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DUCT DESIGN
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• CONVEY AIR AS DIRECTLY AS POSSIBLE AT THE

PERMISSIBLE VELOCITIES TO OBTAIN THE DESIRED
RESULTS WITH MINIMUM NOISE AND GREATEST
ECONOMY OF POWER , MATERIAL AND SPACE.

• AVOID SUDDEN CHANGES IN AIR DIRECTION OR

VELOCITY. WHEN SUDDEN CHANGES ARE
NECESSARY AT BENDS, USE TURNING VANES TO
MINIMISE THE PRESSURE LOSS.
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• WHERE THE GREATEST AIR CARRYING CAPACITY PER

SQUARE FOOT OF SHEET METAL IS DESIRED, MAKE
RECTANGULAR DUCTS AS NEARLY SQUARE AS
POSSIBLE. AVOID ASPECT RATIO GREATER THAN 8:1.
WHERE POSSIBLE MAINTAIN A RATIO OF 4:1 OR LESS.

• DUCTS SHOULD BE CONSTRUCTED OF SMOOTH

MATERIAL E.G. STEEL OR ALUMINUM SHEET METAL.
FOR OTHER MATERIALS ALLOW FOR CHANGE IN
ROUGHNESS.
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• SELECT FANS AND MOTORS TO PROVIDE FOR A

SAFETY FACTOR BECAUSE OF VARIATIONS IN
SMOOTHNESS OF MATERIALS, TYPES OF JOINTS
USED, AND THE ABILITY TO FABRICATE THE SYSTEM
IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE DESIGN.

• AVOID OBSTRUCTING DUCT WITH PIPING,

CONDUITS, OR STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
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• Total Pressure – The TP of the air at any point in

the system is a measure of the available energy

• TP = SP + VP

• Static Pressure – The Static Pressure is a measure

of the potential energy at any point in the system.
It is the pressure in a duct which results from the
frictional resistance to air flow
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• Static pressure –
–“Collapsing pressure” if it is less than
the atmospheric pressure
–“Bursting pressure” if it is more than
the atmospheric pressure
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• Velocity Pressure – The Velocity Pressure is a

measure of the kinetic energy and is defined as the
pressure required to take air from rest and
accelerating it to the velocity in the duct.

• The total pressure which a fan must be able to

create includes the VP plus the total of all frictional
resistances in the system
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• FAN Total Pressure – The difference between the

total pressure at the fan outlet and the total
pressure at the fan inlet.

• Fan Static Pressure – the difference between the

FTP and the velocity pressure at the fan outlet
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BASIC CONCEPTS OF ENERGY CHANGES

• TP = SP + VP
• ENERGY LOSS CORRESPONDS TO FALL IN TP
• VP is always greater than 0, in the direction of
airflow
• FTP = (TP at fan outlet) – (TP at fan inlet)
• FSP = (SP at fan outlet) – (TP at fan inlet)
• FSP = FTP – (VP at fan outlet)
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• VP has not changed

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• If the velocity of airflow in a duct is constant,

then VP is constant.

• Losses of energy appears as fall in static

pressure
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Consider the flow

of air between two
sections 1 and 2 of
an insulated duct
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• Usually PZ1 - PZ2 = negligible

•  SP1 + VP1 + P blower= SP2 + VP2 + PL

Pressure drop in ducts

•Duct friction – frictional loss
•Dynamic losses –
Change in direction and
Change in cross sectional area
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Where
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• Air accelerated as it approaches the opening,

forming a vena contracta inside the duct. Area
changes from infinity to duct area.

• In such a case the dynamic loss coefficient is 0.85.

• By making a formed entrance the dynamic loss

coefficient can be reduced to 0.03.
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• THE DISCHARGE OF AIR FROM THE A DUCT SYSTEM.

• Air in the plane of the open end of the discharge duct
must be virtually atmospheric pressure – since there is
no longer any resisting force to prevent equalization
of pressure.

• The potential energy of the air leaving the system

through an open end is zero. However Kinetic energy
is not zero.

• If a grille or diffuser is placed over the open end of the

duct on its upstream side must be greater than that
on its downstream side by an amount equal to the
frictional loss incurred by the flow of air through the
grille.
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• TP1 = TP2 + frictional loss past the grille

• VP1 + SP1 = VP2 + SP2+ frictional loss past the

grille

• Since VP1 = VP2

• Hence SP1 -SP2= frictional loss part the grille

• SP2 - virtually the same as atmospheric pressure

• SP1 - frictional loss past the grille

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• PRESSURE LOSS IN DIVIDED FLOW FITTINGS:

• Whenever air is diverted to a branch, there is a

velocity reduction in the straight through section.

• If there is no loss the change in velocity pressure is

completely converted into regain in static pressure.
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• However due to dynamic loss, the actual static

pressure regain is reduced by the static regain
factor, R.

The total pressure loss becomes,

• PL = (1-R)(PV1 – PV2)

For branch offs, the values of the dynamic loss

coefficient based on branch velocities are
available.
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• AIRFLOW THROUGH A GRADUALLY EXPANDING

DUCTS E.G. AN IDEAL EXPANSION PIECE.
• NO LOSSES
• TP1 = TP2
• 100% STATIC REGAIN
• IF THERE ARE LOSSES DUE TO FRICTION AND
TURBULENCE
• THEN TP1  TP2
• TP = TP1 – TP2
• TP = (SP1 + VP1) – (SP2 + VP2)
• ACTUAL STATIC REGAIN
= SP2 – SP1 = VP1 – VP2 - TP
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• Total pressure loss expressed in terms of

upstream velocity pressure.
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• Air flow through an abruptly reducing duct.

Two places where turbulence occurs

• The shoulders of contraction

• Shortly after the neck, formation of a vena

contracta
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• GRADUALLY REDUCING DUCT.

• Losses in this case is quite small

• Usual to express the loss as a fraction of the

downstream velocity pressure

• No possibility of static regain

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• Energy required to accelerate flow

• Fall in static pressure occasioned by the losses at

the vena contracta and losses resulting from skin
friction.

• TP = TP1 – TP2

• TP = (SP1 + VP1) – (SP2 + VP2)

• This fall is not recoverable

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• Very large R/W ratio means that flow will be

gradually turned and less turbulence.

• But if bend is very gradual, then it is expensive and

occupies a very large amount of space and
unsightly in appearance.
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• Problem 1- A bend for a duct is 1800 mm wide and

350 mm high. The center line radius to width ratio

is unity. Determine the best position for the

insertion of TWO splitters.

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FAN is used to:

• Accelerate the air outside the system from rest to
the velocity at the air intake.
• Offset the energy losses resulting from any
turbulence and friction as the air enters the
system.
• Overcome the frictional resistance offered by each
item in the system
• Offset the resistance in the duct
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• Nullify the frictional resistances presented by the

inlet louvres and discharge grilles.

• Offset any pockets of turbulence set up anywhere

in the system

• Offset the kinetic energy loss from the system at

the exits
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DUCT DESIGN METHODS

Duct design methods for HVAC systems and for
exhaust systems conveying vapors, gases, and
smoke

• The equal-friction method

• The static regain method,

• The T-method.
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• Equal friction and static regain are non-optimizing

methods
• The T-method is a practical optimization method
introduced by Tsal et al. (1988).

• To ensure that system designs are acoustically

acceptable, noise generation should be analyzed and
sound attenuators and/or acoustically lined duct
provided where necessary.
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Equal-Friction Method

• In the equal-friction method, ducts are sized for a

constant pressure loss per unit length. The shaded
area of the friction chart (see Figure 9) is the
suggested range of friction rate and air velocity.
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Figure 9. Friction Chart for Round Duct (ρ = 1.20 kg/m3 and ε = 0.09 mm)
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METHODOLOGY:
• Decide what pressure drop will be available
• Compute the equivalent length of all runs (Sum of
all length of straight ducts plus the equivalent
length of fittings)
• Calculate the pressure drop per unit length for
longest run
• With same pressure drop per unit length and flow
rate in each section select the duct size of all those
sections
• For remaining sections, select the size to use the
available pressure drop but stay within velocities
appropriate for noise reductions.
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• Note: for free exit conditions may have to calculate

the pressure drop for other runs and then
determine diameter etc…
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• When energy cost is high and installed ductwork

cost is low, a low-friction-rate design is more
economical.

• For low energy cost and high duct cost, a higher

friction rate is more economical.

• After initial sizing, calculate total pressure loss for

all duct sections, and then resize sections to
balance pressure losses at each junction.
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VELOCITY REDUCTION METHOD

• VRM: The main duct is designed as above.

Arbitrary reductions are made in the air
velocity as we move down the duct run.

• Equivalent diameters are then found from

the friction chart.
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Static Regain Method

• This design method is only applicable to supply air

systems. The objective is to obtain the same static

pressure at diverging flow junctions by changing

downstream duct sizes.

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• The principle of the SRM is to maintain a constant

static pressure before each terminal and each
branch. Achieved by sizing the duct in such a
manner that after each branch or outlet, the static
gain due to a reduction in velocity exactly balances
the pressure drop in the succeeding duct section.
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• This design objective can be developed by

rearranging Equation (7a) and setting ps,2 equal to
ps,1 (neglecting thermal gravity effect term). This
means that the change in static pressure from one
section to another is zero, which is satisfied when
the change in total pressure is equal to the change
in velocity pressure
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• Total Pressure Balancing. After completing duct

sizing by the static regain method, any residual
unbalance can be reduced or eliminated by
calculating the system’s total pressure and
changing duct sizes or fittings in other paths to
increase the paths’ total pressure to approximate
what is needed in the critical paths.
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T-method
• T-method optimization (Tsal et al. 1988) is a
dynamic programming procedure
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• Ductwork sizes are determined by minimizing the

objective function:
where
• E = present-worth owning and operating cost
• Ep = first-year energy cost
• Es = initial cost
• PWEF = present worth escalation factor (Smith
1968), dimensionless
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The following constraints are necessary for duct

optimization (Tsal and Adler 1987):

• Continuity.
• Pressure balancing.
• Nominal duct size.
• Air velocity restriction.
• Construction restriction.
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• T-method simulation, developed by Tsal et al.

(1990), determines the flow in each duct section
of an existing system with a known operating
fan performance curve.
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• Study the building plans, and arrange supply and

return outlets to provide proper distribution of air
in each space. Adjust calculated air quantities for
duct heat gains or losses and duct leakage. Also,
adjust supply, return, and/or exhaust air quantities
to meet space pressurization requirements.
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• Select outlet sizes from manufacturers’ data.

• Sketch the duct system, connecting supply outlets

and return intakes with the air-handling units/air
conditioners. Use rigid round ducts, minimize the
number of fittings, and avoid close-coupled fittings
because little is known about the resulting loss
coefficients. If space is restricted and a properly
designed round duct is too large, the next best
option to minimize leakage and pressure losses is
to use flat oval ductwork. Multiple runs of round
duct should also be considered.
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• Divide the system into sections and number each

section. A duct system should be divided at all
points where flow, size, or shape changes. Assign
fittings to the section toward the supply and
return (or exhaust) terminals.
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• Size ducts by the selected design method.

Calculate system total pressure loss; then select
the fan
• Lay out the system in detail. If duct routing and
fittings vary significantly from the original design,
recalculate pressure losses. Reselect the fan if
necessary.
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• Resize duct sections to approximately balance

pressures at each junction.

• Analyze the design for objectionable noise levels,

and specify lined duct, double-wall duct, and
sound attenuators as necessary.
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• The Actual System

2009 ASHRAE Handbook -- Fundamentals (SI)
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• The Actual
2009 ASHRAE Handbook -- Fundamentals (SI)
System
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2009 ASHRAE Handbook -- Fundamentals (SI)

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REFERENCES
• Engineering Thermodynamics by Rogers and
Mayhew
• 2009 ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals
• 2010 ASHRAE Handbook - Refrigeration
• Principles of Refrigeration by Roy J Dossat
• Refrigeration and Air Conditioning by G F Hundy, A.
R. Trott and T. C. Welch
• Thermodynamics – An Engineering Approach –
Cengel & Boles
• Air Conditioning Engineering – W P Jones