Arabian Journal of Geosciences

Effect of water on the dynamic behavior of asphalt concrete used in impervious barriers
--Manuscript Draft--

Manuscript Number: AJGS-D-17-01351R1

Full Title: Effect of water on the dynamic behavior of asphalt concrete used in impervious barriers

Article Type: Original Paper

Corresponding Author: Alberto Gaxiola-Hernández, Ph.D.

Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico
Mexico, City, MEXICO

Corresponding Author Secondary

Information:

Corresponding Author's Institution: Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico

Corresponding Author's Secondary

Institution:

First Author: Alberto Gaxiola-Hernández, Ph.D.

First Author Secondary Information:

Order of Authors: Alberto Gaxiola-Hernández, Ph.D.

Alexandra Ossa-López, Ph.D.

Order of Authors Secondary Information:

Funding Information:

Abstract: Asphalt concrete core dams are a viable alternative in the construction of rockfill dams;
therefore, characterizing the materials that are utilized in their construction is
necessary. A part of this characterization must be based on obtaining the parameters
that define their response to cyclic loads that develop in different conditions of stress
and temperature.
The goal of this investigation is to determine the effect of water on the dynamic
properties of asphalt concrete after prolonged contact with water. An extensive
program of laboratory activities in which cylindrical specimens of this material were
prepared, saturated and exposed to water over a long period of time, was performed.
The volumetric properties of these specimens were similar to the volumetric properties
of the asphalt concrete that is commonly employed in rockfill dam cores. These
specimens were conditioned at temperatures that represent different weather
conditions (from sub-arctic conditions to tropical conditions) to be tested with cyclic
loads that simulate the effect of an earthquake on the core of a dam.
Due to saturation of the material, the results of the tests indicate that asphalt concrete
presents an average decrease in its shear modulus of 6.5% and an increase in its
damping ratio of 16.1%, with respect to the value obtained in a dry state. No significant
change was observed in the mechanical response of the material as a result of the
prolonged exposure to water for a maximum period of 12 months.

Response to Reviewers: Response to reviewer #1.

The authors thank the reviewer for the time he spent in reading this manuscript in such
detail and, after reading the attachment with the comments, we prepared the following
response:

1.Comment of the reviewer:

Change title.

Response of the authors:

The title has been changed as the indications of the reviewer.

2.Comment of the reviewer:

Read more details about asphalt concrete mixture and how can used experimental

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 result to assessment

Response of the authors:

All the points of the manuscript that presented any experimental result were read in
detail after the revision, changes were made to some of them and are explained later
in this letter.
3.Comment of the reviewer:
The Va 3% is very closed.

Response of the authors:

The air void content Va=3% was not determined as a conclusion of this study, rather, it
has been widely used in the construction of impervious barriers with good
performance. An important number of references that are presented in the list at the
end of the manuscript support the above.

4.Comment of the reviewer:

Apply standard process for superpave method

Response of the authors:

The SUPERPAVE method is widely used for the design of mixtures for roads. It is
important to note that the function of the surface of a road and the function of an
impervious barrier are substantially different; a road must withstand a large number of
load repetitions caused by vehicles without permanent deformation or cracking and an
impervious barrier of a dam must be resistant to the effect caused by the few load
cycles induced by an earthquake. The grain size distribution, the air voids (Va= 4% for
SUPERPAVE), the asphalt binder content and the mechanical characterization
methods used in impervious barriers have always been different to those used in
highways. On the other hand, an important tool used with the SUPERPAVE method
was used to prepare the cylindrical specimens of this study, i.e., SUPERPAVE gyratory
compactor.

Response to the comments of the attachment.

-The keywords was modified considering the comments from the reviewer.
-Page 3, line 20. The reviewer asks for the reference. The reference is in the
paragraph.
-Page 6, line 13. It is explained paragraph what the reviewer ask for. It is important to
note that the SUPARPAVE methodology was not used nor any other used in roads for
the determination of asphalt content since the air void content should be 4% for roads
and in this type of barriers often is 2% or even less.
-Page 6. Line 34. The text was modified according to the suggestion of the reviewer.
-Page 6. Line 44. Ni and Ndesign is for SUPERPAVE methodology. The authors used
50 gyrations since it represents a compaction level that is easy to achieve in the field.
-Page 9. Line 52. The text was modified according to the suggestion of the reviewer.
-Page 10. Line 45. The reference was written as suggested by the reviewer.

Response to reviewer #3.

The authors are very grateful to reviewer number 3 since, due to his exhaustive review,
errors was found and have been corrected. We prepared the following response:

1.Comment of the reviewer:

Table 2: fractured particles are only 1%. This is very low and leads to low shear
resistance of the mix. Particle interlock will not be achieved with 1% fractured faces.

Response of the authors:

This is a mistake made by the authors when writing the manuscript. The correct value
is 100% and has been modified in the document.

2.Comment of the reviewer:

Table 2: Uncompacted void content of fine aggregate (%) = 100%. This is a mistake as
the void content can't be = 100% (where is the volume occupied by the solids?

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 Response of the authors:
Table 2 had some mistakes and were fixed. The correct value for Sand equivalent is
69% (not 42%); the correct value for uncompacted void content of fine aggregate is
42% (not 100%).

3.Comment of the reviewer:

Page 6: Lines 50-54: According to the authors, the asphalt content was set equal to 6%
because the optimum asphalt content is close to this value when designing the
mixtures with this aggregate for roads. The authors should have found their optimum
asphalt content because the application is different. For roads, Superpave requires a
void content of 4% and other requirements (VFA, VMA, etc.). However, in this study,
the authors are looking for air void content in the range of 1%.

Response of the authors:

The authors agree with the reviewer and point out that, after an exhaustive review of
the literature, no method was found to determine the optimum asphalt content for
asphalt concrete used in impervious barriers. In page 6, line 9-31, the authors carry out
an analysis of the criteria used by researchers to determine the asphalt content used in
the construction of this type of structures. The materials used in this study have also
been used in road construction and it was determined that, for that purpose, the
optimum asphalt content is 6.0%. However, in a parallel investigation carried out by the
authors, a deeper analysis was made (Gaxiola, 2017). Starting from Pb=6.0%, asphalt
contents of 5.5%, 6.0% and 6.5% were analyzed. Specimens with these asphalt
contents were tested for mechanical resistance and permeability. It was determined
that these parameters were optimized with the mixture of Table 4 and an asphalt
content of 6.0% (this does not mean that optimum asphalt content used in roads
should always be used in impervious barriers, only in this case). This explanation was
included in the manuscript considering the opinion of the reviewer.

4.Comment of the reviewer:

Page 7 Line 31: the VFA was found equal to 88.1%, the reviewer believes that this is
too high and might lead to permanent deformation problems.

Response of the authors:

It is important to note that the function of the surface of a road and the function of an
impervious barrier are substantially different; a road must withstand a large number of
load repetitions caused by vehicles without permanent deformation or cracking and an
impervious barrier of a dam must be resistant to the effect caused by the few load
cycles induced by an earthquake. This value of VFA has been used in the construction
of impervious barriers with good performance. The references are in the manuscript.

5.Comment of the reviewer:

Table 4: How could Gmb (2.617) be higher than Gmm (2.427)? The authors should
correct this mistake

Response of the authors:

As the reviewer point out, the value of Gmb never can be higher than Gmm. However,
the value of 2.617 in table 4 is Gsb, i.e., bulk specific gravity of aggregate.

6.Comment of the reviewer:

Page 10 Line 45: The authors assumed a constant value for Poisson's ratio. They need
to verify the impact of this assumption on the results. It is more convincing, to increase
the value of Poison't ratio as the temperature increases

Response of the authors:

Considering the opinion of the reviewer, for which a Poisson’s ratio was assumed
using typical values as a function of the test temperature: = 0.21 for Temperature = 5
oC, = 0.26 for Temperature = 15 oC and= 0.34 for Temperature=25 oC (Zak, et al.,
2014). After this change, the values of Gmax were modified in all figures and tables.
7.Comment of the reviewer:
The authors should include the variation within specimen to indicate the inherent
variability. If this variability is more than that observed between different specimens
(different water exposure, temperature, etc.), then the conclusion will be changed.

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 Response of the authors:
Strict control was made in the laboratory when preparing the specimens, using very
precise quantities or each of the grain sizes and volumetric properties of table 4. In this
study it was assumed that all the specimens have the same physical characteristics.

8.Comment of the reviewer:

The authors conclude that the results should be considered when designing the
structures that will utilize the material. They need to add in the background section how
the measured parameters (shear modulus and damping ratio) are important in the
design of hot-mix asphalt dams. Also, they need to justify why they considered a
saturated case, when the hot-mix asphalt material is placed as a core and should not
be exposed to water.

Response of the authors:

These parameters are those used to characterize the materials with which are built
dams and thus simulate their behavior before the loads imposed by earthquakes. The
background is in Page 3, line 7-60. Although the core of a dam is protected by the
embankment, there is always a line of water flow through the embankment. This line
separates the part of the core that is in contact with water and the part that is not.

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Manuscript Click here to download Manuscript Manuscript.docx

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4 Effect of water on the dynamic behavior of asphalt concrete used in impervious barriers
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7 Alberto Gaxiola*1 and Alexandra Ossa*
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9 *Instituto de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Avenida universidad número 3000,
10 Ciudad de México, C.P. 04510.
11 1
12 Corresponding author:
13 Tel. +52 6681-62-07-55
14 E. Mail: alberto.gaxiola@uas.edu.mx
15 ORCID: 0000-0002-1052-580X
16
17 Keywords
18 Asphalt concrete core dams; asphalt concrete triaxial tests; dynamic load, moisture damage
19
20
21 Abstract
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23 Asphalt concrete core dams are a viable alternative in the construction of rockfill dams; therefore, characterizing
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25 the materials that are utilized in their construction is necessary. A part of this characterization must be based on
26
27 obtaining the parameters that define their response to cyclic loads that develop in different conditions of stress
28
29 and temperature.
30
31
32 The goal of this investigation is to determine the effect of water on the dynamic properties of asphalt concrete
33
34
after prolonged contact with water. An extensive program of laboratory activities in which cylindrical
35
36
specimens of this material were prepared, saturated and exposed to water over a long period of time, was
37
38
performed. The volumetric properties of these specimens were similar to the volumetric properties of the asphalt
39
40
41 concrete that is commonly employed in rockfill dam cores. These specimens were conditioned at temperatures
42
43 that represent different weather conditions (from sub-arctic conditions to tropical conditions) to be tested with
44
45 cyclic loads that simulate the effect of an earthquake on the core of a dam.
46
47
48 Due to saturation of the material, the results of the tests indicate that asphalt concrete presents an average
49
50 decrease in its shear modulus of 6.5% and an increase in its damping ratio of 16.1%, with respect to the value
51
52 obtained in a dry state. No significant change was observed in the mechanical response of the material as a
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54 result of the prolonged exposure to water for a maximum period of 12 months.
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4 1 Introduction.
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7 In rockfill dams, clay cores or hydraulic concrete faces have been traditionally employed as an impervious
8
9 element. In some countries, cores and asphalt concrete external barriers have been utilized for several decades
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11 in these types of structures, with a predominance of the former because an impervious barrier is protected from
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13 weather onslaughts, the sun and the collisions that floating objects can cause if asphalt concrete is placed on an
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15 embankment surface.
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19 Given that asphalt concrete is an impervious element in these types of structures, information about its
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21 characteristics and behaviors are needed. Hydraulic studies and mechanical studies of the material must be
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23 performed; the latter can be divided into two types of tests: tests under static loading and tests under cyclic
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25 loading. Asphalt concrete is a material that is sensitive to the viscous characteristics of the asphalt binder and
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27 presents satisfactory performance when used as an impervious barrier: it is resistant, flexible and has the
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29 advantage of self-healing in the case of cracking (Wang & Höeg, 2009), (Zhanng, et al., 2013). Detailed
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31 analyses have demonstrated that these structures present a satisfactory response against static and dynamic
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33 effects during the construction stage of dams, impounding of the reservoir or during an earthquake (Höeg,
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35 2005), (ICOLD, 2001), (Wieland, 2003), (Wang, et al., 2010).
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39 According to International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) (ICOLD, 1992), until 1992 in the world
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41 existed 42 dams built with dense graded asphalt concrete (DGAC) and with a minimum height of 15 m, the
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43 majority of these dams in Europe. However, the construction of these types of structures has currently spread
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45 throughout the world, with dimensions increasing every day to heights that range from 125 to 170 m, as in the
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47 case of the Yele and Quxue dams in China (Wang & Höeg, 2011).
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51 Considering the increasing number of asphalt concrete core dams around the world, information about
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53 mechanical behaviors of the cores against loads that can cause damage or poor performance is necessary,
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55 especially considering that these barriers are built to sustain prolonged contact with water, which can oxidize
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57 asphalt and provoke aging. Likewise, the effect of water on the evolution of the mechanical response of this
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59 material under dynamic loading should be considered in the design stage of these constructions.
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4 1.1 Mechanical response of the asphalt concrete in tests under dynamic loading.
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7 One of the most critical situations for a dam is the occurrence of an earthquake and its behavior in this situation
8
9 needs to be estimated. For this, the mechanical characteristics of the materials in a dam need to be analyzed by
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11 laboratory tests in which parameters such as the shear modulus and damping ratio are determined. With regard
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13 to asphalt concrete, the following studies are summarized.
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16 In addition to triaxial tests under monotonic loading, Akhtarpour and Kodaii (Aktarpour & Khodaii, 2013) have
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18 performed an extensive series of triaxial tests under cyclic loading in which some important aspects of the
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20 mechanical behavior of the asphalt concrete in dam cores were analyzed. These tests were performed with cell
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22 pressures of 250 and 500 kPa. The applied frequency was 2 Hz in most of the tests; however, some tests were
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24 performed at frequencies between 2 and 5 Hz to evaluate the effect of this variable on the shear modulus. The
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26 values of the shear modulus of the asphalt concretes varied between 200 and 350 MPa, which presented a
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28 tendency to decrease as the shear strain was increased.
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31 Wang and Höeg (Wang & Höeg, 2011) performed a series of triaxial tests under cyclic loading on specimens
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33 with a diameter of 10 cm and a height of 20 cm, in which sine-wave loads with a frequency of 1 Hz was applied
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35 and the cell pressure and temperature were controlled in the range of 0.2 to 1.5 Mpa and 3.5 to 9 °C, respectively.
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37 The authors used values of the cyclic deformation of less than 0.3% in their tests, whereas the damping ratio
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39 yielded values between 7 and 30%, which was dependent on the applied temperature and cell pressure. In this
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41 study, the temperature has an important effect on the value of the dynamic modulus, which provides evidence
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43 that the moduli are approximately 900 MPa, 1900 MPa and 2500 MPa for a cell pressure of 1 MPa at 20 °C, 9
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45 °C and 3.5 °C.
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48 Feizi-Khandandi et al. (Feizi-Khankandi, et al., 2008) performed cyclic triaxial tests on asphalt concrete
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50 specimens, in which cell pressures between 85 and 500 kPa were applied to represent the conditions to which
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52 the upper part of the asphalt concrete core of a dam would be subjected; the temperatures for the tests were 5
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54 and 18 °C. The values of the damping ratio and shear moduli in this study are used to model these types of
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56 structures. The results indicate that the asphalt concrete in the evaluated conditions presents damping ratio
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58 values between 5 and 35%, and the shear modulus ranges between 500 and 1600 MPa, with maximum cyclic
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60 shear strain values of 0.6%.
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4 1.2 Moisture damage and aging
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7 Due to the role of the asphalt concrete core in a dam, it will maintain prolonged contact with water, which
8
9 makes it susceptible to profound changes in its mechanical characteristics and can modify the chemical
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11 composition of the asphalt binder. This process, which is known as moisture damage, is a mode of deterioration
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13 in the asphalt concrete due to the combination of physical, chemical, thermodynamic and mechanical processes.
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15 This process translates to a degradation of the mechanical properties due to the presence of moisture in the
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17 liquid or vapor state (Caro, et al., 2008); that is, a decrease in stiffness is analyzed from the point of view of the
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19 dynamic properties (Weldegiorgis, 2014). Apeagyei et. al (Apeagyei, et al., 2014) claim that the moisture
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21 damage in the asphalt concrete is caused by a loss in the cohesion of the mastic and/or adhesion between the
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binder and the mineral aggregate caused by the presence of thin layers of water (35-45 nm) at the interface. On
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the other hand, the prolonged contact of the asphalt with water makes it susceptible to chemical changes known
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as aging. The aging of the asphalt is a complex process that involves changes in its chemical structure, which
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translate to a modification of the mechanical properties, and is reflected in a hardening and brittle behavior of
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32 the asphalt. This phenomenon is developed during different stages of asphalt use, starting from the mixing in
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34 the plant, transport, placement, and a slow process that is performed when the material is in service. The aging
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36 caused in the last stage is primarily attributed to oxidation, which is caused by contact with the oxygen in the
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38 air and water and is accelerated by other factors such as temperature and ultraviolet (UV) rays (Wang, et al.,
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40 2015), (Mastrofini & Scarcella, 2000), (li, et al., 2015).
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2 Material and methods
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To develop the objectives of this study, triaxial compression tests under cyclic loading were performed on
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cylindrical specimens made from asphalt and basalt rock aggregates. These tests were performed on dry
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specimens and subsequently performed on saturated specimens after a saturation process and prolonged
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51 exposure to water. The characteristics of the materials are presented in the next section.
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53 2.1 Material
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55 The asphalt binder in this research corresponds to PG 64-22 according to the ASTM D6373 classification; its
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57 properties in the original and aged state are presented in Table 1.
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60 Table 1 Asphalt binder characterization
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4 ASTM Method Result
5 Rotational viscosity at 135 °C (cP) D4402 488
6 Flash point (°C) D92 318
7 Dynamic shear modulus of the original asphalt (kPa) D7175 1.44
8 Mass loss by heating (%) D2872 0.536
9 Dynamic shear modulus after RTFO (kPa) D7175 5.91
10 Dynamic shear modulus after PAV (kPa) D7175 3307
11 Slope of the stiffness curve m D6648 0.3
12 Creep Stiffness S (MPa) D6648 135
13
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15 The mineral aggregate has a maximum nominal size of 19.0 mm; the results of the tests of origin and consensus
16
17 are presented in Tables 2 and 3.
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20 Table 2. Mineral aggregate characterization.
21 ASTM Method Result
22 Water absorption of coarse aggregate (%) C 127 1.61
23 Water absorption of fine aggregate (%) C 128 1.63
24 Resistance to degradation, Los Angeles machine (%) C 131 16
25 Soundness by sodium sulfate (%) C 88 16
26 Fractured particles (%) D 5821 100
27 Uncompacted void content of fine aggregate (%) C 1252 42
28 Sand equivalent value (%) D 2419 69
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31 Table 3. Density and absorption of coarse aggregate.
32 Particle size Water
ASTM
33 Inches mm Gsb Gsss Gsa absorption
Method
34 (%)
35 1/2” 12.5 2.608 2.649 2.270 1.586 C 127
36 3/8” 9.5 2.613 2.654 2.726 1.586 C 127
1/4” 6.3 2.608 2.653 2.729 1.691 C 127
37
#4 4.75 2.602 2.647 2.723 1.697 C 128
38
Gsb= Bulk specific gravity
39 Gsss= Saturated surface dry specific gravity
40 Gsa= Apparent specific gravity
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43 2.2 Mix selection and specimen preparation.
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45 When selecting the design mixture, the permeability of the asphalt concrete prepared with this mixture has to
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47 be considered as an acceptance or rejection parameter. However, a flexible and ductile behavior needs to be
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49 guaranteed to ensure that the material does not present strain-softening (Wang, et al., 2010). According to
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51 ICOLD (ICOLD, 1992), asphalt concrete is considered to be impervious as long as its air void content does not
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53 exceed 3%; the following studies refer to this threshold for the air voids of the mixtures.
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56 To ensure that the mix satisfies the required volumetric characteristics, a grain size distribution, an asphalt
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58 content and a compaction degree have to be established. If these parameters do not comply with the established
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4 level of air voids, these parameters can be modified until they achieve the required mix, either by adding fine
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6 aggregates or increasing the asphalt content. Usually, the compaction degree remains fixed.
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9 The asphalt content in a mix that is used to prepare an impervious mix presents diverse values in the literature.
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11 For this type of asphalt concrete, Akhtarpour and Khodaii (Akhtarpour & Khodaii, 2015) indicate that asphalt
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13 content should range between 5.5% and 7.0%, whereas a range from 6.5-7.0% is commonly advised, with
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15 respect to the mass of mineral aggregate. Zhang et al. (Zhang, et al., 2013) utilize 6.5% with respect to the total
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17 mass of the mixture. For this type of mixture, Wang and Höeg (Wang & Höeg, 2011) suggest that the asphalt
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19 content should range between 6.5 and 8.5% with respect to the mass of the mineral aggregate. Höeg (Hoeg,
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21 1993) establishes the asphalt content range between 5.5 and 6.0%. ICOLD (ICOLD, 1982) indicate that
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23 minimum asphalt contents of 5.1% have been utilized. Note the extensive variability in the asphalt content in
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25 these studies and it is important to note that an extensive variety of types of mineral aggregates, which can
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27 present very different asphalt absorptions, are used to prepare asphalt concretes. This finding suggests that
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29 establishing an asphalt content as a general recommendation can create mix design errors. Thus, the main
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31 objective is to prepare an impervious asphalt concrete with a low level of air voids.
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34 In this study, cylindrical specimens were prepared using a Superpave Gyratory Compactor because it
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36 satisfactorily simulates compaction process that is performed in the field ( Khan, et al., 1998). This compactor
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38 applies a pressure of 600 kPa to the hot mix placed in a mold with an inner diameter of 15 cm (6”) that is
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40 positioned at an angle of 1.25 degrees with respect to the gyratory base, which turns at 30 rev/min while
41
42 applying the load. If the previous parameters are kept constant, the compaction level is governed by the number
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44 of applied gyrations; in this case, 50 gyrations were applied, which corresponds to a compaction level that is
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46 easily achieved in the field and typically applied in local and urban light traffic roads, where the transit of heavy
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48 vehicles is prohibited. Initially, specimens with a diameter of 15 cm and a height of 20 cm were fabricated,
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50 from which a core with a diameter of 10 cm was extracted with a drill. All specimens had an asphalt content
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52 (Pb) of 6.0% with respect to the total mass of the mix. It was determined that with this asphalt content the
53
54 mechanical strength is optimized and the required permeability is achieved (Gaxiola & Ossa, 2015).
55
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57 The final dimensions of the cylindrical specimens that were subjected to the series of triaxial compression tests
58
59 were a diameter of 10 cm and a height of 20 cm.
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4 The volumetric properties of the specimens are determined by procedures described in the ASTM D2726 and
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6 ASTM D1188 standards, which are presented in Table 4 with the grain size distribution. Fifty-four asphalt
7
8 concrete cylindrical specimens were prepared to perform the triaxial tests at different conditions of cell pressure,
9
10 temperature and time of exposure to water, using the same procedure to prepare identical samples.
11
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13 With the combination of grain size distribution and asphalt content indicated in Table 4, the required volumetric
14
15 characteristics were satisfied, and the asphalt concrete specimens did not present strain-softening when they
16
17 were driven to failure in triaxial compression tests under monotonic loading, using the same temperatures and
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19 cell pressures that were utilized in the tests under dynamic loading in this study. The volumetric characteristics
20
21 of the asphalt concrete cylinders prepared in this study were similar to the volumetric characteristics of the
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23 asphalt concretes that were used to construct the impervious cores of some recently constructed dams, which
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25 are currently operating with adequate performance (Wang & Höeg, 2011), i.e., the volume of air voids
26
27 (Va=1.7%) is similar to the volume of air voids presented by the Xiabandi, Longtoush and Qiapuquhai dams
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29 (Va=0.9-2.3%). The degree of asphalt saturation, which is defined by the volume of voids filled with asphalt
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31 (VFA) in the mix of this study, is 88.1%, whereas the VFA=87.6-94.6% for the previously mentioned dams.
32
33 The volume of voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA) exceeded 13% in all cases; this value is recommended
34
35 by The Asphalt Institute (The Asphalt Institute, 2001) to ensure an adequate durability of the mix.
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4 Table 4. Grain size distribution and asphalt concrete volumetrics.
5 Percent
6 Mesh size
passing (%) Volumetric characteristics
7 (in) (mm)
8 3/4 19.0 100 Gsb 2.617
9 1/2 12.5 76 Gmm 2.427
10 3/8 9.5 63 Va (%) 1.7
11
1/4 6.3 48 VMA (%) 14.7
12
No. 4 4.75 41 VFA (%) 88.1
13
No. 8 2.36 28 Pb (%) 6.0
14 Gsb=Bulk specific gravity
No. 16 1.18 19
15 Gmm=Maximum specific gravity
No. 30 0.60 13
16 Va=Volume of air voids
No. 50 0.30 9
17 VMA=Volume of voids in the
No. 100 0.15 6
18 mineral aggregate
No. 200 0.075 4 VFA=Volume of voids filled with
19
20 asphalt
21 Pb= Asphalt binder content by
22 total mass of the mixture
23
24 2.3 Saturation and prolonged exposure to water of asphalt concrete specimens
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26 To simulate the saturation process to which the asphalt concrete is subjected once it is placed in the dam core,
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28 the cylindrical specimens were subjected to a water pressure of 500 kPa in chambers similar to the chambers
29
30 that are used to perform the triaxial compression tests in soils. To record the absorption of water, the specimens
31
32 were weighed on a recurring basis by removing them from the chambers and superficially drying them. The
33
34 specimens were considered to be saturated when no increment in the adsorption of water was recorded after a
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36 24-hour exposure at this pressure. After 30 days of saturation, the mass increase was negligible; thus, the
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38 remainder of the specimens were considered to be saturated.
39
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41 Later, the specimens were removed from the saturation chambers and maintained under water at atmospheric
42
43 pressure and room temperature until the period established to perform the triaxial compression tests was
44
45 attained.
46
47
48 The water exposure periods, which were defined as the time that the specimens remained immersed in water
49
50 after 30 days of saturation inside the chambers, corresponded to 0, 3, 6, 9 and 12 months. A picture of the
51
52 asphalt concrete specimens inside the pressure chamber is presented in Fig. 1.
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64 8
65
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2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17 Fig. 1. Saturation devices with asphalt concrete cylindrical specimens
18
19 2.4 Triaxial compression tests under dynamic loading
20
21 To perform the triaxial compression tests on the asphalt concrete cylindrical specimens (diameter of 10 cm and
22
23 a height of 20 cm), a loading frame and the GCTS triaxial compression device model FSTX-100 were employed.
24
25 These tests were performed at temperatures of 5, 15 and 25 °C considering that the temperature of the core
26
27 remains constant after its construction and attains minimum values of 5 °C in a sub-arctic climate and maximum
28
29 temperatures of 20 °C in a sub-tropical climate due to its position in the dam. Thus, the temperature range to
30
31 which these structures are subjected after their construction and reservoir impounding is attained (Wang &
32
33 Höeg, 2016). To condition the specimens and attain a uniform temperature distribution in their interior, they
34
35 were covered with a latex membrane and kept inside the steel pressure chamber of the triaxial compression
36
37 device, which was filled with the oil used to apply the cell pressure, for a minimum of 8 hours and subjected to
38
39 the test temperature.
40
41
42 The execution of the triaxial compression tests was performed under different cell pressures 3 (0.5, 1.0 and
43
44
1.5 MPa) to simulate an extensive range of stresses in these types of structures (Fang & Liu, 2011).
45
46
47
48 The tests were performed with load controlled sinusoidal waves similar to Fig. 2a, which corresponds to a load
49
50 amplitude of 70 kN and the strain response wave is presented in Fig. 2b. During these tests, loading amplitudes
51
52 from 15 kN to 70 kN were employed; the latter represents the limit in which the device safely operates, with a
53
54 step size of 5 kN in each load increment. Cyclic loads less than 15 kN showed values with a high dispersion
55
56 due to the precision of the displacement sensor.
57
58
The frequency used was 2 Hz, which according to Feizi-Khankandi, et al. (Feizi-Khankandi, et al., 2008)
59
60
represents the frequency in which the maximum seismic energy is released in a typical dam with a height of 60
61
62
63
64 9
65
 1
2
3
4 m, and the number of cycles for each load applied was 50, which corresponds to the load induced by an
5
6 earthquake of 7.5 on the Richter scale, according to Kramer (Kramer, 1996).
7
8
9 a
10 80
11 70
Axial load (kN)

12 60
50
13
40
14 30
15 20
16 10
0
17 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (s)
18
19 b
19
20
Axial displacement (mm)

21 18

22 17
23 16
24 15
25 14
26
13
27 0 5 10 Time (s) 15 20 25
28 Fig. 2. Sinusoidal load wave and displacement record as response for a 70 kN amplitude
29
30
3 Results
31
32
33 The analysis of the results was based on obtaining the shear modulus (G) and the damping ratio (D) for each of
34
35 the test conditions. From the amplitude values of the cyclic stress ( ) and the axial deformation () obtained
36
37 from the triaxial compression tests, hysteresis loops of each of the loading cycles were plotted (refer to Fig. 3).
38
39 For each condition of the evaluated cyclic stress, the cyclic elastic modulus (E) was defined as the average of
40
41 the slope of the hysteresis loops of the last five loading cycles that were applied to the specimen. Based on the
42
43 values of the cyclic elastic modulus, the shear moduli (G), the shear strains () and the damping ratios (D) were
44
45 calculated by Eq. 1 to Eq. 3, for which a Poisson’s ratio was assumed using typical values as a function of the
46
47 test temperature: = 0.21 for Temperature = 5 oC, = 0.26 for Temperature = 15 oC and= 0.34 for
48
49 Temperature=25 oC (Zak, et al., 2014).
50
51
𝐸
52 𝐺= Eq. 1
2(1+𝜈)
53
54 The damping ratio was calculated with Eq. 2, where the damping energy of the loading cycle is defined by the
55
56
area of the hysteresis loop (A), and the equivalent elastic energy is determined by the area of the triangle (A,
57
58
59 as indicated in Fig. 3.
60
61
62
63
64 10
65
 1
2
3
4 
5 max-min max,max)
6 E=
max-min
7
8
9 
10 A
11
A
12
min,min)
13
14
15 Fig. 3. Hysteresis loop for damping calculation
16
17 1 𝐴𝛥
𝐷= × 100 Eq. 2
18 4𝜋 𝐴
19 𝛾 = (1 + 𝜈)𝜀 Eq. 3
20
21
22 After calculating the value of the shear modulus and the damping ratio for each of the evaluated stress levels,
23
24 they were plotted as a function of the shear strain. Fig. 4 presents the plots that correspond to the dry specimens
25
26 and specimens in the initial saturated state, that is, without being subjected to the process of prolonged exposure
27
28 to water after saturation. In these plots, the G modulus and the damping ratio of the saturated material remain
29
30 constant for shear strain values below 0.9, 0.7 and 0.5%, for temperatures of 5, 15 and 25 °C, respectively.
31
32 From these shear strain values, the stiffness of the material starts to decrease, and therefore, the damping ratio
33
34 tends to increase. The results obtained from the dry specimens show a higher threshold, although the majority
35
36 of the specimens did not present a degradation of the material stiffness.
37
38
As observed in Fig. 5 and Table 5, the values of Gmax of the dry specimens decrease as the test temperature
39
40
increases; higher values are obtained in the tests performed at 5 °C, where moduli with values between 453 and
41
42
43 462 MPa were obtained. For the intermediate temperature of 15 °C, Gmax ranged between 389 and 403 MPa; at
44
45 25 °C, the values obtained for this parameter varied between 350 and 371 MPa.
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64 11
65
 1
2
3
4 Table 5. Shear modulus Gmax and damping ratio as a function of temperature and time of exposure to water.
5 T 3 Time Time
Gmax Dmin Gmax Dmin
6 (°C) (MPa)* Specimen I.D. (Months)*** Specimen I.D. (Months)***
* * (MPa) (%) (MPa) (%)
7
5 0.5 DRY-5T-0.5S Dry 490 3.31 6M-5T-0.5S 6 437 4.52
8
5 1.0 DRY-5T-0.5S 496 3.19 6M-5T-0.5S 449 4.37
9 5 1.5 DRY-5T-0.5S 487 3.48 6M-5T-0.5S 443 4.68
10 15 0.5 DRY-15T-1.0S 401 6.51 6M-15T-1.0S 374 7.33
11 15 1.0 DRY-15T-1.0S 420 6.19 6M-15T-1.0S 389 6.48
12 15 1.5 DRY-15T-1.0S 416 5.34 6M-15T-1.0S 384 6.91
25 0.5 DRY-25T-1.5S 340 7.47 6M-25T-1.5S 288 9.76
13 25 1.0 DRY-25T-1.5S 352 7.27 6M-25T-1.5S 298 7.80
14 25 1.5 DRY-25T-1.5S 360 6.67 6M-25T-1.5S 325 7.84
15 5 0.5 0M-5T-0.5S 0 466 4.05 9M-5T-0.5S 9 493 4.60
16 5 1.0 0M-5T-0.5S 499 3.68 9M-5T-0.5S 470 4.11
5 1.5 0M-5T-0.5S 493 3.87 9M-5T-0.5S 506 4.48
17 15 0.5 0M-15T-1.0S 401 7.31 9M-15T-1.0S 396 7.13
18 15 1.0 0M-15T-1.0S 410 6.86 9M-15T-1.0S 393 6.82
19 15 1.5 0M-15T-1.0S 444 6.24 9M-15T-1.0S 382 7.13
20 25 0.5 0M-25T-1.5S 310 10.12 9M-25T-1.5S 311 9.69
25 1.0 0M-25T-1.5S 325 8.75 9M-25T-1.5S 310 8.72
21
25 1.5 0M-25T-1.5S 343 8.63 9M-25T-1.5S 313 7.96
22 5 0.5 3M-5T-0.5S 3 445 4.55 12M-5T-0.5S 12 506 4.02
23 5 1.0 3M-5T-0.5S 477 4.18 12M-5T-0.5S 492 3.95
24 5 1.5 3M-5T-0.5S 461 4.08 12M-5T-0.5S 480 3.88
25 15 0.5 3M-15T-1.0S 387 6.11 12M-15T-1.0S 402 7.31
15 1.0 3M-15T-1.0S 382 6.47 12M-15T-1.0S 382 5.80
26 15 1.5 3M-15T-1.0S 398 6.14 12M-15T-1.0S 402 6.45
27 25 0.5 3M-25T-1.5S 304 8.71 12M-25T-1.5S 309 9.28
28 25 1.0 3M-25T-1.5S 316 8.26 12M-25T-1.5S 320 8.09
29 25 1.5 3M-25T-1.5S 308 7.99 12M-25T-1.5S 332 7.90
*
=Test temperature
30 **
=Cell pressure
31 ***
=Time of exposure to water after the saturated condition
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64 12
65
 1
2
3
4 500 20 Temp.=5 oC (Dry)
5
Shear Modulus G (MPa)
3=500 kPa

Damping ratio D (%)

400
6 15
3=1000 kPa
7 300
3=1500 kPa
10
8 200 3=500 kPa
9 3=1000 kPa 5
100 Temp.=5 oC (Dry)
10 3=1500 kPa
11 0 0
0.10 Shear strain  (%) 1.00 0.10 Shear strain  (%) 1.00
12
500 20
13 Temp.=15 oC (Dry) Temp.=15 oC (Dry)
Shear Modulus G (MPa)

400 3=500 kPa

14

Damping ratio D (%)

15
3=1000 kPa
15 300
3=500 kPa 10 3=1500 kPa
16 200 3=1000 kPa
17 3=1500 kPa 5
100
18
0
19 0
Shear strain  (%) 0.10 Shear strain  (%) 1.00
0.10 1.00
20
500 20 Temp.=25 oC (Dry)
21 Temp.=25 oC (Dry)
Shear Modulus G (MPa)

Damping ratio D (%)

22 400
15 3=500 kPa

23 3=1000 kPa
300
3=500 kPa 10 3=1500 kPa
24 200
25 3=1000 kPa
5
100 3=1500 kPa
26
27 0 0
0.10 Shear strain  (%) 1.00 0.10 Shear strain  (%) 1.00
28 600 Temp.= 5 oC (Saturated) 20 Temp.= 5 oC (Saturated)
29
Shear Modulus G (MPa)

Damping ratio D (%)

500
30 400
15
3=500 kPa
31 300 10 3=1000 kPa
3=500 kPa
32 3=1500 kPa
200 3=1000 kPa
33 5
100 3=1500 kPa
34 0
0
35 0.10 Shear strain  (%) 1.00 0.10 Shear strain  (%) 1.00
36 500 Temp.=15 oC (Saturated) 20 Temp.=15 oC (Saturated)
37 3=500 kPa
Damping ratio D (%)
Shear Modulus G (MPa)

400
15
38 300
3=1000 kPa
39 3=500 kPa 10 3=1500 kPa
200
40 3=1000 kPa
5
41 100 3=1500 kPa

42 0 0
0.10 Shear strain  (%) 1.00 0.10 Shear strain  (%) 1.00
43
500 20
44 Temp.=25 oC (Saturated) Temp.=25 oC (Saturated)
Shear Modulus G (MPa)

Damping ratio D (%)

45 400
15
46 300
10
47 200 3=500 kPa
3=500 kPa
48 3=1000 kPa
3=1000 kPa 5
100 3=1500 kPa
49 3=1500 kPa
50 0 0
0.10 Shear strain  (%) 1.00 0.10 Shear strain  (%) 1.00
51
52 Fig. 4. Shear modulus (G) and damping ratio (D) as a function of shear strain (in dry and initial saturated
53 conditions
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64 13
65
 1
2
3
4 500 20
5
6
400

Maximum shear modulus Gmax (MPa)

7 Gmax, 3=1500 kPa

Minimum damping ratio Dmin (%)

15
8 Gmax, 3=1000 kPa
9 300 Gmax, 3=500 kPa
10 Dmin, 3=500 kPa
10
11 Dmin, 3=1000 kPa

12 200 Dmin, 3=1500 kPa

13
5
14 100
15
16
17 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
18 Temperature oC

19
20 Fig. 5. Maximum shear modulus (Gmax) and minimum damping ratio (Dmin) in dry specimens
21
22
23
The damping ratio presented by the asphalt concrete has a tendency to increase as the test temperature is
24
25
increased; at 5 °C, the lowest values were recorded (between 3.2 and 3.5%), whereas the highest values were
26
27
recorded at 25 °C (between 5.3 and 7.5%).
28
29
30 3.1 Effect of prolonged exposure to water on the asphalt concrete dynamic response
31
32
After performing the triaxial cyclic tests on the saturated asphalt concrete cylindrical specimens that were
33
34
subsequently immersed under water in a prolonged manner, the maximum shear modulus and the minimum
35
36
damping ratio were recorded for each of the conditioning periods, that is, 0, 3 6, 9 and 12 months after
37
38
considering them saturated. These results are shown in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7, where the tendency indicates that the
39
40
41 material maintained its mechanical characteristics (Gmax and Dmin) during the entire period in which it remained
42
43 in contact with water.
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64 14
65
 1
2
3
4
5 600
3=500 kPa 600
6 3=1000 kPa
500 500
7
8 400 400

Gmax (MPa)
Gmax (MPa)

9 300 300
10
Temp=5 oC Temp=5 oC
200
11 200
Temp=15 oC
Temp=15 oC
12 100 Temp=25 oC 100 Temp=25 oC
13 Mean Mean
0
14 0 0 3 6 9 12
0 3 6 9 12
15 Time (months) Time (months)

16
17 600
3=1500 kPa
18
500
19
20 400
Gmax (MPa)

21
300
22
Temp=5 oC
23 200 Temp=15 oC
24 Temp=25 oC
25 100 Mean

26
0
27 0 3 6 9 12
Time (months)
28
29 Fig. 6. Maximum shear modulus (Gmax) as a function of time of exposure to water
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64 15
65
 1
2
3
4 20 20
5 3=500 kPa 3=1000 kPa
Temp=5 oC
6 Temp=15 oC Temp=5 oC
7 15 Temp=25 oC 15 Temp=15 oC
Mean Temp=25 oC
8 Mean
Dmin (%)

Dmin (%)
9 10 10
10
11
12 5 5

13
14 0 0
15 0 3 6 9 12 0 3 6 9 12
Time (months) Time (months)
16
17 20
3=1500 kPa
18 Temp=5 oC
19 Temp=15 oC
15
20 Temp=25 oC
Mean
21
Dmin (%)

22 10
23
24
25 5
26
27
28 0
0 3 6 9 12
29 Time (months)
30 Fig. 7. Minimum damping ratio (Dmin) as a function of time of exposure to water.
31
32 3.2 Effect of saturation on the asphalt concrete dynamic response
33
34 The comparison of the results of the dynamic parameters obtained from the dry and saturated asphalt concrete
35
36 specimens indicate that the stiffness of the dry specimens is higher than the stiffness of the saturated specimens.
37
38 As observed in Fig. 8, the average shear modulus (G) of the dry specimens is 6.5% higher than the value
39
40 recorded for the saturated specimen.
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64 16
65
 1
2
3
4 600
5 600 3=500 kPa 3=1000 kPa
6 500
500

7 400

Gmax (MPa)
8 400
Gmax (MPa)

9 300
300
10
200 200 Dry specimens
11
Dry specimens Saturated specimens
12 100 100
Saturated specimens
13
14 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
15 Temperature (oC) Temperature (oC)
16
600
17 3=1500 kPa
18 500
19
400
20
Gmax (MPa)

21 300
22
Dry specimens
23 200
24 Saturated specimens
100
25
26 0
27 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Temperature (oC)
28
29 Fig. 8. Maximum shear modulus (Gmax) for dry and saturated specimens
30
31
32 The comparison of the results of the minimum damping ratio (Dmin) between the dry and saturated specimens
33
34 indicate lower average values of this parameter for the dry specimens by 16.1% compared with the saturated
35
36 specimens. These data are shown in Fig. 9.
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64 17
65
 1
2
3
4 20
5 20 3=500 kPa 3=1000 kPa
6 Dry specimens
7 15 Dry specimens 15
Saturated specimens
8 Saturated specimens

Dmin (%)
Dmin (%)

9 10
10
10
11
12 5 5
13
14
0 0
15 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
16 Temperature (oC) Temperature (oC)
17
18 20
3=1500 kPa
19
20
15 Dry specimens
21
Saturated specimens
22
Dmin (%)

23 10
24
25
5
26
27
28 0
29 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

30 Temperature (oC)
31 Fig. 9. Minimum damping ratio (Dmin) for dry and saturated specimens
32
33
34
35 4 Conclusions
36
37 In this investigation, the effect of prolonged contact with water on asphalt concrete intended for constructing
38
39 impervious cores of dams was evaluated. Triaxial compression tests under cyclic loading were performed on
40
41 asphalt concrete cylindrical specimens that were prepared with the volumetric characteristics necessary to
42
43 achieve low permeability, i.e., Va<3%, in addition to similar VFA and VMA values with respect to the asphalt
44
45 concretes used in the construction of impervious dam cores that are currently in operation and satisfactorily
46
47 performing. During the execution of these tests, values of cell pressure and temperature that are representative
48
49 of the cell pressures and temperatures to which these cores are subjected were employed.
50
51
52 The results of the triaxial compression tests indicate that temperature has an important effect on the cyclic
53
54 response of the asphalt concrete, i.e., as the test temperature decreases, higher values of the shear modulus G
55
56 and lower values of the damping ratio D are observed, whereas, to a lesser extent, the cell pressure causes the
57
58 opposite effect. This finding is explained given that the asphalt is a thermosensitive material.
59
60
61
62
63
64 18
65
 1
2
3
4 The stiffness values obtained for the asphalt concrete after being subjected to the saturation process remain
5
6 approximately constant during the prolonged period of water exposure, which indicates that water does not
7
8 cause a progressive change in the dynamic response of the impervious asphalt concrete for a maximum period
9
10 of 12 months. This conclusion is important because it indicates that asphalt concrete is a material that maintains
11
12 its mechanical properties in these conditions, which is attributable to the volumetric characteristics with which
13
14 it is prepared—primarily the low value of air voids—although the moisture damage caused by the saturation of
15
16 the material should also be considered. This saturation causes an average decrease of 6.5% in the shear modulus
17
18 and an increase of 16.1% in the minimum damping compared with the results obtained from the saturated and
19
20 dry specimens, which should be considered when designing the structures that will utilize the material.
21
22
23 5 References
24 Khan, Z., Al-Abdul , H., Asi, I. & Ramadhan, R., 1998. Comparative Study of Asphalt Concrete
25
26 Laboratory Compaction Methods do Simulate Field Compaction. s.l.:s.n.
27
28 Akhtarpour, A. & Khodaii, A., 2015. A Study of the Seismic Response of Asphaltic Concrete Used as
29 a Core in Rockfill Dams. Journal of Seismology and Earthquake Engineering, pp. 169-184.
30
31 Aktarpour, A. & Khodaii, A., 2013. Experimental study of asphaltic concrete dynamic properties as
32 an impervious core in embankment dams. Construction and building materials, Issue 41, pp. 319-
33 334.
34
35 Apeagyei, A., Grenfell, J. & Airey, G., 2014. Moisture-induced strength degradation of aggregate–
36
37 asphalt mastic bonds. Road Materials and Pavement Design, 15(S1), pp. 239-262.
38
39 Caro, S., Masad, E. & Little, D., 2008. Moisture susceptibility of asphalt mixtures, Part 1:
40 mechanisms. International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 9(2), pp. 81-98.
41
42 Fang, C. & Liu, Z., 2011. Stress-strain analysis of Aikou rockfill dam with asphalt-concrete core.
43 Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, 3(2), pp. 186-192.
44
45 Feizi-Khankandi, S., Mirghasemi, A. A., Ghalandarzadeh, A. & Höeg, K., 2008. Cyclic triaxial tests on
46
asphalt concrete as a water barrier for embankment dams. Soils and foundations, Junio, 48(3), pp.
47
48 319-332.
49
50 Gaxiola, A. & Ossa, A., 2015. Effect of the grading on the permeability of asphalt concrete used in
51 dams. Proceedings of the 15th Pan-American Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
52 Engineering, Volume doi:10.3233/978-1-61499-603-3-2386, pp. 2386-2393.
53
54 Hoeg, K., 1993. Asphaltic Concrete Cores for Embankment Dams. Oslo: Norwegian Geotechnical
55
56
Institute.
57
58
Höeg, K., 2005. Earthquake Resistance of Asphalt Core Embankment Dams, s.l.: s.n.
59
60
61
62
63
64 19
65
 1
2
3
4 ICOLD, 1982. Bituminous concrete facings for earth and rockfill dams. Bulletin 32 a, s.l.: CIGB-
5
6
ICOLD.
7
ICOLD, 1992. Bulletin 84, Bituminous Cores for Fill Dams, Paris: International Commission On Large
8
9 Dams.
10
11 ICOLD, 1992. Bulletin 84. Bituminous Cores for Fill Dams. State of the art., s.l.: International
12 Commission on Large Dams.
13
14 ICOLD, 2001. Bulletin 120. Design Features of Dams to Resist Seismic Ground Motion. Paris, France:
15 s.n.
16
17 Kramer, S., 1996. Cut off Wall fot Gotvand Dam. Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice
18
19 Hall, Inc, USA.
20
21 li, R., Wang, P., Xue, B. & Pei, J., 2015. Experimental study on aging properties and modification
22 mechanism of Trinidad lake asphalt modified bitumen. Construction and building materials, Issue
23 101, pp. 878-883.
24
25 Mastrofini, D. & Scarcella, M., 2000. The application of theology to the evaluation of bitumen
26 ageing. Fuel, pp. 1001-1015.
27
28 The Asphalt Institute, 2001. Superpave Mix Design (SP-2). U.S.A.: s.n.
29
30 Wang, W. & Höeg, K., 2009. The Asphalt Core Embankment Dam: A Very Competitive Alternative.
31
32 Chengdu, China, s.n.
33
34 Wang, W. & Höeg, K., 2011. Cyclic Behavior of Asphalt Concrete Used as impervious Core in
35 Embankment Dams. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 137(5), pp. 536-
36 544.
37
38 Wang, W. & Höeg, K., 2016. Simplified material model for analysis of asphalt core in embankment
39
dams. Construction and Building Materials, Issue 124, pp. 199-207.
40
41 Wang, W., Höeg, K. & Zhang, Y., 2010. Design and performance of the Yele asphalt-core rockfill
42
43 dam. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, pp. 1365-1381.
44
45 Wang, W., Höeg, K. & Zhang, Y., 2010. Design and performance of the Yele asphalt-core rockfill
46 dam. Can. Geotech. J., Volume 47, pp. 1365-1381.
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