- [copula]- [predicate]
- Subject stands for the thing signified, the one spoken of
- Predicate stands for what is affirmed or denied of the subject
- copula- links the subject and the predicate
* acceptable only is the present tense is or is not
 EXAMPLE
All boys (are) future men.
All- Quantifier
Boys- subject
Are- (S)

LOGICAL SYMBOL
(Four Standard Propositions)
Quantity QUality
Affirmative Negative
Universal, Singular A E
Every S is P No S is P
Particular I O
Some S is P Some S is not P

EXAMPLES
A- Every monkey is an animal.
B- No monkey is a human.
C- Some monkeys are brown.
D- Some monkeys are not brown.
LOGICAL FORM
WAYS OF REWRITING PROPOSITION TO ITS LOGICAL FORM
1. Change the verb to its present tense progressive.
2. Change the verb to a noun.
3. Change verb to a relative clause.
4. Change verb to a noun clause.

EXAMPLE
ALL CROCODILES CANNOT FLY.
1. NO CROCODILES ARE FLYING.
2. NO CROCODILES ARE FLYERS.
3. NO CROCODILES ARE REPTILES THAT CAN FLY.
4. NO CROCODILES ARE FLYING REPTILES.

FALLACIES
FALLACIES
 The reasoning or arguments which are valid but are actually invalid.
 Arguments, which you know are correct but definitely are not correct.
 Arguments that seem to be true but are actually false.
Formal / Logical Fallacies
 When the error committed is on the violation of the antecedent - consequent relationship or the rules of
syllogism. It is sometimes called LOGICAL FALLACY.
Classifications of Formal / Logical Fallacies
1. FALLACIES OF DEFINITION
a. Fallacy of Definition
- The definition is wider than the term it connotes. In this kind of fallacy you should not widen or exaggerate the
definition of the term to really understand the reality of the truth. A violation arises when we decrease the
connotation of the definitions and widen their denotations.
Example: •Man is an animal
b. Too Narrow Definition
- it violates the rule of definition because the definition is too narrow. Violation arises when we unduly increase
the connotation of the definition, thus narrowing its denotation.
Example: • Man is an irritable rational man
c. Fallacy of Redundant Definition
- Some unnecessary terms are added to the definition. The term used is repeated and not essential.
Example: Jayson is a handsome man
d. Fallacy of Accidental Definition
- some accidental attributes which are not useful are added to the definition. Even without these accidental
attributes, the meaning could still be distinguished.
Example: • Man is a rational being who knows how to dance and sing
e. Fallacy of Circular Definition
- the definition should not be synonymous to the term it defines.
Example: • A man is a male person.
• Circle is round.
f. Fallacy of Obscure Definition
- it must be simple enough to easily understand. Do not add terms which are different. They should be clear and
simple.
Example: • A net is a reticulated fabric decussated at regular intervals with interstices and intersections
g. Fallacy of Figurative Definition
- do not use exaggeration in defining the term. Figurative or metaphorical language must not be used.
Example: •Love is the silver link, the silken tie, which heart to heart, and mind to mind, in body
and soul can bind
h. Fallacy of Negative Definition
- do not use a definition which is not the meaning of the term but rather give the real meaning of the term.
Example: • An insecure person is one who is not secure.
• A notebook is not a book

2. Fallacies of Division
a. Fallacies of Cross Division
- also known as overlapping which is a violation of the golden rule of logical division that we have to use only one
foundation or basis in defining the term
Example: •If we divide Filipino into Christians, Muslim and Adventist, we are using a single foundation. On
the other hand, if we divide Filipino into Christians, Muslims, women and married, we are using
more than one bases of division, namely, religion, sex and civil status. The result is cross division.
b. Fallacy of Too Wide Division
- means that we do not go beyond what is really meant by the term.
Example: Animals into: amphibians, reptiles, mammals, frogs, cows and crocodiles
c. Fallacy of Too Narrow Division
- narrow means “limited in size or scope”. Here, the definition of a term is incomplete or insufficient. You should
complete the definition of a term. A good definition must be complete.
Example: Human: rational and animal.
d. Fallacy of Remote Division
- definition should depend upon the basis of division.
Example: • If we divide organism into animals and plants instead of into men and women, we commit this
fallacy.

3. Fallacies of Education
a. Fallacy of Incorrect Conversion
- this arises when a term is undistributed (particular) in the converted (original proposition) then distributed
(universal) in the converse (inferred proposition)
Example: All Filipinos are Orientals. (convertend)
All Bulakeños are Tagalog. (Converse)
Therefore, all Bulakeños are Orientals.
b. Fallacy of Incorrect Obversion
- this arises when, in changing the obverted (original proposition) from the affirmative, the meaning of the
original proposition is changed.
Example
All Filipinos are Asians (Obverted)
No Filipinos are Asians. (Obverse)
Some Filipinos are Filipinos are Muslims. (Obverted)
Some Filipinos are not Muslim. (Obverse)
 4. Fallacies in Categorical Syllogism
a. Fallacies of Four Terms (Quaternio Terminorem )
- this fallacy occurs if there are actually four terms in the syllogism and there is no middle term that serves as the
medium of comparison between the minor and the major terms.
Example
All Filipinos are Orientals.
All Bulakeños are Tagalog.
Therefore, all Bulakeños are Orientals.
b. Fallacy of Negative Premises
- this is known as the fallacy of two negatives which occurs when we draw a conclusion from two negative
premises
Examples
No Americans are Filipinos.
No Americans are Russians.
Therefore, no Russians are Filipinos.
c. Fallacy of Undistributed Middle
- this fallacy violates the syllogistics rule which prescribes that the middle term must be used at least once as
universal in any of the premises.
Example: •Some politicians are businessmen.
•Some teachers are politicians.
•Therefore, some teachers are businessmen
d. Fallacy of Particular Premises
- known as the fallacy of two particulars. When we draw a conclusion from two particular premises, this fallacy is
committed.
Example Some Filipinos are Tagalog
Some Batangueños are Tagalog.
 some Batangueños are Filipinos.
e. Fallacy of Illicit Minor
- this fallacy arises when the minor term becomes universal (distributed) in the conclusion while it is only
particular (undistributed) in the minor premises.
Example: •All Filipinos are hospitable
•Some Chinese are not Filipinos
•Therefore, all Chinese are not hospitable.
f. Fallacy of Illicit Major
- it develops when the major term becomes universal (distributed) in the conclusion whereas it is only particular
(undistributed) in the major premises
Example: •Some Asians are Filipinos.
•Arabians are not Asians.
•Therefore, all Filipinos are not Arabians.
g. The IEO Fallacy
- it occurs when we draw a conclusion from IEO mood. The major premise is a particular affirmative proposition,
(I), and the minor premises is a universal negative proposition, (E), the conclusion is a particular negative
proposition, (O), in compliance with the syllogistic rule that should one premise be particular, the conclusion
also must be particular; should one premise be negative, the conclusion must be also be negative
Example:
First Figure:
I --- some M is Pp
E --- No S is M
O --- some S is not Pu

Example: •Some parents are hardworking.

•No children are parents.
•Some children are not hardworking.

Informal/ Material Fallacies

 this arises from confusion or ambiguity due to the kind of term used.
 they maybe classified as either fallacies in language or fallacies of presumption.

TYPES OF INFORMAL OR MATERIAL FALLACIES

1. Fallacies in Language
- this type of fallacy is committed due to lack of preciseness in the word, phrases, or sentences used to express a
thought. The types of fallacy which fall under this category are the following:
a. Fallacy of Equivocation
 this fallacy is committed when some terms are used in a premise but with different meanings. There are
three kinds of fallacy of equivocation.
 Three Kinds of Fallacy of Equivocation
1) Fallacy of Ambiguous Middle:
The middle term is used with two different meanings
Example: •A ruler helps us to draw vertical line.
•Joecris is a ruler.
•Therefore, Joecris helps us to draw a vertical line.
2) Fallacy of Ambiguous Major: When the major term is used in two different senses. Example: •All
chefs move only backward.
•Sheila Del Rio, is a chef.
•Therefore, Chef Sheila Del Rio moves only backward.
3) Fallacy of Ambiguous Minor: when the minor term is used in two different senses. Example: •No
animal is made of paper.
•All pages are animals.
•Therefore, no pages are made of paper.
b. Fallacy of Amphiboly
 It arises from the ambiguous use not of a single word but of a phrase or of a complete sentence.
Example: •This child her mother killed.
•For sale: Hyundai Car by a carboy with damaged button
c. Fallacy of Accent
 This arises from the use of a word which changes meaning when the accent on the word changes.
Example: • Every falsity needs care and attention.
• Every fallacy is falsity.
• Every fallacy needs care and attention.
d. Fallacy of Figure of Speech
 A wrong conclusion is drawn due to the use of words that are similar in structure or in meaning.
Example: • Faithful is the opposite of unfaithful.
• Fidelity is the opposite of unfaithful.
• Therefore, Loyal is the opposite of unfaithful
e. Fallacy of Composition
 This fallacy is committed as words or phrases are taken jointly or as a unit when they should be taken
separately
Example:
The students of KSU come from the different barrios in Kalinga.
Anne is a student from KSU
Anne is from the different barrios of Kalinga
f. Fallacy of Division
 This fallacy is the opposite of composition. It takes words or phrases separately when it should be taken
jointly or as a unit
Example: • KSUeans students speak english.
• Jonamel is a KSUean student.
• Jonamel speaks English
g. Fallacy of Accident
 This fallacy arises when what is accident or superficial is emphasized over what is essential or basic.
Example: Jason wears elegant clothes.
Therefore, he looks handsome and wealthy.
h. Fallacy of False Cause
 It arranges wrong cause in a certain effect. Superstitions are based on this fallacy.
Example: Wounds cannot be healed because it’s Good Friday.
i. Fallacy of Hasty Generalization
 It consists of arguing that what is true to a certain class must also be true to all members of the same
class.
Example: Some mothers are over protected to their children.
All mothers are over protected to their children.
j. Fallacy of Increment Premises
 this policy occurs when a conclusion is drawn from premises that are irrelevant.
Example: Maria must be promoted.
She is hardworking.
She is doctoral degree holder.
She is a very decent woman.
She is a member of various professional associations.
Therefore, Maria deserves to be promoted.
2. Fallacies of Presumption
- This fallacy arises when the conclusion is reached by unwanted premises. It also arises when the issue at hand is
ignored.

TYPES OF FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION

a. Fallacy of Begging the Question (Petitio Principii)
 this fallacy is the assumption of the truth of the preposition.
 Not proven – assumes the conclusion under cover of synonymous words or expression.
Example: Souls can never die because they are immortal
 Vicious Circle – uses two unproved propositions to prove each other.
Example: • The mind is spiritual because it is immaterial.
• The mind is immaterial because it is spiritual.
b. Fallacy of Evading the Question
 this fallacy is made to evade the issue by using techniques or Modus Operandi.
 Types of Fallacy of Evading the Questions
a) Argument to the man(Argumentum Ad hominem)
This ignores real issues. It attacks the character or personality of an opponent.
Example: Why should we believe in the statement of Mrs. Napolis
She is a liar. She was engaged in pork barrel scam
b) Argument to the people (Argumentum Ad Populum).
It evades the issue by appealing to passions and prejudices of the populace.
Example: • Only a professional persons wear toxido.
• Vitamins keep your body healthy.
c) Argument to the Sympathy(Argumentum Ad Misericardian)
It consists of pleading for mercy and leaving reason aside.We ignore the point of issue and appeal to
our instinct to have compassion towards the needy, unfortunate, and the downtrodden.
Example: •Mr. John Mark cannot be put to prison because he is sick.
d) Argument to the Money(Argumentum Crumeman)
We commit this fallacy when we appeal to the sense of greed or cupidityof an individual. Instead of
reasoning for an argument, we bribe and use money to defeat the opponent.
Example: •Karl who was caught by Karl who was caught by Clarence of cheating uses his
Clarence of cheating uses his money to settle arguments.
e) Argument to the Ignorance(Argumentum Ignoratium)
We ignore the truth or falsity of a proposition and assert the truth because people are ignorant
about it.
Example: • We cannot disprove that UFO exist, therefore, this existence is true. UFO
exists.
f) Argument to the force(Argumentum Ad Baculum)
We commit this fallacy when we ignore the real issue at hand and appeal to physical or moral
pressure rather than to reason.
Example: My mother threatens me that if I will have a failing grade in this semester, she
will not support my studies anymore.
g) Argument to one’s own advantage(Argumentum Pansarilum)
This argument is called an appeal to gain or profit. This fallacy is committed when we ignore the
issue and appeal to a person to adopt a belief or policy in exchange for the advantage offered.
Example: Mr. Chavez offers Novy for her college assistance but in return, she will be his
mistress.