Non-ideal Operational

Amplifier
• Various error terms arise in practical operational
amplifiers due to non-ideal behavior.
• Some of the non-ideal characteristics include:
1. Finite open-loop gain that causes gain error
2. Nonzero output resistance
3. Finite input resistance
4. Finite CMRR
5. Common-mode input resistance
6. DC error sources
7. Output voltage and current limits

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 Finite Open-loop Gain
vo = Av = A(vs − v ) = A(vs − βvo )
id 1
v A
Av = o =
v s 1 + Aβ
Aβ is called loop gain.
For Aβ >>1,

1 R
A = = 1+ 2
ideal β R
1
v = vs − v = vs − βvo
R id 1
v = 1 v = βv Aβ v
1 R +R o o = vs − vs = s
1 2 1 + Aβ 1 + Aβ
R is called
β= 1 feedback
No longer zero, vid is small for
R +R factor.
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large Aβ. 2
 Gain Error
Gain Error is given by
GE= (ideal gain)-(actual gain)
For non-inverting amplifier,

1 A 1
GE = − =
β 1+ Aβ β (1+ Aβ )

Gain error is also expressed as a fractional or percentage error.

A 1
−
FGE = β 1+ Aβ =
1 1
≅
1 1 + Aβ Aβ
β

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 Gain Error: Example
Problem: Find ideal and actual gain and gain error is percent
Given data: Closed-loop gain of 200 (46 dB), open-loop gain of op amp is
10,000 (80 dB).
Approach:Amplifier is designed to give ideal gain and deviations from ideal
case are determined. Hence, .

R1 and R2 aren’t designed to compensate for finite open-loop gain of

amplifier.
Analysis:

A 104
Av = = = 196
1 + Aβ 10 4
1+
200
200 −196
FGE = = 0.02
200

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Nonzero Output Resistance

Output terminal is driven by test source vx

and current ix is calculated to determine
output resistance (all independent sources
are turned off).The equivalent circuit is same
For both inverting and non-inverting
amplifiers. v
Rout = x
ix
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 Nonzero Output Resistance
(contd.)
R
Analysis: ix = io + i v = 1 v = βv
2 Also, vid= -v1 and 1 R +R x x
v x - Av vx 1 2
io = id i = 1 i 1 + Aβ 1
Ro 2 R +R ∴ = x = +
1 2 R vx Ro R +R
out 1 2
Thus, shunt feedback at output reduces Rout.

Ro ⎛ ⎞
∴Rout = ⎜R + R ⎟
⎜ ⎟
1+ Aβ ⎝ 1 2 ⎠
Ro If A is infinite, Rout=0
Since, Ro/(1+Aβ)<<(R1+R2), Rout ≅
1 + Aβ

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 Open-loop Gain Design: Example
• Problem: Design non-inverting amplifier and find
open-loop gain
• Given Data: Av=35 dB, Rout =0.2Ω, Ro = 250Ω
• Analysis:
Av = 1035dB / 20dB = 56.2 β= 1 = 1
Av 56.2
R
Rout = o ≤ 0.2Ω
1 + Aβ
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
1 Ro ⎛ 250 ⎞
∴A ≥ ⎜
⎜ −1⎟⎟ = 56.2⎜⎜ −1⎟⎟ = 7.03×104 = 96.9dB
β R
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜
⎝ 0.2
⎟
⎠
out ⎠
⎝

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 Finite Input Resistance: Non-
inverting Amplifier
Assuming i-<<i2 implies i1 = i2.

R
v ≅ 1 v = βv
1 R +R o o
1 2
= β(Av )= Aβ(v x − v )
id 1
Aβ
v = v
1 1+ Aβ x
Aβ
vx − vx
Test voltage source vx is applied to 1+ A β vx
input and current ix is calculated. ∴ix = =
R (1+ Aβ )R
vx − v id id
ix = 1 v =i R ≅i R R = R (1+ Aβ )
R 1 1 1 2 1 in id
id

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Finite Common-Mode Rejection
Ratio (CMRR)

A real amplifier responds to signal common to both inputs, called

common-mode input voltage. In general,
v + v ⎞⎟
⎛
⎜
vo = A(v − v ) + Acm 1 2 ⎟
⎜
1 2 2 ⎟⎠
⎜
⎝
= A(v ) + Acm (v )
id ic

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Voltage Follower Gain Error due to
CMRR
Ideal gain for voltage follower is unity,
gain error
A
1−
GE = 1− Av = 2CMRR
⎛ 1 ⎞
1+ A⎜⎜1− ⎟
vs + v o ⎜
⎝ 2CMRR
⎟⎟
⎠
v = vs − vo v =
id ic 2 Since, both A and CMRR are
normally >>1,
(v + v ) ⎞
vo = A⎜⎜ (vs − vo )+ s o ⎟⎟
⎛

2CMRR ⎠ 1 1
⎝
GE ≅ −
⎛ 1 ⎞ A CMRR
A⎜⎜1+ ⎟
⎟⎟
vo ⎜
2CMRR First term is due to finite amplifier
Av = = ⎝ ⎠
vs 1+ A⎛⎜1− 1 ⎞
⎟ gain, second term shows that
⎜⎜ ⎟ CMRR may introduce an even larger
⎝ 2CMRR ⎟⎠
error.

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 DC Error Sources: Input-Offset
Voltage
With inputs being zero, the amplifier To include effect of offset voltage
output rests at some dc voltage level ⎛ v ⎞

instead of zero. The equivalent dc

⎜
vo = A v +
⎜
ic +V ⎟⎟
⎜
⎝
id CMRR OS ⎟⎠
input offset voltage is
V If vid =0,
V = o
OS A v ⎛ ⎞
The amplifier is connected as vo = A ⎜
ic
⎜ +V ⎟⎟ = A(v )
voltage-follower to give output CMRR OS ⎟⎠
⎜ OS
⎝
voltage equal to offset voltage. v
∴CMRR = v ic μV/V
OS
Thus, CMRR is a measure of
how total offset voltage changes
from its dc value when common-
mode voltage is applied.

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