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DUCT DESIGN

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• CONVEY AIR AS DIRECTLY AS POSSIBLE AT THE

PERMISSIBLE VELOCITIES TO OBTAIN THE DESIRED
RESULTS WITH MINIMUM NOISE AND GREATEST
ECONOMY OF POWER , MATERIAL AND SPACE.

• AVOID SUDDEN CHANGES IN AIR DIRECTION OR

VELOCITY. WHEN SUDDEN CHANGES ARE
NECESSARY AT BENDS, USE TURNING VANES TO
MINIMISE THE PRESSURE LOSS.

• WHERE THE GREATEST AIR CARRYING CAPACITY PER

SQUARE FOOT OF SHEET METAL IS DESIRED, MAKE
RECTANGULAR DUCTS AS NEARLY SQUARE AS
POSSIBLE. AVOID ASPECT RATIO GREATER THAN 8:1.
WHERE POSSIBLE MAINTAIN A RATIO OF 4:1 OR LESS.

• DUCTS SHOULD BE CONSTRUCTED OF SMOOTH

MATERIAL E.G. STEEL OR ALUMINUM SHEET METAL.
FOR OTHER MATERIALS ALLOW FOR CHANGE IN
ROUGHNESS.

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• SELECT FANS AND MOTORS TO PROVIDE FOR A

SAFETY FACTOR BECAUSE OF VARIATIONS IN
SMOOTHNESS OF MATERIALS, TYPES OF JOINTS
USED, AND THE ABILITY TO FABRICATE THE SYSTEM
IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE DESIGN.

• AVOID OBSTRUCTING DUCT WITH PIPING,

CONDUITS, OR STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

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Consider the flow

of air between two
sections 1 and 2 of
an insulated duct

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• Usually PZ1 - PZ2 = negligible

•  SP1 + VP1 + P blower= SP2 + VP2 + PL

Pressure drop in ducts

•Duct friction – frictional loss
•Dynamic losses –
Change in direction and
Change in cross sectional area

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Where

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• Air accelerated as it approaches the opening,

forming a vena contracta inside the duct. Area
changes from infinity to duct area.

• In such a case the dynamic loss coefficient is 0.85.

• By making a formed entrance the dynamic loss

coefficient can be reduced to 0.03.

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• THE DISCHARGE OF AIR FROM THE A DUCT SYSTEM.

• Air in the plane of the open end of the discharge duct
must be virtually atmospheric pressure – since there is
no longer any resisting force to prevent equalization
of pressure.

• The potential energy of the air leaving the system

through an open end is zero. However Kinetic energy
is not zero.

• If a grille or diffuser is placed over the open end of the

duct on its upstream side must be greater than that
on its downstream side by an amount equal to the
frictional loss incurred by the flow of air through the
grille.

• TP1 = TP2 + frictional loss past the grille

• VP1 + SP1 = VP2 + SP2+ frictional loss past the

grille

• Since VP1 = VP2

• Hence SP1 -SP2= frictional loss part the grille

• SP2 - virtually the same as atmospheric pressure

• SP1 - frictional loss past the grille

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• PRESSURE LOSS IN DIVIDED FLOW FITTINGS:

• Whenever air is diverted to a branch, there is a

velocity reduction in the straight through section.

• If there is no loss the change in velocity pressure is

completely converted into regain in static pressure.

• However due to dynamic loss, the actual static

pressure regain is reduced by the static regain
factor, R.

The total pressure loss becomes,

• PL = (1-R)(PV1 – PV2)

For branch offs, the values of the dynamic loss

coefficient based on branch velocities are
available.

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• AIRFLOW THROUGH A GRADUALLY EXPANDING

DUCTS E.G. AN IDEAL EXPANSION PIECE.
• NO LOSSES
• TP1 = TP2
• 100% STATIC REGAIN
• IF THERE ARE LOSSES DUE TO FRICTION AND
TURBULENCE
• THEN TP1  TP2
• TP = TP1 – TP2
• TP = (SP1 + VP1) – (SP2 + VP2)
• ACTUAL STATIC REGAIN
= SP2 – SP1 = VP1 – VP2 - TP

• TOTAL PRESSURE LOSS EXRESSED IN TERMS OF

UPSTREAM VELOCITY PRESSURE.

• Air flow through an abruptly reducing duct.

• Two places where turbulence occurs

• The shoulders of contraction

• Shortly after the neck, formation of a vena

contracta

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• GRADUALLY REDUCING DUCT.

• Losses in this case is quite small

• Usual to express the loss as a fraction of the

downstream velocity pressure

• No possibility of static regain

• Energy required to accelerate flow

• Fall in static pressure occasioned by the losses at

the vena contracta and losses resulting from skin
friction.

• TP = TP1 – TP2

• TP = (SP1 + VP1) – (SP2 + VP2)

• This fall is not recoverable

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• Airflow through a gradually expanding duct e.g. an

ideal expansion piece.

• No losses
• TP1 = TP2
• 100% static regain

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• Total pressure loss expressed in terms of

upstream velocity pressure.

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• Very large R/W ratio means that flow will be

gradually turned and less turbulence.

• But if bend is very gradual, then it is expensive and

occupies a very large amount of space and
unsightly in appearance.

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• It is proposed to insert two splitters in a

bend which is 1600 mm wide and 250
mm high. The center line radius to
width ratio is unity. Determine the best
position for the insertion of the splitters.

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DUCT DESIGN METHODS

Duct design methods for HVAC systems and for
exhaust systems conveying vapors, gases, and
smoke

• The equal-friction method

• The static regain method,

• The T-method.

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• Equal friction and static regain are non-optimizing

methods
• The T-method is a practical optimization method
introduced by Tsal et al. (1988).

• To ensure that system designs are acoustically

acceptable, noise generation should be analyzed and
sound attenuators and/or acoustically lined duct
provided where necessary.

Equal-Friction Method

• In the equal-friction method, ducts are sized for a

constant pressure loss per unit length. The shaded
area of the friction chart (see Figure 9) is the
suggested range of friction rate and air velocity.

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Figure 9. Friction Chart for Round Duct (ρ = 1.20 kg/m3 and ε = 0.09 mm)

METHODOLOGY:
• Decide what pressure drop will be available
• Compute the equivalent length of all runs (Sum of
all length of straight ducts plus the equivalent
length of fittings)
• Calculate the pressure drop per unit length for
longest run
• With same pressure drop per unit length and flow
rate in each section select the duct size of all those
sections
• For remaining sections, select the size to use the
available pressure drop but stay within velocities
appropriate for noise reductions.

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• Note: for free exit conditions may have to calculate

the pressure drop for other runs and then
determine diameter etc…

• When energy cost is high and installed ductwork

cost is low, a low-friction-rate design is more
economical.

• For low energy cost and high duct cost, a higher

friction rate is more economical.

• After initial sizing, calculate total pressure loss for

all duct sections, and then resize sections to
balance pressure losses at each junction.

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VELOCITY REDUCTION METHOD

• VRM: The main duct is designed as above.

Arbitrary reductions are made in the air
velocity as we move down the duct run.

• Equivalent diameters are then found from

the friction chart.

Static Regain Method

• This design method is only applicable to supply air

systems. The objective is to obtain the same static

pressure at diverging flow junctions by changing

downstream duct sizes.

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• The principle of the SRM is to maintain a constant

static pressure before each terminal and each
branch. Achieved by sizing the duct in such a
manner that after each branch or outlet, the static
gain due to a reduction in velocity exactly balances
the pressure drop in the succeeding duct section.

• This design objective can be developed by setting

ps,2 equal to ps,1 (neglecting thermal gravity effect
term). This means that the change in static
pressure from one section to another is zero,
which is satisfied when the change in total
pressure is equal to the change in velocity pressure

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• Total Pressure Balancing. After completing duct

sizing by the static regain method, any residual
unbalance can be reduced or eliminated by
calculating the system’s total pressure and
changing duct sizes or fittings in other paths to
increase the paths’ total pressure to approximate
what is needed in the critical paths.

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T-method
• T-method optimization (Tsal et al. 1988) is a
dynamic programming procedure

• Ductwork sizes are determined by minimizing the

objective function:
where
• E = present-worth owning and operating cost
• Ep = first-year energy cost
• Es = initial cost
• PWEF = present worth escalation factor (Smith
1968), dimensionless

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The following constraints are necessary for duct

optimization (Tsal and Adler 1987):

• Continuity.
• Pressure balancing.
• Nominal duct size.
• Air velocity restriction.
• Construction restriction.

• T-method simulation, developed by Tsal et al.

(1990), determines the flow in each duct section
of an existing system with a known operating
fan performance curve.

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• Study the building plans, and arrange supply and

return outlets to provide proper distribution of air
in each space. Adjust calculated air quantities for
duct heat gains or losses and duct leakage. Also,
adjust supply, return, and/or exhaust air quantities
to meet space pressurization requirements.

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• Select outlet sizes from manufacturers’ data.

• Sketch the duct system, connecting supply outlets

and return intakes with the air-handling units/air
conditioners. Use rigid round ducts, minimize the
number of fittings, and avoid close-coupled fittings
because little is known about the resulting loss
coefficients. If space is restricted and a properly
designed round duct is too large, the next best
option to minimize leakage and pressure losses is
to use flat oval ductwork. Multiple runs of round
duct should also be considered.

• Divide the system into sections and number each

section. A duct system should be divided at all
points where flow, size, or shape changes. Assign
fittings to the section toward the supply and
return (or exhaust) terminals.

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• Size ducts by the selected design method.

Calculate system total pressure loss; then select
the fan
• Lay out the system in detail. If duct routing and
fittings vary significantly from the original design,
recalculate pressure losses. Reselect the fan if
necessary.

• Resize duct sections to approximately balance

pressures at each junction.

• Analyze the design for objectionable noise levels,

and specify lined duct, double-wall duct, and
sound attenuators as necessary.

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Location and arrangement of

piping

• To minimise tubing & refrigerant

requirements and pressure drops, refrigerant
lines should be as short as possible

• Piping planned for a minimum number of

joints using as few elbows and fittings as
possible, although providing for sufficient
flexibility to absorb compressor vibrations

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• Piping arranged so as not to hinder normal

inspection and servicing of compressor and
equipment

• Sufficient clearance is to be provided between

the piping and walls or between pipes for
insulation

• Locations where copper tubing will be exposed

to mechanical injury should be avoided

• In case of iron pipes hangers should be provided

close to vertical risers to or from compressors to
keep piping weight off compressors

• Valves should be located in inlet and outlet lines to

condensers, receivers, evaporators and long
lengths of pipes to permit isolation

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Refrigerant piping should be designed and

installed as to:
• Assure an adequate supply of refrigerant to all
evaporators

• Assure positive and continuous return of oil to the

compressor crankcase

• Avoid excessive refrigerant pressure losses which

unnecessarily reduce the capacity and efficiency of
the system

• Prevent liquid refrigerant from entering the

compressor during either the running or off cycles,
or during compressor start up.

• Avoid the trapping of oil in the evaporator or

suction line which may subsequently return to the
compressor in the form of a large “slug” with
possible damage to the compressor

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SUCTION LINE
• Size of suction piping is more critical
• Under-sizing of the suction piping will cause an
excessive refrigerant pressure drop in suction line
which result in considerable loss in capacity and
efficiency
• Over-sizing will often result in refrigerant velocities
which are too low to permit adequate oil return
from evaporator to compressor crankcase

• Optimum size for suction line is one that will

provide minimum practical pressure drop
commensurate with maintaining sufficient vapor
velocity to ensure adequate oil return.

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Oil return
• Most systems employing oil miscible refrigerants
are designed so that oil return from evaporator to
compressor is through the suction line, either by
gravity or by entrainment in the suction vapor.

When evaporator is located above the

compressor
• The suction line can be installed without
risers or traps
• The oil will drain by gravity from evaporator
to compressor crankcase provided that all
horizontal piping is pitched downward in the
direction of the compressor.

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• In such cases, the minimum vapor velocity in

suction line is of little importance and the
suction piping can be sized to provide the
minimum practical pressure drop

• This is true for systems for any system where

non-miscible refrigerant

When location of evaporator and /or

other conditions are such that a riser is
required in the suction line, the riser must
be sized small enough so that the
resulting vapor velocity in the riser under
minimum load conditions will be
sufficiently high to entrain the oil and
carry it up the riser and back to the
compressor

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• Since oil return up a riser results primarily from

the oil being “dragged” or “pulled” up the wall of
the riser by the gas flow

• Other factors that determine the minimum vapor

velocity that will carry the oil up the riser are the
viscosity and density of the oil and the amount of
refrigerant dilution.

Discharge piping
• Sizing of discharge piping is similar to that of the
suction piping.

• Discharge piping should be sized to provide the

minimum practical refrigerant pressure drop

• High pressure drop tends to increase the

compressor discharge pressure and reduce the
capacity and efficiency of the system

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Liquid lines
• Refrigerant is in the liquid state, any oil entering
the liquid line is readily carried along by the
refrigerant to the evaporator, so there is no
problem with oil return in liquid lines.

• Design less critical, problem encountered being

mainly one of preventing the liquid from flashing
before it reaches the refrigerant control

• Flash gas in the liquid line reduces the capacity of

the refrigerant control, causes erosion of the valve
pin and seat

• Often results in erratic control of the liquid

refrigerant to the evaporator

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