Mineral Processing:Emphasis on
Prices,Recession,Cost-Saving Activities
Mineral processing activities in
general reflected the economic
ills of 1981 and early 1982, but in
some areas the depressed state of
the industry resulted in increased
activity.
As were all aspects of the min-
erals industry, processing plant
operations were severely affected
by the recession-prone economy,
by sagging prices for primary
metal products—copper, molyb-
denum, nickel, iron, manganese,
and especially uranium—and
numerous shutdowns and layoffs.
Copper production by major pro-
ducers in Arizona and Utah was
severely curtailed; Amax, the
major US molybdenum, producer
did considerable belt-tightening;
and the uranium industry was in a
state of disaster. Even the pre-
cious metal superstars—gold and
silver—were affected, with a
steady decline throughout the
year in world market prices.
Perhaps hardest hit have been
newly developed properties, par-
ticularly in the uranium industry,
and old-line properties where his-
torical development impacts to-
day. No longer can such proper-
ties afford the luxuries, for exam-
ple, of a long haul distance be-
tween mine and plant or con-
tinued use of antiquated facilities.
Surprisingly enough, the very
state of the economy has caused
increased activity in some sectors
of the mineral processing indus-
try. In mill design, although large
projects have been tabled, smal-
ler projects have gone on, with in-
novations in design, often for
cost-saving reasons, that will af-
fect future designing approaches.
Economic restrictions are impact-
ing on mill flowsheets as re-
searchers look for improvements
and better, less expensive tech-
niques. Other unit processes—hy-
drometallurgy, pyrometallurgy,
concentration, materials hand-
The Mineral Processing review section
ing Editor P. V. Avotins, American Cyanamid. Individual parts were written by R.
Addison, Stearns-Roger Engineering Co,; S. Chong, Hanna Mining Co.; E. El-Shall,
Montana College of Mineral Science & Technology;
Florida; D. R. Nagaraj, American Cyanamid Co.; S. S. Sephton, Republic Steel Corp.;
D. J. Spottiswood, Colorado School of Mines; A. T. Yu, ORBA Corp. Technical input
and assistance were provided by: M. D. Flavel, Allis-Chalmers Corp.; L. A. Haas, US
Bureau of Mines; R. D. Kulkarni, Exxon Enterprises; E. Martinez, Asarco Inc.; D. K.
Mortenson, Anamax Mining Co.; P. B. Queneau, Amax Extractive R&D, Inc.; M.
Snedeker, SME-AIME; D. L. Whiting, Asarco, Inc.
ling—are impacted by the need for has been a further focussing on
a better, less costly product. project management, recognizing
Although at the end of the first the necessity for tight control of
quarter of 1982, no major en- budgets and schedules—and the
vironmental legislation had been systems used to effect them.
enacted, rumors persist that there
will be a loosening of some of the
stricter standards, both in the re-
quirements themselves and in the
Materials
time allowance for implementa- Handling
tion. The year had seen some re-
laxation in how current legisla- Review prepared by A.T. Yu,
tion and standards are adminis- ORBA Corp.
tered. For example, in OSHA (Oc-
The frenzy of coal export ac-
cupational Safety and Health Ad-
ministration) operations, there tivities has continued into 1981.
has been a shift toward voluntary Many modern export terminals
are now in construction while oth-
checking of industry compliance
ers have either been held up or
with work rules, rather than em- cancelled. Economics and en-
phasis on agency inspections.
vironmental permits have been
However, the industry continues
some of the major problems.
to view environmental factors as
having major influence on future Currently under construction
are terminals in Newport News,
operations and efforts to design
for environmental safety are be- VA; Charleston, SC; and Balti-
more, MD. Expansion of existing
coming almost as important as the
facilities at Mobile, AL, and New
processes themselves.
Throughout the industry there Orleans, LA, is also well under
way. A wide variety of systems and
components are being used. They
include traveling shiploaders,
was compiled and coordinated by Contribut- tunnel and bucket wheel reclaim-
ers, stackers and high line trip-
pers, and bottom and side dump-
B. M. Moudgii, University of type car dumpers. Manufacturers
from Japan and Europe have been
participating along with domestic
suppliers.
As an attempt to avoid environ-
mental problems, a system of load-
ing and unloading coarse coal
slurry into ships moored offshore
was conceived. The commercial
and technical aspects of this sys-
tem are currently under active de-
velopment (SME Preprint 81-330,
W. D. McDonough and D. T. Kao).
Construction of the half-bil-
lion-dollar Reserve Mining taco-
nite project culminated in the
completion of the receiving ter-
minals at Lorain and Toledo, OH,
serving Republic and Armco’s
steel plants, respectively. These
facilities feature the latest in con-
trol technology, using program-
mable controllers to facilitate
maintenance and to effect
accurate and automatic railcar
loading (paper by A. Boyce and J.
Priozzi, SME-AIME Annual Meet-
ing, February 1981). The Lorain
facility won an Outstanding Engi-
neering Achievement Award
given by the National Society of
Professional Engineers. Toledo
was dedicated in June 1981.
More progress has been made in
the technology of steep and angle
conveying. Paul Wingrove and
F. C. Foshag, Jr. (S’MEPreprint 81-
414) discussed the substantial
economic benefits demonstrated
by a Flexwall installation for
plant refuse handling in one of
Bethlehem’s mines.
There has been considerable
activity in the development of con-
tinuous haulage for improving
coal handling underground. Sev-
eral papers at the SME-AIME 1981
Fall Meeting (Terre, Preprint
81-390; Mayercheck, Preprint
81-384) dealt with new develop-
ments by manufacturers, automa-
tion, slurry transport, and R&D
programs. Progress has been cited
with several systems such as
bridge conveyors by Long-Airdox
and Jeffrey, flexible conveyor
train by Joy, hydraulic systems by
Conoco, Monorail bridge conveyor
by Goodman, Auto-Track bridge
conveyor train by FMA, MUCH
system by Jeffrey, Serpentix
Peabody Coal, Sideloader by Joy,
and the Hopper-Feeder-Bolter
FMC, as well as rail and hydraulic
transportation systems. These sys-
tems have attracted much atten-
tion, particularly because of the
massive quantities of raw and
spent shale to be moved when
shale operations go commercial.
Concentration
Review prepared by D.R. Nagaraj,
American Cyanamid Co.
Cost reduction activities in all
aspects of the mill flowsheet in-
creased in 1981 due to the general several mixtures of quartz and
slump in the industry. feldspar with minerals such as
rutile, zircon, monazite, celestite,
Magnetic, Electric, and Gravity and ilmenite. Coarse mica was
Separation concentrated (dry) using a two-
stage zig-zag pneumatic classifier
Svoboda (International Journal (Technology News, Oct. 1981).
of Mineral Processing, Vol. 8, 1981) The tailings from hot water ex-
investigated the magnetic proper- traction of tar sands were concen-
ties and abrasion resistance of trated by gravity and magnetic
some low-remanent ferromagne- separation and high-tension
tic and paramagnetic low-carbon equipment to obtain zircon and
steels as induction matrix mate- titanium concentrates (Trevoy
rials for concentration of siderite and Schutte, SME-AIME Preprint
and hematite ores. The recovery 81-20). The former was upgraded
and grade for all ferromagnetic by gravity, magnetic, and high ten-
steels were equivalent, while re- sion cleaning to produce a 98%
covery for paramagnetic steels zircon product. Tar sands projects
was lower and increased with in- in the US and Canada were de-
creasing magnetic induction. scribed (E&MJ, June 1981).
Compared with currently used A Reichert cone in conjunction
steels, all the investigated steels with a conventional shaking table
were less susceptible to holding recovered 859’oof extremely fine
highly coercive tramp iron that “flour gold” containing 44~0 –74P
causes matrix clogging. Magnetic (Ferree and Mashburn, SME-
susceptibility, saturation, and AIME Preprint 81-417).
remanent magnetization and Reynolds Metals Co. has con-
coercive force were the param- structed a heavy-media plant to
eters considered in matrix selec- concentrate nonferrous metals
tion. from auto shredder residues
Beneficiation of Venzuelan (E&MJ, June 1981). The plant is
ferruginous bauxites containing very similar to that in a coal prep-
about 35-45% paramagnetic iron aration plant with the medium
minerals by high-gradient magne- being a mixture of ferrosilicon
tic separation (HGMS) was dis- and powdered magnetite. This
cussed by Bolsaitis, et al. (Interna- plant is believed to be the first of
tional Journal of Mineral Process- its kind in the world.
ing, Vol. 8, 1981). The iron content The feasibility of beneficiating
of bauxites was substantially re- oil shale prior to retorting using
duced under optimum conditions heavy-media cyclones was dem-
with respect to grinding and pro- onstrated (World Mining, Nov.
per matching of matrix and parti- 1981). Pilot plant tests were run
cle size. Data showing the effects with 18 t (20 st) of shale from
of particle size, type of matrix, Cathedral Bluffs. A 40% cost sav-
magnetic fields, and flow rate were ings is predicted, resulting from
correlated by empirical equa- the large difference in capital ex-
tions. penditure required between a
The HGMS and pyrite flotation prebeneficiation plant and the
were compared by Hucko and additional retorts that might
Miller for removal of pyrite from otherwise be required. The pre-
coal (SME-AIME Preprint 81-59). beneficiation of oil shale will con-
The performance of the two pro- tinue to be of major consideration.
cesses wa,s essentially the same at A modified Mozley Laboratory
by –420~m (–35 mesh), but HGMS mineral separator was reported to
was superior at – 149Wm (– 100 correlate well the laboratory re-
by mesh), and removed other mineral sults with plant results on tables
constituents, more effectively (Mining Magazine, June 1981). The
than flotation. A combination of loss of tin in slime tailings was
gravity (using Humphrey’s spiral) minimized by the use of high ef-
and flotation methods was also ficiency hydrocyclones at Corn-
used by Browning (SME-AIME Pre- wall tin plant (Mining Magazine,
print 81-318). Clean coal recovered July 1981). The laboratory Mozley
by the combined process con- separator is being used at this
tained -8% ash, 0.12-O.16’ZO pyritic plant to check the plant perform-
sulfur, and 0.78-O.96q0total sulfur. ance in gravity separation.
of the pyritic 5Ulfur, 95% was re- A mini symposium on cyclones
jected. was held at the 1981 SME-AIME
US Bureau of Mines (USBM) de- Annual Meeting. In the first half,
scribed the use ofa rotating drum several interesting research-
continuous dielectric separator report papers were presented.
for treating complex mineral mix- Hoscheid gave a review of the
tures (Technology News, Dec. 1981). basic aspects of cyclone classifica-
Separations were achieved for tion. Klimpel (SME-AIME Preprint
81-85) discussed the influences of separator, high-gradient magnetic cated problem areas are possible
chemical additives on hydrocy - separators, Swirl cyclones, and poor flotation of coarse silica in an
clone performance with a copper Enviro thickeners. actual plant, slime coating and
ore slurry. In the studies made by frothing problems due to slimes,
Dow Chemical, it appeared that and the large quantity of silica
increasing slurry density at three Flotation (about two-thirds of feed) that has
feed rates without a chemical ad- USBM investigators reported to be removed in a single flotation
ditive caused a decrease in the details of their direct flotation step.
bypass fraction a, d,,,,values, and method for treating low-grade The effects of grinding method
the Sharpness Index (S1) value. At carnallite and sylvinite contain- (autogenous vs. ball mill) on the
a higher slurry density, in both ing a high content of water- floatabilities of copper-nickel
normal cyclone operation (spray) insoluble impurities (SME-AIME sulfides were investigated by
and unstable operation (rope), use Preprint 81-74). The process con- Iwasaki, et al. (SME Preprint 81-
of a chemical additive increases sists of flocculation-depression of 303). Autogenous grinding was be-
the bypass fraction a, d,,, value, insoluble slimes; decomposition neficial. It was suggested that the
and S1 value. Mular discussed fine leach of carnallite; potash electrochemical interaction be-
particle classification perform- rougher, cleaner, and recleaner; tween grinding media and sulfide
ance with a 102-mm cyclone. The and final product leaching. This minerals had a greater effect than
modeling of water-only cyclones direct method is comparable to the breakage characteristics of
was presented by Plitt and Flin- conventional techniques and re- ore.
toff. quires no removal of water-
The industrial applications and insoluble slimes. The mining and concentration
performance of cyclones were .John Dale reviewed current of sea floor metalliferous Red Sea
discussed in the second halfofthe mud consisting of complex sulfide
status of the extraction of sulfur
mini symposium. Roger, et al. from surface ores (ME, Sept. 1981). ores, especially zinc and copper,
(SME-AIME Preprint 81-12,5) re- Several alternatives to the Frasch were described (Mining Magazine,
ported on a study of using two vs. process have become eco- Aug. 1981). Flotation was success-
one stage hydrocyclones in a nomically attractive due to in- fully used for concentrating the
pilot-plant-scale ball mill circuit. creasing sulfur prices. Flotation, ores which were transferred from
Results of the evaluation, which autoclaving, agglomeration, sol- the seabed to a ship station. It
utilized computer stimulation vent extraction, vaporization, and would be interesting to find out if
with mathematical models, combinations of these have been such concentration techniques
showed that two stages of hy - used to recover sulfur. would also be suitable for the re-
drocyclones would improve clas- Apatite and calcite are concen- cently discovered massive
sification, increase productivity, trated by two-stage hydroclas- metallic sulfide deposits in the
and lead to more closely sized cir- sification and large flotation cells ocean floor within the 124-km
cuit products. Another paper by (200-mile) economic zone off the
at Siilinjarvi (World Mining, June
Hukki, et al. (SME-AIME Preprint 1981). Selective reagents are used US west coast (C&E News, Jan. 4,
81-84) described a two-stage in- to recover 85-90910of the apatite. 1982).
dustrial hydraulic classification The calcite is subsequently The copper-nickel ores of
system. The system, developed in floated with fatty acid. northeastern Minnesota are of
Finland, includes hydrocyclones Amine flotation of deslimed significant economic importance
for primary classification and chromite gravity concentrates at and contain an estimated 2.4 Gt
newly developed cone classifiers pH of about 2.5 was described by (2.2 billion tons) of mineralized
for secondary classification. Agar Smith, et al. (USBM RI 8502, 1981). rock at a cutoff grade of 0.5% Cu
of INCO Metals gave a report on Chromite containing serpentine plus Ni. Both laboratory and pilot
two-stage cyclone plant perform- as gangue was more amenable to plant tests conducted by USBM(RI
ance and simulation. this treatment than samples con- 8509, 1981) indicated that about
Hydrocyclones were used to im- taining readily floatable olivine. 909’. of the copper, 62-739’oof the
prove gold recoveries in Soviet The potential for recovering nickel, and 40% of the cobalt can
dredge plants (World Mining, July rutile and other byproducts from be recovered by flotation. The
1981). The concentrating hy - western copper mill tailings was concentrates, however, require
drocyclones gave better results determined by USBM (Sullivan further upgrading and separation
than the multi-cone and wide- and Llewellyn, SME Preprint 81- of the copper and nickel. A very
angle hydrocyclones. 333). Flotation removed 70?’.of the fine grinding was also required to
A new conductivity, magnetic rutile [estimated 79 kt/a (72,000 liberate the finaly disseminated
response ore sorter has developed tpy)]. These tailings could supply sulfides.
by RTZ Ore Sorters Group (E&MJ, 32% of US requirements. By bulk Montos Blancos (Empress Min-
Mar. 1981). The sorter can handle sulfide flotation, additional re- ers, Chile) has been treating cop-
feed size ranging from 25-150 mm covery of copper, silver, and gold per oxides by leaching for over 20
(0.98-5.9 in.) at a rate of 120 t/h (132 is possible. years. Recently a sulfideloxide
stph). The M16 photometric ore The feasibility of direct cationic flotation circuit was introduced
sorter was suitable in treatment of flotation of silica alone from for treating the significant
Grecian magnesite, Mt. Carabine Florida phosphate ores was dem- amounts of sulfides and mixed
tungsten, and Lappeenranta (Fin- onstrated in the laboratory by oxide-sulfides. The new plant is
land) ores (World Mining, April Houot, et al. (IMM Transactions, designed to accept a head grade of
1981). Vol. 90, 1981). The advantages are 1.90!Z0total Cu, of which 0.45T0 is
Adorjan (Mine and Quarry, Dec. acceptable grade and recovery of soluble Cu. Sulfides are floated at
1981) reviewed recent develop- phosphate obtained in a single pH 9.5-9.7, the tailings from which
ments in mineral processing stage with comparable reagent are treated in the oxide circuit
equipment such as photometric consumption, thus avoiding the where oxides are sulfidized using
sorters, Sortex MP80, Batac jigs, anionic flotation and the sodium sulfide and floated at pH
Reichert cone concentrator, MHS desorptionldeoiling stages. Indi- 2.5-3.0. The oxide concentrate
 (25% Cu and 500 glt Ag) is pumped
to acid leaching (Mining Magazine,
Dec. 1981). Oxide copper flotation
is also practiced at the Tong Lu
Shari mine in China (World Mining,
May 1981).
Peter Young (Mining Magazine,
Jan. 1982) reviewed flotation
machine designs that have been
created since the comprehensive
review by Harris (Flotation, AIME,
1976). The new, self-aerating Aker
machine from Norway reportedly
has a high air dispersion capacity,
good solids suspension, and
quiescent pulp surface. Several
existing machines have been re-
designed. There is continued
interest in larger flotation cells.
Flotation results from plants that
recently installed large flotation
machines are being reported. 01-
son, et al. (SME-AIME Preprint 81-
321) reported improved coarse
particle flotation in phosphate
beneficiation using 14.2 m’ (501.5
cu ft) cells. Cells of 28 ms (989 cu ft)
are being considered.
Chelating agents, which are be-
lieved to be more selective than
conventional flotation reagents,
are receiving increased attention.
Several papers discussing the
fundamentals as well as practical
aspects of the use of chelating
agents appeared in 1981. At the
February SME-AIME Annual
Meeting, an entire session was de-
voted to the applications of chelat-
ing agents. The chelating agent
Cupferron with fuel oil was used
as a collector for chalcopyrite by
Prabhakar and Khangaonkar (In-
ternational Journal of Mineral Pro-
cessing, Vol. 9, 1982). Cup ferron
alone was unable to impart
sufficient hydrophobicity to chal-
copyrite. Addition of fuel oil as an
auxiliary collector was necessary.
Nagaraj and Somasundaran dis-
cussed the use of hydroxy oxime
chelating agents for the flotation
of oxidized copper minerals (ME,
Sept. 1981). Structure vs. activity
relationships for a number
homologous hydroxy oximes were
elucidated for chrysocolla flota-
tion. The relevance of reagent par-
titioning between the mineral and
the bulk aqueous medium in terms
of excess reagent consumption or
loss was demonstrated.
Scheelite flotation with several
conventional noncomplexing-type
ionic surfactants and with 4-tert,
butyl catechol (4TBC) chelating
agents was investigated by Ata-
demir, et al. (International Journal
of Mineral Processing, Vol. 8, 1981).
None of the reagents provided
sufficient separation of scheelite
from calcite.
The use of recyclable am- Wang (ACS meeting, April 1981).
photeric surfactants for the pre- The performance of polymers was
cipitate flotation of copper as its investigated in terms of their
sulfide from solutions containing structure. A copolymer composi-
100-500 ppm copper was discussed tion containing <70 mole’-70 so-
by Beitelshees, et al. (Interna- dium acrylate (the rest being
tional Journal of Mineral Process- acrylamide) with a molecular
ing, Vol. 8, 1981). weight of 0.3 to 5 million was pre-
ferred for optimum performance.
Flocculation and Dewatering
Dryzmala and Fuerstenau con-
ducted studies of selective floccu-
lation in the quartz-hematite sys-
tem (International Journal of Min-
eral Processing, Vol. 8, July 1981).
Crushing and
Quartz can be activated by hy-
drolyzing Fe:’+,causing adsorption
Grinding
of polyacrylic acid. Sequestering Review prepared by Malcolm D.
agents such as EDTA, KF, and Flavel, Allis-Chalmers.
hexametaphosphate can prevent
quartz activation, thereby The onset of the worst recession
facilitating selective flocculation since the 1930’s had a dramatic
of hematite. However, only EDTA impact on raw materials demands.
and KF were found to be effective. As a consequence, prices for
The general principles govern- nearly all minerals were down
ing shear flocculation, which may and many producers were forced
become an important beneficia- to cut back production.
tion process, were discussed by Iron, copper, and molybdenum
Warren (Chemtech, Mar. 1981). The producers in the United States
use of organic flocculants for de- have been forced to shut down
watering fine coal and coal refuse temporarily or permanently a
was discussed by Lewellyn and number of concentrating opera-
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 tions. Some of these are among the
largest units of their type in the
world. To name but a few: US
Steel, Minntac; Hanna, Grove-
land; Duval, Sierrita and Es-
peranza; Asarco, Silver Bell.
Energy costs were again the sub-
ject of considerable interest. The
National Research Council’s Na-
tional Materials Advisory Board
in a report entitled “Comminution
Energy Consumption,” stated that
US energy consumption for crush-
ing and grinding was a staggering
33 billion kw-hr, or 1.5% of the na-
tional output. The report was not
able to identify any significant
technological breakthroughs in
the foreseeable future to reduce
this consumption and was pes-
simistic on the subject of future
research efforts. This problem is
typified by the statement that the
implementation of new or existing
but unproven technology involves
a certain risk that users, engineer-
ing companies, and construction
firms often will not assume.
However, in a brief report in
World Mining (Oct. 1981) C. A. Si-
mons, et al. presented four al-
gorithms describing electrical
energy demand. They based their
investigation on uranium opera-
tions in New Mexico, but stated
that the mathematical algorithms
provide a quantitative basis for
forecasting future electrical
energy demands in other areas
with similar conditions.
It would seem that the tight
operating cost budgets resulting
from weak markets will minimize
the efforts of researchers to solve
long-term operating cost prob-
lems through lack of available
funds. This could ultimately force
more plant closures by less
efficient producers.
Crushing
As part of a mini symposium at
the AIME Annual Meeting in
Chicago, considerable attention
was given to operating cost re-
duction. In particular, wear
metal consumption was the sub-
ject of a number of interesting pa-
pers. A. B. Steck, of Rexnord, com-
pared the impact of specially de-
veloped wearing elements on
crusher performance. J. Dodd,
Amax Research and Develop-
ment, gave a broad review of the
current state of the art in most of
the key areas in which various al-
loys of iron and steel are applied
(SME Preprint 81-30). C. B. Drugger
and D. M. Kjos, Minneapolis Elec-
tric Steel, discussed field experi-
ences with crusher and grinding
mill liner materials and design. In
reviewing steel consumption in On-Going Research
mineral beneficiation, S. Malghan,
Exxon Research and Engineering, In a lengthy report, amply anno-
discussed methods that might re- tated (CIMBulletin, Dec. 1981), A. G.
duce the current consumption, es- Ulsoy and K. V. S. Sastry discussed
timated by some at more than 454 the principal developments in
Gg (1 billion lb) in wet grinding automatic control of mineral pro-
alone (SME Preprint 81-139). cessing systems, citing high
Energy consumption in crushing energy consumption during grind-
was discussed by M. D. Flavel and ing and poor efficiency associated
H. W. Rimmer (SME Preprint 81- with beneficiation of fine minerals
124), who based their presentation as two important problems that
on methods developed by Allis- have made automatic control an
Chalmers to predict the breakage important research area. Al-
size distribution and energy re- though stating that mathematical
quirements from one lab test. models of grinding mills and
grinding circuits are well de-
veloped, the authors concluded
Grinding that research activity in this area
must be increased with emphasis
At the same Chicago meeting on refinement of existing models,
there was an intense debate on the studies to better understand the
subject of large diameter mill process dynamics and variables,
drives. Major gear manufactur- application of advanced control
ers—Falk Corp., David Brown theory to process control, and im-
Ltd., Dominion Engineering provements in existing instru-
Works, and Fuller Corp.—gave de- mentation and development of
tails regarding the design and new control tools.
manufacturing limitations of such R. L. Guerguerian and E. Bercel
drives. P. W. Thorsell, Whitmore (CIM Bulletin, Nov. 1981) discussed
Manufacturing Co., discussed instrumentation installed at
lubrication of large gears. Some of Dominion Steel to monitor the
the larger mill manufacturers— lubrication system for large grind-
Allis-Chalmers, Koppers, and ing mill trunnion bearings. Field
Rexnord—gave insight into the testing of such protective in-
designer’s approach to ade- strumentation indicated that it
quately specifying the duties of can prevent damage andlor in-
large mill drives. Outlining one crease the life of the components
possible view on future large mill and auxiliaries of the mill and its
design, representatives from both bearings. The authors indicated
General Electric and Westing- that instrumentation for preven-
house discussed the possibilities tive maintenance of grinding mills
of low-speed variable frequency is an area for increased attention,
motor drives. As a result of this particularly since the trend
discussion, it might be concluded toward larger and more sophisti-
that there is no maximum limit in cated mills has made operators
sight to the size of mill power increasingly vulnerable to finan-
trains, but more stringent spec- cial loss, as the cost of downtime
ifications will have to be written to and repairs has increased with
ensure maximum performance. machine size.
At the SME-AIME Fall Meeting
in Denver a comprehensive re-
Equipment Briefs
view of autogenous and semi-
autogenous grinding was made by Several equipment develop-
Art McPherson and John Bas- ments were announced in the
sarear (SME Preprint 81-378). R. R. trade press:
Dorfler, et al., Climax Molybde- ● An all-roller bearing VFC (very
num, described methods by which fine crusher) designed for high ca-
they had made substantial reduc- pacity production of dense-graded
tions in grinding ball consumption fine-sized products was intro-
using Armco’s approach to ration- duced by the Telsmith Div. of
ing grinding mill ball charges Barber-Greene Co. (ME, Dec. 1981).
(SME Preprint 81-412). Allis-Chal- c Canadian General Electric in-
mers described methods used to troduced a new generation of
determine the best comminution motor drive equipment to power
circuit for a particular ore. The ore grinding mills (CIM Bulletin,
author, C. A. Rowland, concluded Oct. 1981).
there was no ideal universal cir- c C-E Bauer, a subsidiary of
cuit. Adequate test work during Combustion Engineering, has de-
feasibility studies appeared to be veloped a high-capacity 1.3-m (52-
the best way of resolving the many in. ) single-disc attrition mill
conflicts in making the correct de- capable of applying 597.8 kW (800
cisions. hp) (CIM Bulletin, June 1981).

Hydrometallurgy
The rapid price escalation of
precious metals in the last few
years may account for the recent
upsurge in hydrometallurgical re-
search on such ores. In contrast,
the activity in the base metals and
uranium has declined due to the
low profit margin. Some of the
noteworthy developments in re-
gard to these commodities will be
discussed.
Gold and Silver
Several new deposits were dis-
covered this year. Duval an-
nounced an ore deposit near its
Battle Mountain, NV, property
containing 68 kt (2.4 million OZ)of
gold and 260 kt (9.2 million OZ)of
silver. Newmont Mining Corp. re-
ported that the reserves in Nevada
and California had been adjusted
to 198 kt (7 million OZ)(Pay Dirt,
Nov. 1981). Fegart Construction
Co. has organized one of the na-
tion’s largest gold heap leaching
operations near Landusky and
Zortman, MT. Roughly 37 kt/d
(41,000 std) of low grade ore is
mined and leached with cyanide
solution. This ore body has been
estimated to contain some 45.4 Mt
(50 million st) of heap-leachable
gold reserves (E/MJ, Jan. 1981).
Plans are being made to reactivate
two old mining areas in Idaho. The
cyanide leach system will be built
to withstand a 100-year flood and
the leaching pads will be cleaned
after each mining season (Pay Dirt,
Oct. 1981).
The “state-of-the-art” of gold
and silver processing was re-
viewed in Skillings Mining Review
(Mar. 7, 1981). The main leaching
lixiviant is still cyanide but re-
search is being conducted with
thioureau, thiosulfate, and aque-
ous chlorine. Laboratory leaching
experiments were conducted to
ascertain the effectiveness of
acidic solution ofthiourea for dis-
solving gold from finely dissemi-
nated gold ores of the Carlin type
(Gold and Silver Leaching, Recoverg
and Economics, SME-AIME, 1981).
Extractions of up to 90?Z0were at-
tained from the ore, which was
taken from the Chipmunk ore body
of the North umberland mining
district, Nye County, NV. In the
same book a chapter deals with
the fundamental chemistry of the
acidic thiourea system.
In the recovery step, the carbon
process is still receiving the most
attention. In the September and
October issues of ME, the panel
discussion from the 1981 SME-
AIME Annual Meeting on the
carbon-in-pulp process was pub-
lished. A new project was recently
announced by Bechtel at the New
Guineas’ gold-copper mine which
will involve carbon-in-pulp (E/MJ,
Nov. 1981). Alligator Ridge gold
mine began processing gold at Ely,
NV, using heap leaching and car-
bon adsorption (E/MJ, Aug. 1981).
Freeport’s laboratory developed a
process to deactivate a natural
carbon substance in order to ex-
tract gold (California Mining Jour-
nal, July 1981). A fines-ag-
glomeration technique, de-
veloped by the US Bureau of
Mines (USBM), has considerably
increased the solution flows
through gold ore heaps leached
with cyanide (Mining Congress
Journal, May 1981). Further re-
search is indicated on the effect of
clay content in various leached
ore pulps. This clay content may
significantly affect the adsorption
rate andlor carbon loading (World
Mining, July 1981).
One planned operation for
cyanide leaching at the Argo gold
mill tailings pile in Idaho Springs,
CO, has been scrapped because of
local opposition (The Mining Rec-
ord, July 22, 1981). A new hydro-
metallurgical process to extract
gold without the use of cyanides
was announced by Haber, Towaco,
NJ (C&E News, Dec. 7, 1981), under
an agreement with Houston Min-
ing & Resources. The process will
be based on electroseparation
technology and has been success-
fully used to extract silver from a
variety of ores. A method for ex-
tracting silver with sulfuric acid
was reported by Sherritt Gordon
(Hydrometallurgy, Vol. 7, 1981).
Uranium
The activity of uranium leaching
has decreased considerably. Cie.
Generale de Matieres Nucleaires
(COGEMA) and Societe Indus-
trielle des Mineras de L’Ouest
(SIMO) originally built five con-
centration plants but two plants
were recently closed down (Mining
Magazine, Nov. 1981). Sulfuric acid
and sodium perch lorate were
used with the pitchblende ore
containing small amounts of chal-
copyrite, pyrite, or galena. The al-
kaline route was used on the car-
bonate ore which is a mixture of
schists and sandstones containing
organic matter (humic acids and
bitumen), sulfides (up to 19. S), and
small quantities of molybdenum.
The depressed state of the in-
dustry was reflected in some of the
papers presented at the 5th An-
nual Uranium Seminar in Al-
buquerque, NM, (SME-AIME,
1982), with an emphasis on eco-
nomics and possible future trends
for the industry. The milling pa-
pers presented emphasized better
approaches for cost savings and
environmental quality control.
Mobil’s first in situ leach plant
in El Mesquite, TX, was the most
recently opened in situ leach op-
eration in the south Texas
uranium district. Leach ate is
pumped into the uranium-rich
sandstone using oxygen as an
oxidizer. 0ver200 ppm oxygen was
dissolved in the leachate, depend-
ing on the depth at which it is in-
jected (E/MJ, Jan. 1981).
Uranium has also been recov-
ered from lignites and radium
from uranium mill tailings (Ify-
drometallurgy, Vol. 7, 1981).
The most common lixiviants
used for uranium extraction are
sulfuric acid and carbonate so-
lutions. The use of phosphoric
acid was discussed in Hydrometal-
Zurgy (Vol. 7, 1981). A report on the
selection of lixiviants for in situ
leaching was recently published
(USBM IC 8851, 1981).
Copper
Copper companies are cutting
back production. Pay Dirt (Dec.
1981) reported that eight copper
companies have announced cut-
backs; however, the existing oper-
ations are still being improved.
Kennecott Minerals Co. brought a
new copper solvent extraction
plant on stream at Ray Mines Div.
near Hayden, AZ (ME, May 1981).
Cities Service expanded their
mining operations and the addi-
tion of a second SX-EW plant is
expected to raise production at
the Miami, AZ, operation 90.7 kt
(200 million lb) annually (The Min-
ing Record, Oct. 14, 1981). White
Pine commenced construction ofa
$78 million plant for an electrolyt-
ic copper refinery (Skillings’ Min-
ing Review, May 30, 1981). At the
Empresa Minera Mantes Blancos
mine in Chile, hydrochloric and
sulfuric acids are being used in
the leaching operation. The cop-
per ore consumes acid so it is
necessary to add 220 tld (242.5 tpd)
of concentrated acid. The leach-
ing plant treats about 8.25 ktld
(9094 tpd) of ore and recovers be-
tween 84 and 86% of the soluble
copper (Mining Magazine, Dec.
1981).
Zinc
The use of hydrometallurgical
operations in zinc processing are
increasing due to sulfur dioxide
pollution with pyrometallurgical
processes. Process metallurgists
at Sherritt Gordon Mines Ltd. an-
nounced that oxidationlpressure
leaching will be replacing the cur-
rent standard roast-leach section
of zinc concentrating plants (E/MJ,
Dec. 1981). The leaching of zinc
oxide with chlorine at atmo-
spheric pressure has shown that
the leaching rate is diffusion con-
trolled with electric-arc furnace
dust but surface controlled with
Turkish ore (Metallurgical Trans-
actions B, Sept. 1981). Chlorine has
also been used to leach metallic
zinc and zinc alloys (Metallurgical
Transactions l?, Sept. 1981). An or-
ganic solvent has been added to
dissolve the sulfur produced in
the ferric chloride leaching of
sphalerite (Hgdrometallurgy, Vol.
‘7,1981).
Other Metals
Many of the papers presented at
the SME-SPE Solution Mining
Symposium during the SME-AIME
Fall Meeting covered hydrometal-
lurgical processing of the metals
covered in this review—gold,
silver, uranium, copper, nickel,
and zinc (Interfacing Technologies
in Solution Miningj SME-AIME,
1982). In addition to discussions of
hydrometallurgical processes for
brine production, a paper re-
viewed the current technology for
the aqueous oxidation of pyrite. A
USBM contractual investigation
has been considering the feasibil-
ity ofhydrometallurgical process-
ing for such metals as aluminum
(with a copper byproduct), man-
ganese, and cobalt-nickel. In the
study, only virgin areas and un-
mined reserves in known districts
within the US were considered. D
Agglomeration
Review supplied by S.S. Sephton,
Republic Steel Corp., and Sooi
Chong, Hanna Mining Co.
A continuing low level of de-
mand for steel and foundry prod-
ucts adversely impacted output
and requirements for iron ore and
iron ore agglomerates. The year
was marked by operating curtail-
ments to meet the reduced ton-
nage requirements. North Ameri-
can pelletizing plants operated at
less than 77?7.of their design ca-
pacity although tonnage in-
creased from 90 Gt (89 million
gross lt) in 1980 to 95.5 Gt (94 mil-
lion gross lt) in 1981. It is estimated
that 1982 pellet production will be
about 66?i0 of design capacity. In
spite of operational problems
caused by the reduced product
requirements, greater emphasis
by both producers and consumers
of pellets have been placed on pel-
let quality.
Pellet Quality
Although chemical and physical
qualities of pellets have always
been monitored, attention in the
past few years has increasingly
turned to metallurgical qualities
that impact on subsequent blast
furnace smelting. A major portion
of pellet plant capacity in North
America is captive to the steel in-
dustry either through equity own-
ership or long-term contracts and
pellet quality requirements have
not been handled as strictly as in
producing countries where the
greater part of production is for
export. Now that quality and high
production requirements do not
have to be a compromise, pellets
of superior quality are in demand.
Pellet quality standards are now
adequately stated for physical and
chemical requirements. Testing
procedures and evaluation
these qualities are now standard
practice. Metallurgical quality
requirements to better simulate
blast furnace requirements in the
low temperature upper zone and
the high temperature cohesive
zone are now required. A number
of tests for swelling tendencies,
reducibility, low temperature
breakdown, and high temperature
softening-melting characteristics
are now in demand by the blast
furnace operators.
Additives
Acid pellets are now being
tested with various additives so
that their high temperature prop-
erties may approach those of
fluxed sinter. Slag melting points
of pellets can be increased by add-
ing CaO and MgO in the form of
dolomite to the pellet feed.
Hoogovens and LKAB have moved
into olivine addition to pellet
feed. Blast furnace tests at Usinor
and Hoogovens have shown im-
proved performance. Other pro-
ducers are experimenting with
other additives such as limestone,
charcoal, and sawdust to improve
porosity or reduce dependence on
liquid and gaseous fuels.
Fuel Saving
Most plants now are built with
direct recuperation of hot gases
from the cooling area of their pel-
let plants. Many early plants built
without this feature have been
successfully modified. CVRD is
pioneering injection of charcoal
fines into the recuperation hood of
the straight grates. This raises the
temperature of the recuperated
gases and reduces the fuel oil re-
quired in the firing zone. LKAB
has piloted a new technology
especially designed for capacities
in the 100 kt/a-l Mt/a (98,000-
984,000 ltpy) range. Pellets are in-
durated on a perforated steel belt
and the process is characterized
by a simplified air flow and deep
hearth layer. It is claimed that fuel
consumption is expected to be
below 211 GJ (200,000 Btu) per
metric ton for magnetite ore and
power consumption for the in-
durating machine at 10 kWh/t.
Large Size Pellets
Kobe Steel will test a new type of
blast furnace feed. It will attempt
to obtain the advantage of both
sinter and pellets. A large diame-
ter pellet [25.4 mm (1 in.) or more]
is produced and crushed to ap-
proximately +6.35 mm (+?4 in.) in
size, finer material is screened
of out, and the +6.35 mm (+?4 in.) is
fed to the blast furnace. Kobe will
test about 400 kt (394,000 lt) of this
product made from ground ores
mixed with unground Canadian
concentrates.
Bentonite Substitution
Work continues on finding a
substitute binder to be used in-
stead of bentonite. Recently Enka
Industrial Colloids of Holland de-
veloped an organic binder called
Peridur and it is claimed that it
equals the performance obtained
with Wyoming-type bentonite. It is
also claimed that direct reduced
pellets made with Peridur instead
of bentonite result in consider-
able electrical energy savings
when melting the sponge iron be-
cause of the decrease in acid-
oxide content of the pellets. CVRD
in Brazil has reported successful
plant-scale tests using this binder.
Work is continuing in 1982 to
improve the quality of agglomer-
ates for subsequent smelting and
to reduce the cost of production.
Direct Reduction
At Monterrey, Mexico, the first
commercially scaled HYL III con-
tinuous reduction plant has been
in operation for one year (EIMJ,
May 1981). Alzada pellets for the
operation are mainly supplied by
the El Encino mine in southwest-
ern Mexico. Details of the pelletiz-
ing process and subsequent HYL
direct reduction were given in a
report in ME (April 1981).
 C-E Lummus, a subsidiary of
Combustion Engineering Inc., and
Sumitomo Heavy Industries Ltd.
announced that their LS-RIOR
process (Lummus-Sumitomo-
resid iron ore reduction) had been
successfully demonstrated (Skil-
lings’ Mining Review, Mar. 14, 1981).
Data from the pilot plant [9 t/d (8.9
ltpd) sponge iron capacity]
showed that product pellets have
achieved metallizations in excess
of 95~0. The process utilizes iron
ore fines, low grade (high sulfur)
petroleum resid as binder, low
grade (high sulfur) petroleum
coke as reductant, and dolomite.
Conferences
At the 40th Ironmaking Confer-
ence in Toronto, Mar. 29-Apr. 1,
1981, the emphasis, because of
conditions in the North American
industry, were on improvements
in fuel rates, productivity, and
economies in production. Pro-
ceedings of the conference will be
available from the Iron and Steel
Society of AIME, P.O. Box 411,
Warrendale, PA 15086.
The 3rd International Sym-
posium on Agglomeration was
held in Nurnberg, Germany, in
May 1981. Of the over 600 at-
tendees, 47 represented the US
and Canada. Subject areas cov-
ered were fundamentals, test
methods and laboratory investiga-
tions, green pelletizing, pressure
compaction, sintering, agglomera-
tion of waste products, plant prac-
tice and design, and coke forming
processes. Proceedings of the
Symposium may be ordered
through Dr.-Ing. O. Molerus, Uni-
versitat Erlangen-Nurnberg, Er-
langen, West Germany. The price
is DM 100 (about US$45). The 4th
Symposium, sponsored by ISS-
SME, will be held in the US in
1985. ❑
Operating
Controls
Review was prepared by David J.
Spottiswood, Colorado School of
Mines.
The past year has been one of
steady growth in the installation
and development of automatic
control systems in mineral pro-
cessing plants. It has also been
one of continuing progress in the
development and improvement of
on-line measuring devices.
After a year of intense confer- measuring system for detecting
ence and symposia activity in 1980, bubbles in pipes and entrained in
the past year has been relatively pulp (E/MJ, May 1981). This on-line
quiet and fewer papers appeared transmission gamma ray density
related to operating controls. measuring system uses CSI17as the
SME-AIME activity continued, radioactive source. ❑
with papers at the Fall Meeting in
Denver emphasizing the value of
computer simulation in control
(by B. J. Ballard) and the applica-
tion of modern control aspects.
The state-of-the-art of grinding Mill Design
control was also reviewed (L. B.
Hales, et al., SME-AIME Preprint Review prepared by Richard Ad-
81-413). dison, Stearns-Roger Engineering
At the Annual Meeting, opera- Corp.
tion of the distributed control sys-
tem at Reserve Mining Co. was The design prospects for very
discussed in detail (by K. Fisher) large mill facilities diminished
and development and installation during 1981 as depression of
of the control system at the Buick prices led to shelving of many of
concentrator was also reported the large copper projects and a
(D. A. Heitman, SME-AIME Pre- dampening of enthusiasm for oil
print 82-53). shale. However, design of small
Once again the ISA Annual Min- and medium-size plants has con-
ing and Metallurgical Industries tinued apace—leading to innova-
symposium provided a forum for tive developments and to broader
reports on instrumentation and use of earlier developed technol-
control in mineral processing. ogy. Problems in the more de-
The number of base-metal tailed aspects of design continued
plants employing on-stream X-ray to provide helpful guidance to de-
fluorescence analyzers continues sign engineers and developments
to increase (e.g., Cyprus-Anvil and in comminution and processing at
the Boliden mill in Laisvall). Ad- existing plants provided a fertile
ditional installations of on-line source of new ideas for possible
particle size monitors also are applications to the design of new
continuing. The increasing impor- plants. Like all other aspects of
tance attached to control in coal mineral processing, environmen-
preparation plants is seen in in- tal concerns and the necessity for
strumentation developments. In- tight economic controls impacted
struments for on-stream ash de- on mill design.
termination are reported, one
based on neutron activation New Mills
analysis (Kennedy Van Saun) and Interesting new mills that have
another for application on coal as come on-stream or about which ar-
coarse as 85% 5 mm (2 in.) based on ticles have been published during
differences in X-ray absorption the year include the Highmont
(Coal Age, Jan. 1981). Also, de- concentrator in British Columbia,
velopments are reported in the
the White Mesa uranium mill in
use of X-ray fluorescence for ash Colorado, the Dons Aida concen-
and sulfur monitoring in coal. trator in Mexico, the Spekatakel
Control of media density and con- mill in South Africa, and the
sistency in dense medium washing Polaris mill in Canada’s North-
plants is receiving increased at- west Territories.
tention. The Highmont concentrator
Improvements
over the whole range
are occurring
of in-
(CIM Bulletin, Mar. 1981), at 22.7
kt/d (25,000 stpd), continues the
strumentation used in mineral
plants, and it is unrealistic to at-
tradition of low-grade, high-
tonnage porphyry copper mills
tempt to list them here. These im- with a clean simple design using a
provements range from con- minimum number of large ca-
trollers, through process instru- pacity machines and incorporat-
ments such as those for the direct ing autogenous grinding in the
measurement of mass flow, to pro- comminution circuit. One unique
tective instrumentation such as aspect of the Highmont concen-
that reported for film thickness trator is the use of fully autoge-
measurement in large grinding nous mills in conjunction with the
mill trunnion bearings (CIM Bull,e- cone crushers—as is practiced at
tin, Nov. 1981). the Bagdad plant in Arizona. It
Wang Xiugui reported on the will be interesting to see if the de-
development in the People’s Re- sign of such comminution circuits
public of China of a density becomes an established trend.
 Interesting aspects of the 1.8 kt/d
(1984 stpd) White Mesa uranium
mill (ME, April 1981) are the use of
vibrating screens to close the
semiautogenous mill circuit, the
application of seven high-capacity
countercurrent recantation (CCD)
thickeners in the washing circuit,
and the use of plastic-lined tail-
ings ponds. The use of high ca-
pacity CCD circuits has not always
been easy and, as yet, it is not pos-
sible to employ them in the design
of mills without some concern.
The publication of a paper
about the 100 t/d (110 stpd) Dona
Aida copper concentration in
Mexico (ME, Feb. 1981) provided a
fascinating insight into the design
and construction of small mills in
developing countries. The use of a
single drawing for this facility is
amazing. Unusual aspects of the
plant are the application of
timber in bins and launders and
the use of pipe for structural steel.
The moving of an old mill from
one location to another provided
an interesting look at the prob-
lems involved in such action at the
Spekatakel mill in the Cape Pro-
vince of South Africa (SME-AIME
Preprint 81-323). Coincident with
the move was a very significant re-
duction in floor space—by
eliminating the use of classifiers
in the grinding circuit and the use
of large capacity flotation cells.
The building of an entire con-
centrator on a barge (ME, Nov.
1981)—and moving it by sea
through the Arctic ice to a location
on an island in the far north of
Canada—is an imaginative solu-
tion to the problem of construc-
tion north of the Arctic Circle.
This technique was applied to the
building of Cominco’s Polaris
lead-zinc mill and we will prob-
ably see more such applications as
other ore bodies are found in sea-
accessible remote locations.
Heap Leaching
The application of agglomera-
tion to cyanide heap leaching of
gold and silver ores saw a drama-
tic increase in the last year with
the Candaleria (ME, June 1981),
Alligator Ridge, and Borealis
(SME-AIME Preprint 82-43) opera-
tions getting underway in Nevada.
The technique of adding small
quantities of quicklime or cement
to crushed ore to enable the leach-
ing of high clay ores—otherwise
untreatable by conventional heap
leaching—has been a tremendous
development, particularly to op-
erations in Nevada.
Another interesting heap leach
operation which has come into
production lately has been the
Ortiz Gold mine in New Mexico
(Interfacing Technologies in Solu-
tion Mining, SME-AIME, 1982). Al-
though Ortiz does not incorporate
agglomeration in the circuit, it
does have some unique compo-
nents in the design. Of particular
interest are the use of a conveyor
gantry to deliver and distribute
ore onto the heap leach pad and
the final production of gold from
the refinery through replating of
the cathodes rather than through
fire refining.
Problems
A. M. Muirwood, speaking on the
occasion of the 14th Sir Julius
Werner Memorial Lecture of the
Institution of Mining& Metallurgy
in 1979 made an incisive statement
that certainly has application
mill design: “Throughout engi-
neering history, knowledge ad-
vances largely on the increasing
understanding of the causes of
failure. ” Up to now, there have
been very few papers concerned
with failures, but such papers
often provide information of far
more interest than those con-
cerned with success. A refreshing
look at plant problems was pro-
vided in a paper on SAMARCO’S
iron ore pipeline in Brazil (ME,
Feb. 1981). The problems of the
Woodlawn concentrator in New
South Wales, Australia, have also
been mentioned (Mining Journal,
June 12, 1981) and the application
of steam heating of pulp to im-
prove flotation provides an in-
teresting example of the applica-
tion of technology transfer from
similar operations elsewhere.
There has been mention
difficulties with the two new gold
plants in South Africa, at Deek-
raal and Elandsrand, in failing to
achieve their initially planned
throughput tonnages (Mining
Journal, Apr. 10, 1981) and ad-
ditional information concerning
these problems would certainly
be helpful to mill designers.
Comminution
Scandinavian developments in
grinding continue to provide new
food for thought (Mining Magazine,
Nov. 1980). The new third mill line
at Boliden’s Aitik mill incorpo-
rates a two-stage autogenous
grinding system with pebbles
automatically provided for the
second stage mill; this is the same
system as that which was
pioneered at their Stekenjokk
mill. It certainly appears that
Boliden is confident with this
method and we may well see it
become more widespread.
As always, the Scandinavian
companies excel in the applica-
tion of rubber linings for mills.
The use of rubber shell liners at
the Sulitjelma plant in a rod mill
with 80-mm (3 in.) diam rods pro-
vides an example of the applica-
bility of rubber liners to condi-
tions that were heretofore thought
too severe.
The use of carbide pump impel-
lers in the grinding circuit of the
Bleikvassli plant in Norway is an
interesting departure from nor-
mal practice and one which would
be considered with trepidation by
more conventional operators.
One further Scandinavian com-
minution innovation is Syd-
varanger’s massive peripheral-
motor ball mill of8100 kW (Mining
to Magazine, Jan. 1982), a develop-
ment that is sure to spur more ap-
plications of this technology.
The development of Lurgi’s cen-
trifugal mill—with the trial of a
1000 kW unit in South Africa—
gives indications of a possible fu-
ture comminution alternative, but
one which may, like that at Syd-
varanger, have to wait for an ap-
plication particular to its unique
characteristics before seeing
more widespread application.
An interesting application in
rod milling—one which is usually
ignored in design but whose ad-
vantages have been reported in a
number of instances—was dis-
cussed in a paper concerning the
Frood-Stobie mill in Canada
(Canadian Mining Journal, Mar.
1981): the necessity for a certain
amount of fines material in rod
mill feed for obtaining maximum
of grinding capacity.
Processing
Wider consideration is now
being given to oxidation pressure
leaching following the commer-
cialization of Sherritt’s zinc
pressure leaching process (CIM
Bulletin, May 1981). This alterna-
tive to other forms of oxidation
provides design engineers with a
process to overcome some of the
severe environmental drawbacks
of more conventional processes.
The awarding of a contract for the
supply of a large oxygen-
producing plant for Vaal Reef’s
advanced uranium pressure
leaching process (Mining Journal,
Nov. 21, 1981) is a further indica-
tion of the widening influence of
this technology.
Carbon-in-pulp processing of
gold and silver ores continues to
excite interest. The panel discus-
sion at the 1981 SME-AIME An-
nual Meeting (ME, Sept., Oct. 1981)
was further evidence of this inter-
est, and provided a review of dif-
ferent techniques used in the pro-
cess. Carbon-in-pulp technology
continues to be applied to more
plants, particularly in South Af-
rica. The leading edge of this
technology in North America is
exemplified in the new Pinson
mill in Nevada (SME-AIME Pre-
print 82-162).
In the solid/liquid separation
field, particularly in the dewater-
ing of concentrates, the applica-
tion of new technologies for pro-
ducing drier filter cakes than were
previously possible have been
seen in the applications of Fin-
land’s Larox pressure filters and
the Aerodyne tube filter press.
With these new types of filters it is
often possible to obtain filter
cakes of low enough moisture con-
tent to do away with the usual
heat-drying step.
Environmental
Tailings disposal continues to
be a critical factor in any mill de-
sign and, in some instances, is re-
sponsible for a considerable por-
tion of the total project cost. The
application of synthetic liners for
toxic tailings impoundment is be-
coming increasingly required.
Descriptions of this are that for
Cotter Corp.’s uranium mill in
Colorado (E/MJ, July 1981) and the
White Mesa mill in Utah, men-
tioned previously.
Marine disposal of tailings re
ceived some publicity with the
reopening of the Kitsault mill in
British Columbia where the tail-
ings are disposed of 50 m (164 ft)
below sea level into the adjoining
Pacific waters of the 400 m (1315 ft)
deep Alice Arm inlet. Similar
marine disposal of tailings is used
at the Bleikvassli lead-zinc-cop-
per mill off Norway.
Destruction of cyanide con-
tinues to receive attention, and an
increasing number of different
methods of cyanide destruction
are becoming available, although
the cost of such processes has, to
now, been restricted to just a few
low-ton high-grade operations.
Although still somewhat neg-
lected, designing mills to
minimize noise is gradually being
recognized. Quiet room enclo-
sures for particularly noisy
machinery are now available from
firms specializing in such struc-
tures, and the use of rubber to re-
duce both noise and abrasion is
becoming more evident.
Use of dry fog dust suppression
systems has spread from the
Scandinavian countries to as far
afield as the Spekatakel mill in Governmental Actions
South Africa and the Candaleria The real gains, in terms of en-
heap leach operation in Nevada. vironmental rule relaxation, has
The dry fog system is a joy to de-
been in some easing of enforce-
signers in that it requires no
ment and other activities by vari-
extras in the way of ducts and en-
ous agencies (e.g., OSHA; see the
closures to handle the dust prob-
introduction to this review).
lem; these are replaced with a sys-
Another example is the reorgani-
tem of pipes, valves, and nozzles zation of the Environmental Pro-
for compressed air and water.
tection Agency (EPA) into six pro-
gram areas: water; solid waste and
General emergency response; air, noise,
Recognition of the problems of and radiation; pesticides and
project management is seen in the toxic substances; research and
rapid increase in the number of development; and administration;
seminars and short courses avail- and the breakup of its enforce-
able in this field. ment division (ME, July 1981).
The range of available construc- Even with some possible relaxa-
tion materials continues to grow, tion of regulations, an EPA study
and new construction materials predicts that the mining and pri-
are particularly useful in plants mary metal industries can expect
handling corrosive acids. to spend over $20 billion between
Ceramics and polyurethane are 1982 and 1987 to comply with fed-
materials with increasing appli- eral pollution control programs
cations because of their tremen- (ME, Oct. 1981).
dous abrasion-resistant qualities. By law, state regulations must
One final area of design—one be as strict as federal, but can be
which has received little consid- higher if local standards so dic-
eration up to now—is security, tate. In Wisconsin, the newly
particularly where precious met- enacted tax law also contains
als are produced. Increasingly some of the toughest environmen-
sophisticated electronic monitor- tal laws pertaining to mining in
ing systems are finding useful ap- the country. This law, however,
plications in this field-perhaps was a cooperative effort. “This is a
none too soon—and are now being classic example of how a piece of
considered more seriously in the legislation should be handled
initial design of new facilities. through a consensus between the
mining companies and environ-
mental interests, local units of
government, and the legislature,”
stated John Mahoney, past chair-
Environmental man of the SME-AIME Central Re-
gion (ME, Apr. 1982).
Issues In other states, companies con-
tinue to try and “negotiate” or
fight regulations:
Even though rumors persist that ● Aluminum smelters in Oregon
there will be a softening of en- are trying to persuade the state
vironmental regulations, at the Environmental Quality Com-
end of the first quarter of 1982, no mission to rewrite air pollution
major legislation has been rules now requiring severe cuts
enacted. The battle lines seem in chemical emissions (E/MJ,
drawn over the revisions to the Dec. 1981).
Clean Air Act, with the adminis- ● [n New Mexico, Kennecott Min-
tration and some members of Con- erals and EPA have reached
gress supporting a version that agreement over relaxed pollu-
would give states greater flexibil- tion controls for Chino Mines
ity in setting and policing clean air Co.’s copper smelter, suspend-
policy in addition to removing the ing a state plan for sulfur
1988 deadline for nonferrous dioxide emissions (ME, Oct.
smelter orders (ME, Aug. 1981). 1981). Also in New Mexico,
Others in Congress, however, are United Nuclear has reached an
supporting efforts to make the act agreement with the state’s En-
even more stringent (Research In- vironmental Improvement Div.
stitute Report, Feb. 12, 1982). Busi- whereby the company will
ness in general is hoping that a carry out a four-point program
somewhat related action, a reg- over the next five years to end
ulatory reform bill, will be passed ground-water pollution from
this year. Key point of such legis- UNC’S Church Rock facility
lation would be reduction of (E/MJ, July 1981).
rule-making costs (Research Insti- ● Kennecott Minerals and the
tute Report, Jan. 8, 1982). Utah Air Conservation Com-
 mission have agreed on new these sites. Sharma and Asgian An interesting study, conducted
sulfur dioxide regulations for (SME-AIME Preprint 81-338) dis- over a five-year period by Univer-
the copper smelter at Magma cussed the technical issues in the sity of Wyoming zoologists, indi-
(E/MJ, June 1981). design and management of a re- cated that radioactivity from
● In Arizona, Inspiration Con- torted oil shale disposal site. uranium reclaimed lands does not
solidated Copper Co. an- Based on behavior mechanisms seem to harm wildlife (E/M,l, Aug.
nounced a $150 million financ- and material properties, a pre- 1981). What does have an effect is
ing program, part of which will liminary design of the spent shale radioactive water.
be used for a general program pile can be made. In situ uranium mining is an
of modernization, expansion, Increasing and continuing con- emerging technology with a
and environmental control cern with water quality dictates number of active sites, particu-
(E/MJ, May 1981). Phelps Dodge that mine planners consider the larly in the Texas Coastal Plains
and EPA have reached agree- impacts of operations on ground- area. Durler (SME-AIME Preprint
ment on a startup period with- water quality. Venburg, et al. 82-28) addressed the assessment of
out penalty while PD (SME-AIME Preprint 82-153) dis- potential environmental concerns
modernizes the smelters at cuss the use of analytical and and suggested that these be in-
Morenci and Ajo (ME, Apr. computer models for evaluating cluded in a program that spans
1981). Asarco and EPA came to information obtained for the de- premining, mining, and post-
terms over clean air standards sign and development of mine mining. Major concerns are
at the Hayden smelter, with water control systems. Such pro- ground-water degradation and
Asarco agreeing to replace grams allow using data to predict soil contamination.
existing furnaces with new, less the amount of ground-water Several speakers at the 5th An-
polluting units (E/MJ, May 1981). inflow, impact of dewatering and nual Uranium Seminar (S ME-
● After several vears of conflict. stream diversion on the hy - AIME, 1982) discussed environ-
Colorado envi~onmental groups drogeologic regime, equipment mental problems associated with
and Homestake Mining Co. needs, and dewatering schedules. in situ uranium leaching. Yan
reached agreement on water presented data on formation
Tailings impoundments—loca- stabilization and ground water
discharge quality and rec- tion, design, and management—
lamation activities at the Pitch restoration when NaHCO I so-
are critical in mine and plant lutions are used and when ground
project in Gunnison National planning and design. In a two-part
Forest (E/MJ, May 1981). water is restored with high pH so-
series (ME, June-July 1981) Steven lutions to remove ammonium ions
Vick examined the technical from clays. Since in situ leaching
Technoh)gy background and historical for uranium, copper, and other
The Resource Conservation Re- perspectives on siting and design. minerals demand highly complex
covery Act of 1976 became effec- In part two, he went into depth in systems, Travis and Cook
tive Nov. 19, 1980, but the mining regard to the current design and suggested that numerical simula-
industry, under the Bevill construction methods. tion of fluid flow in porousl
Amendment, is currently exempt According to EPA, adding small fractured media is valuable for
for a two to three-year period. The amounts of adipic acid, a rela- preplanning and guidance for op-
Act regulates control seepage tively inexpensive chemical now erations. Vogt, et al. presented a
from disposal or storage of used in nylon manufacture and as case study of mineralogic investi-
hazardous solid wastes (D. Whit- a food additive, can “drastically” gations in the Crownpoint, NM,
ing, Design of Non-Impounding reduce sulfur dioxide emissions area. Recent emphasis has been
Mine Waste Dumps, Nov. 1981). from exhaust gases when added to on improved means of water con-
However, the industry’s exemp- flue gas desulfurization systems. servation and aquifer restoration.
tion is temporary, pending com- EPA had conducted tests with Garling discussed electrodialysis
pletion and results of EPA’s Mine adipic acid at a power station in for process water treatment as an
Waste Study. Because no or- Springfield, MO, and at the Rick- alternative to the more conven-
ganized approach has yet been of- en backer Air National Guard tional methods used in situ.
fered concerning the design of Base in Columbus, OH. Investigations continue into
common waste rock dumps, a Radiation has always been an feasible disposal sites for radioac-
workshop on Design of Non- industry concern, one heightened tive waste materials. A session at
Impounding Mine Waste Dumps by the debate over possible con- the Rapid Excavation and Tunnel-
was organized and held during the tamination from nuclear power ing Conference in May (1981 RETC
SME-AIME Fall Meeting (Nov. plants and more uranium- Proceedings, AIME) dealt with a
1981). In anticipation of future producing facilities (even though number of on-going projects and
legislation, the organizers felt that the industry is at a temporary investigations, many under Dept.
an integrated approach to recog- standstill). The first attempt at of Energy (DOE) auspices.
nizing and solving problems as- bringing together all the technical Schmidt discussed design prob-
sociated with nonwater-impound- expertise involved in radiation lems with underground nuclear
ing waste rock dumps, particu- research and activities was the in- waste disposal in basalt at the
larly those constructed at the ternational conference on Radia- Hanford site. Ellison, et al. dis-
angle of repose, should be formu- tion Hazards in Mining Control, cussed preparation for develop-
lated. Hopefully, a knowledgeable Measurement and Medical As- ment of the Los Medanos thick salt
group of technologists might be pects (SME-AIME, 1982) held in site in southeastern New Mexico,
able to make an impact on future Golden, CO, in October. The far- describing the sealing require-
regulations. -reaching program covered all as- ments. In a followup paper (SME-
Although commercial-scale oil pects of radiation problems in AIME Prep~int 82-81), Hohmann
shale projects are yet to go both uranium and nonuranium and Brausch discussed the en-
onstream, considerable attention environments. Several sessions vironmental impact and protec-
continues to be given to the even- dealt with mine and mill waste tion for the waste isolation pilot
tual waste disposal problems at disposal and handling. plant at the site.
On-Going Research Projects
Several on-going research proj-
ects were initiated in 1981. Bat-
telle Northwest Laboratories,
through a funding grant by the
American Petroleum Institute,
will determine how to establish a
regional complex terrain air dis-
persal model to be used to mea-
sure air flow patterns in Colorado
and Utah (E/MJ, Apr. 1981). The
terrain encompassed in the study
is the Western Slope oil shale area
and the model will be designed to
monitor possible air pollutants
from shale operations.
Three Arizona copper pro-
ducers, EPA, and other federal
and state units have launched a
study of the part mining has
played in the contamination of
ground water in the Globe-Miami
district for the last 100-year period
(E/MJ, July 1981). Funding for the
study is being supplied by Inspira-
tion, Cities Service, Ranchers Ex-
ploration & Development, EPA,
US Bureau of Mines, and Arizona.
Mineral
Processing
Fundamentals
Basic and applied research in
mineral processing fundamentals
provide the bases for future indus-
trial investigations and eventually
commercialization of processes to
enable the industry to extract and
treat lower-grade ores on an eco-
nomic level.
Flotation and Flocculation
Review prepared by Brij M. Moudgil,
University of Florida.
The role of polymeric reagents
in flotation is getting renewed at-
tention. Lee and Somasundaran
reported that hydrophilic poly-
meric reagents, depending on the
order of their addition to the sys-
tem, can have significant effect
both as activators or depressants
even when the polymer amount
added is very small. Role of inter-
action between the polymeric
flocculants and surfactants in
flotation and flocculation was dis-
cussed by Moudgil and Somasun-
daran (1982a).
Miller and coworkers discussed
the use of an air-sparged hy -
drocyclone for flotation of fine
particles. Potential application of
air-sparged hydrocyclones in the
rougher and scavenger circuits
was indicated.
Wang and Avotins (1982) dis-
closed the development of a new
class of phosphine-derived chem-
icals as sulfide mineral pro-
moters. According to the labora-
tory test data reported, dialkyldi-
thiophosphinates have a strong
potential as collectors in sulfide
mineral flotation.
Processing of energy minerals
was the focus of two sessions at the
SME-AIME Annual Meeting. In
this context, Moudgil and Arbiter
(1982) discussed the potential of
froth flotation in preconcentra-
tion of oil shale before retorting. It
was pointed out that flotation
technology can be applied to
separate kerogen from ash-
forming components, which can
be used without further process-
ing. Flotation characteristics of
western coals were discussed by
Rosenbaum and Fuerstenau
(1982). An excellent discussion of
the mechanisms of pyrite depres-
sion during coal flotation was
presented by Choudry, et al. (1982).
Role of chelating agents in min-
eral processing was discussed in a
comprehensive review presented
by Nagaraj (1982). It was noted that
the application of chelating
agents could be extensive as there
is greater emphasis on processing
low-grade complex ores.
Separation of solid from liquid
constitutes a major application of
flocculation technology. Applica-
tion of high capacity thickeners
such as the Enviroclear thickener,
which employs flocculants, is cur-
rently being evaluated in the
phosphate industry for dewater-
ing phosphate clay wastes. The ef-
fect of residual polymers in recy-
cled plant waters on downsteam
processes such as flotation as-
sumes added significance in such
systems because of shortened
water circuits. The thickener per-
formance data, expected to be
available in the near future, will
indicate the effectiveness of high
capacity thickeners in dewatering
fine particles suspensions.
Choudry, V.,Bradley,P,B,,andAplm,F.F.,1982,
“TheDepressionof PyriteDuringCoalFlota- is cited in Atomindex 1981, 12 (19).
tion,” SME-AIME AnnualMeeting, Dall=~,TX.
Lee,L.T.,andSomasundaran, P.,1982,“Polymer.
Surfactantinteractionsin Flotationof~uartz,” ogy of solid-liquid separation are
SME-AIME AnnualMeeting, Dallas,TX.
Miller,J.D.,Kinnenberg, D.J,,andVanCamp,M.C.,
1982,“Principlesof SwirlFlotationi“ a Cen. Solid-Liquid Separation, 2nd edi-
trifugalField withan Air-SpargedHydrocy- tion (Butterworth, London, 1981).
clone,”SME-AIME Preprint82-167,
Moudgil, B.M.,andArbiter,N.,1982,
“Reconcentrat- text as well as a reference for op-
ion ofOilShaleBeforeRetorting,,, SME.AIME
Preprint82-159.
Moudgil, B.M.,andSomasundaran, P.,1982a,“Ad-
sorptionof Chargedand UnchargedPulyac-
rvlamideson Hematite.”SME.AIME PreDrint separation
82-160.
Nagaraj, D.R.,1982,“ChelatingAgentsin Mineral
Processing,” SME-AIME AnnualMeeting, Dallas, Elsevier (Amsterdam, 1981).
TX.
Rosenbaum, J.R.,andFuerstenau,
D.W.,1982,‘The
SurfaceCharacteristics
andFlotationBehavior
ofWesternCoals,”SME-AIME AnnualMeeting,
Dallas,TX,
Wang,S,S.,andAvotins,P.V.,1982,“TheUseof
Dialkylditbiophosphinates
inSulfideFlotation,,,
SME-AIME Preprint82-155.
Solid-Liquid Separation
Review prepared by H. El-Shall,
Montana College of Mineral Science
and Technology
Solid-liquid separation is a unit
operation that is used in almost
every mineral processing plant.
However, the research effort and
literature in this field are limited.
Mark Fisher and Michael Schill
have conducted a comprehensive
program of laboratory and on-site
pilot studies to evaluate the de-
watering of coal refuse with a high
pressure belt filter press (ME, Oct.
1981). These investigators sum-
marize findings of the study and
discuss advantages of the belt
filter press over conventional de-
watering methods. They con-
cluded that coal refuse streams
with a nominal concentration of20
wt 9’ocan be dewatered with a belt
filter at a lower cost than other
dewatering methods.
The use of polyethylene oxide)
as a flocculating agent in uranium
ore filtration was reported by P.J.
Lafforque, et al. (SME-AIME P~e-
print 82-22). The paper describes
the relationship between proper-
ties of this reagent (PEO) and the
mechanism by which it functions
in belt filtration of uranium ore
after leaching. Special equipment
is necessary to permit stepwise
addition and mixing of the poly-
mer with the pulp. The investiga-
tors conducted pilot plant work
using ores from different sources
under different conditions. High
filtration rates were obtained
under alkaline or acidic condi-
tions.
The liquidlliquid and solidl
liquid separator equipment in the
field of nuclear-fuel reprocessing
has been reviewed in a report by
Vassallo G. (Report No. EUR-6996,
Joint Research Center, Comm. of
European Communities, Ispra,
Italy). The abstract of this review
The fundamentals and technol-
discussed by L. Svarovsky in
This book can be used as a college
eration and design engineers.
The progress in filtration and
is reviewed by R.J.
Wakeman in a book published by
Thickening has been discussed
by W.T.H. Keleshan (International
Symposium of Extractive Metal-
lurgy, London, 1981). The paper
indicates that high rate thickening
could be a way to improve the per-
formance of dewatering, lowering
the cost of these operations.
Gravity, Magnetic,
Electrostatic Separations
Advances in gravity separation
techniques was the subject of a
session at the 1982 SME-AIME An-
nual Meeting. B.O. Burt and
C. Mills presented a general over-
view of the history of the process
and its role in the modern mineral
processing industry. The paper
addressed the relative merits of
gravity separation in comparison
with other methods of processing.
T.J. Ferree and C. Robinson dis-
cussed new concepts and ap-
proaches in spiral concentration.
The density separator is basically
a hindered settling classifier with
automatic control features. E.W.
Long and H.B. Treweek discussed
the size and capacities of avail-
able units and their operating
data. Applications of the unit for
such other processes as washing
and deslimingwere proposed. T.P.
Meloy discussed development of a
simple general equation which,
when applied, defines the op-
timum separation set point for the
maximum mineral grade.
Use of high-gradient magnetic
separation (HGMS) for uranium
ore beneficiation has had increas-
inginterest, especially for separa-
tions in the fine particle size
ranges. J.P. Van Dillen and S.G.
Malghan presented a brief review
of uranium ore beneficiation
problems and a description of the
HGMS process (SME-AIME Pre-
print 82-179). Experimental tech-
niques to resolve some of the
problems relating to HGMS pro-
cessing of uranium were outlined.
US Bureau of Mines has de-
veloped and patented a laboratory
device that separates minerals
from complex ores. The separa-
tion is based on the mineral’s be-
havior in an electrical field. This
may present an efficient alterna-
tive to more conventional separa-
tiontechniques in cases where the
minerals have differing dielectric
properties.
Comminution
Mathematical modeling and
computer simulation of comminu-
tion circuits continue to receive
attention from researchers and
companies. D.G. Hartley, et al.
(SME-AIME Preprint 81-38) re-
ported on the use of mathematical
models to optimize grinding cir-
cuits at the Mt. Lyell copper con-
centrator in Tasmania in an effort
to diminish copper loss. Their
studies showed that, with in-
creased breakage rates, the resul-
tant finer grind could improve
copper recoveries by 270.
In attempts to improve the
comminution of fuel and nonfuel
minerals, a number of investiga-
tors have been giving attention to
wet grinding processes. V.K.
Gupta, et al. (SME-AIME Preprint
81-129) presented test results on
grinding and transport behavior
of two complex pyritic ores in ball
mills. Their wet batch and con-
tinuous grinding experiments
were analyzed for the variation in
the grinding rate parameters, s,.
They demonstrated that the rate
parameters do not significantly
depend on particle size distribu-
tion and the percent solids in the
pulp over a fairly wide range of
operating conditions.
H.E. El-Shall and P. Somasun-
daran (1981 SME-AIME Annual
Meeting) discussed mechanisms
of grinding modification by chem-
ical additives. Through the use of
inorganic reagents in wet grinding
of quartz, they hoped to identify
the conditions that normally con-
tribute to improved grinding and
to elucidate the mechanisms in-
volved in determining such im-
provements. A continuation of the
authors’ work dealt with the use of
organic reagents (SME-AIME Pre-
print 82-165). The latter tests
suggest that the role of chemical
additives is determined by their
cumulative influence on basic
properties of the system.
S.K. Kawatra and R.A. Seitz
(SME-AIME Preprint 82-18)
presented an analysis of wet
grinding circuit control using in-
ferential particle size mea-
surements.
Process Chemicals
Environmental considerations
and the necessity to comply with
ever stricter state and federal re-
quirements have focussed more
and more attention on treatments
of effluents to remove toxic com-
pounds. E. A. Devuyst and V.A.
Ettel (SME-AIME P~eprint 82-150)
reported on Into Metals’ use of
sulfur dioxide, air, and lime for
destruction of complexed cyanide
and related species in waste-
waters. K.O. Groves (SME-AIME
Preprint 82-115) reported that the
interhalogen, bromine chloride
(BrCl), has been found to be as ef-
fective as chlorine in destroying
the CN- ion without the formation
of persistent, residual chlora-
mines.
Some researchers have been in-
vestigating the development of
specific reagents for some types of
mineral flotation. A.M. Marabini
and G. Rinelli (SME-AIME Pre-
print 82-50) reported on using
N-benzoyl-N-phenylxydroxylamine
in floatability tests of rutile.
Floatability tests of barite, cal-
cite, and bastnaesite with hydrox-
amate collectors were correlated
with chemisorption occurring at
mineral/water interfaces by
Pradip and D.W. Fuerstenau (1982
SME-AIME Annual Meeting).
K. Unger and S. Raghavan (1982
SME-AIME Annual Meeting) in-
vestigated the interaction of thio-
glycollic acid with chalcocite and
test results showed that both
thioglycollic and dithioglycollic
acids are good depressants for
chalcocite in the pH range 4-7.
Recent US Bureau of Mines re-
search as reported by S.C. Termes,
et al. (SME-AIME Preprint 82-171)
has dealt with use of crosslinked
starch xanthate (ISX) as a selec-
tive flocculent for sulfide miner-
als. Test results showed that ISX
readily flocculates a number of
sulfide mineral fines but not
silicious gangue.
B. Alegria, et al. (SME-AIME
Preprint 82-166) have been inves-
tigating the depressing effects of
different inorganic chemicals on
the flotation of pyrite. Microflota-
tion test results have been corre-
lated with zeta potential data, dis-
tribution of ionic species, and
published data, in order to eluci-
date the mechanisms involved.
Chemical processing of gallium,
indium, and germanium was the
subject of a session at the 1982
SME-AIME Annual Meeting (Mini
Symposium 82-MPD-02). Lead-off
paper was a general review of the
extractive metallurgy of iridium
by J.A. Slattery and C.E.T. White,
followed by a review and updating
of the process chemistry of ger-
manium extraction and refining
by J. E. Hoffmann and P. D.
Parker. J.E. Reynolds, et al., dealt
with a hydrometallurgical process
for recovering iridium and salable
lead and arsenic byproducts from
a lead smelter flue dust. An over-
view of current processes for ex-
traction of gallium was presented
by T.C. Wilder and F.E. Katrak.
M.D. Slade, et al., discussed the
complexities of producing high
purity gallium from scrap gallium,
since almost every source of scrap
has to be evaluated and processed
individually.