Philippine Recommends For Pork Production PDF

About PCARRD
The Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research
and Development (PCARRD) is a sectoral council under the Department of
Science and Technology (DOST). Established in 1972, PCARRD formulates
policies, plans, and programs for science and technology development. It is
the government arm that coordinates, evaluates, and monitors the national
agriculture and forestry research and development (R&D) program. Its
mandates also include allocation of government and external funds for R&D
and the generation of resources to support these programs.
PCARRD pursues an active partnership with international, regional, and
national agencies. It maintains and evolves linkages with international agricultural
centers and funding institutions for joint R&D, human resource development
and training, technical assistance, and exchange scientist, information, and
technologies.
The Council supports and manages the National Agriculture and Resources
Research and Development Network (NARRDN) composed of national multi- and
single-commodity regional R&D centers, cooperating stations, and specialized
agencies.
PCARRD has been a potent arm in catalyzing the Philippine agriculture and
natural resources sectors towards self-sufficiency and global competitiveness.
MAILING ADDRESS PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE,

FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCES
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Los Baños 4030, Laguna, Philippines
TELEPHONES Los Baños – (63) (049) 536-0014 to 536-0015/

536-0017 to 536-0020 & 536-0024

FAX Los Baños – (63) (049) 5360016/536-7922
DOST Bicutan, Taguig, Metro Manila
(63) (02) 837-1651
E-MAIL pcarrd@pcarrd.dost.gov.ph
WEBSITE http://www.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph
OFFICE OF THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
To Our Valued Reader:
This second revision of the publication, The Philippines Recommends

for Pork Production, provides farmers, extension workers, instructors,
researchers, and students latest information on the various
aspects of pork production in the country from selection and
breeding, nutrition, waste management, herd and health
management to marketing and economics. It also tackles the
problems and constraints as well as the prospects and opportunities
of the local swine industry.
We hope this volume would be a good reference material for

successful and profitable pork production.
Very truly yours,
PATRICIO S. FAYLON
Executive Director
The Philippines
Recommends for
Pork Production
PCARRD Philippines Recommends Series No. 13-B
PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE,

FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCES
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Department of Science and Technology
ANIMAL HEALTH DIVISION

PFIZER, INC.
Los Baños, Laguna

2005
First Printing 1976
Second Printing 1996 (Revised)
Third Printing 1999 (Reprinted)
Fourth Printing 2005 (Revised)
ISSN 0115-7833
ISBN 971-20-0531-3
Bibliographic Citation:
The Pork Production Committee 2004. The Philippines

recommends for pork production. Los Baños,
Laguna: PCARRD/DOST-PFIZER, Inc., 2005.
131 p. – (Philippines Recommends Series No.
13-B).
Foreword
The swine industry is one of the most important among the

local animal industries in the country. It contributes about 98% of
the country’s total pork supply. Pork represents more than 50%
of the total animal meat consumed by Filipinos. Over the past
few decades, the swine industry contributed more than 70% of
the total animal meat output of local animal industries. In 2003, it
produced a total of 1,734,090 t of pork, which is valued at P 92.67
billion. The industry provides income to entrepreneurs who are
actively engaged in large-scale commercial swine production
and employment to farm laborers. Moreover, it also provides
income and employment to entrepreneurs and workers engaged
in feed grain production and feed milling, distribution of drugs
and biologics, meat trading and processing and other support
industries. The local swine industry also benefits small farmers in
rural, urban, and peri-urban areas through the additional income
and the financial security derived from small-scale swine raising
activities.
Among local animal industries, the swine industry is
considered the most dynamic in terms of technological innovations
in both large- and small-scale production. Through the application
of science and technology (S&T)-based interventions in both
large- and small-scale swine farms, productivity, production
efficiency, and quality of swine in the country have been
significantly improved over the past decade. Today, swine
production performance in many farms is kept at par with other
swine-producing countries.
Notwithstanding the advances and the higher level of
sophistication achieved by many swine farms, the local swine
industry is still faced with various challenges. Among these
challenges are high costs of feeds and other inputs, unabated
spread of diseases, and inefficient marketing structures and
practices. The globalization of meat markets has also brought
new challenges to the local swine industry. Partnerships between
and among government agencies and hog raiser groups have
been forged to develop strategies and action programs to
overcome these challenges. Industry-led collaborative
iii
programs have been initiated to improve product quality
and enhance productivity and production efficiency in both
small and large swine farms. Dissemination and adoption of
improved swine production technologies in local swine farms
are among the major activities that is believed to enhance
productivity and production efficiency to ensure global
competitiveness of the local swine industry.
This second revised edition of the The Philippines
Recommends for Pork Production contains comprehensive data
and information gathered from research and development
(R&D) institutions and local commercial swine farms on
various aspects of swine production that are useful in
enhancing swine production performance. It is hoped that
swine entrepreneurs, extension agents, instructors, researchers,
students, and anyone involved in the industry will gain from
the wealth of information contained in this volume. Moreover,
it is hoped that this publication would contribute to the
collective endeavor toward securing the future of the
Philippine swine industry.
PATRICIO S. FAYLON
Executive Director
PCARRD
iv
Message
Pfizer Animal Health is pleased to collaborate with

PCARRD in the publishing of this comprehensive book on pork
production. It is an excellent guide on the complete production
cycle, providing macroeconomic analyses and insights on the
swine raising industry, the farming process and management,
herd health, as well as the economics of the pig production
business, marketing, and other aspects of the meat trade.
As addressed in this book, pork is the Filipino’s favorite
source of protein, representing over half of the nation’s total
meat consumption. Yet, the country has a chronic deficit of
locally produced pork and does not yet participate in the export
sector. Furthermore, the per capita consumption of pork in the
Philippines is still much lower than in more developed countries
such as the United States (US) and other developing countries
such as Vietnam.
All of these illuminate the opportunities and the needs
present in the Philippine swine industry. Clearly, there is room
for more pigs to be raised. The average slaughter weight of each
pig must be increased. Better quality meat must be produced
in order to satisfy the ever increasing demands of the Filipino
consumer and, eventually, the international market.
The large commercial farms have shown the way, utilizing
R&D information gathered from international sources as well as
local knowledge gained from their own collective experience, in
order for the sector to grow continuously and at a consistent pace.
There is a growing preference for selling larger sized market
hogs, of investing in modern technology, and in applying sound
herd management techniques. Yet, the large farm sector in the
Philippines only accounts for a quarter of the total pig population.
This book identifies the advent of the small-scale commercial
farm unit as differentiated from the traditional backyard farm. We
at Pfizer have likewise seen this trend in our industry – the mom
and pop backyard raiser is being replaced by the next generation
v
of aggressive and more sophisticated agri-entrepreneurs who
value science-based knowledge and modern methods and
are eager to apply these to their operations. Their thirst for
information will be well served by this book.
I congratulate PCARRD for developing The Philippines
Recommends for Pork Production. It will certainly be valuable for
those who are already participating in the industry and also
those who are interested in joining and investing in this sector.
Sincerely,
RONALD A. VERGEL DE DIOS

Division Director
Pfizer Animal Health
vi
Acknowledgment
The Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural

Resources Research and Development (PCARRD) wishes to
acknowledge the cooperation and assistance extended by the
following persons, institutions, and agencies for the second
revision of The Philippines Recommends for Pork Production:
 The technical committee members for drafting this second

revised edition;
 Heads of the Institute of Animal Science – University of the
Philippines Los Baños (IAS-UPLB), International Training
Center on Pig Husbandry (ITCPH), Pfizer Animal Health,
and Holiday Hills Stock and Breeding Farm Corporation
(HHSBFC) for allowing their staff to serve as members of
the technical committee;
 The committee members who did the first edition (1976)
and the first revised edition (1996) of the The Philippines
Recommends for Pork Production;
 John and John Farm and the National Swine and Poultry
Research and Development Center, Bureau of Animal
Industry (BAI) for providing some photos which appeared
in this publication;
 HHSBFC for providing several photos used in this publication;
 Staff of the Livestock Research Division (LRD), particularly
Mr. Eric E. Perez, Ms. Jasmin A. Malabanan, and Mr. Ricardo
A. Mulimbayan for their unselfish assistance;
 Publication Program staff of the Applied Communication
Division (ACD) under the leadership of Dr. Norma V. Llemit,
and staff, Dr. Lorna C. Malicsi, Mr. Ruel S. Pagcaliwagan,
Ms. Carmelita B. Alamban, and Mr. Simeon R. Manahan, Jr.
for their valuable assistance;
 Mr. Ronald A. Vergel de Dios for his contribution to the
printing of this volume; and
 To all those who in one way or another helped in the
preparation of this volume. Without them, the publication

of this second revision would not have been possible.
vii
viii
Contents
Foreword iii
Message v
Acknowledgments vii
The Pork Production Committee 2004 xv
Glossary of Terms xvi
The Philippine Swine Industry 1

General Situation 1
Population Trends 2
Supply and Utilization 4
Live Hog Production 5
Competitiveness of Pork Production in the
Philippines 5
Trends in the Industry 6
Projected Demands and New Initiatives in the Industry 7
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats
(SWOT) 8
Selection, Breeds, and Breeding 10

Selection 10
General Recommendations in Selecting Pigs
for Breeding 10
Bases of Selection 11
Selecting Boars 11
Selecting Replacement Gilts 12
Culling 12
Common Breeds of Swine in the Philippines 13
The Philippine Native Pig 13
Large White (Yorkshire) 14
Landrace 14
Duroc 15
Pietrain 16
Hybrids 17
Breeding Systems 17
Purebreeding 17
ix
Crossbreeding 18
Inbreeding 19
Swine Breeder Farm Accreditation Program 20
Criteria for Accreditation 20
Reproduction 21
Breeding Age 21
Estrous Cycle 21
Techniques in Heat Detection 22
Pregnancy or Gestation Period 22
Mating Systems 24
Natural Mating 24
Artificial Insemination (AI) 24
Insemination Time 30
Management of Boars 31
Puberty in Boars 32
When to Buy Boars 32
Transporting Newly Purchased Boars 32
Boar Usage 32
Other Considerations 33
Nutrition and Feeding 35

Physiological States Requiring Nutrients 35
Nutrient Classifications According to Function 36
Minerals 36
Vitamins 36
Feed Additives 37
Feeds for Swine 37
Feed Ingredients 37
Feed Processing 39
Cooking 39
Grinding 39
Pelleting 39
Feeding Dry and Pregnant Sows 40
Feeding Lactating Sows 40
Feeding Suckling/Baby Pigs 41
Feeding Starter Pigs 41
Feeding Grower/Finisher Pigs 42
Feeding Breeding Pigs 42
x
Housing and Equipment 43
Building Orientation and Cooling System 43
Roofs 43
Partition Walls and Doors/Gates 44
Housing System 44
Pregestation and boar unit 45
Gestation unit 45
Farrowing unit 45
Growing-Finishing unit 46
Waste Management 47
Waste Management Practices 47
Source Reduction 47
Operational Procedure 47
Technology 48
Infrastructure or Equipment 48
Farm Inputs 49
Waste Re-use and Recycling 49
Re-use as Fertilizer 49
Re-use as Feed 50
Re-use as Energy Source 50
Treatment and Disposal 50
Odor Control 51
Herd Management 53
Effective Management Programs 53
Establishing the Objectives 53
Knowing the Performance and Setting Targets 53
Care of Boars, Dry Sows and Gilts 54
Care of Pregnant Sows and Gilts 55
Care of the Sow and Litter at Farrowing 55
Care of Baby Pigs After Birth 56
Care of Growing–Finishing Pigs 60
Pointers in Pig Production 61
Record Keeping 61
Keeping Important Records 62
Herd Health Management 64

Biosecurity Measures 64
xi
Different Causes of Diseases 65
Animal as a Cause 65
Environment as a Cause 66
Non-infectious Causes 66
Infectious Causes 67
Economic Importance of Diseases 67
General Preventive Measures 68
How to Avoid Multiplication of Pathogens 68
Common Post–Farrowing Problems 69
Vulvar Discharge/Metritis 70
Mastitis 70
Agalactia/Hypogalactia 71
Diarrhea in Piglets 72
Pneumonia in Pigs 74
Suggested Medication Program 76
Gestating Sows 76
Lactating Sows 77
Suckling Pigs 78
Weaners 78
Growers/Finishers 79`
Replacement Gilts/Replacement Boars 79
Boars 80
Vaccination 80
Guidelines for the Use of Vaccines 80
Marketing and Economics 82

Cost-and-Return Analysis 83
References 86
Appendices
A Productive and Reproductive Performance of Swine in
the Philippines 89
B Cost of Establishing a Two-Boar AI Operation 90
C Recommended Maximum Limits of Different Feed
Ingredients in Swine Rations 95
D Suggested Maximum Inclusion Rates of Feedstuff for
Hogs 96
xii
E Nutrient Composition of Common Feedstuff 97
F Typical Nutrient Composition of Some Feeds for Swine
98
G Energy Composition of Selected Fats, Oils, and
Carbohydrates 99
H Crude and True Digestible Protein and Digestible Essential
Amino Acids in Swine Feeds 100
I Recommended Nutrient Levels for Different Classes of
Swine Fed Ad Libitum 101
J Essential Amino Acid Requirement of Swine Fed Ad
Libitum 102
K Sources of Minerals for Swine 103
L Recommended True Digestible Amino Acids in Swine
Rations 105
M Vitamin Requirements of Swine Fed Ad Libitum 106
N Mineral Requirements of Swine Fed Ad Libitum 107
O Recommended Nutrient Allowances for Swine 108
P Daily Feed Intake and Expected Weight of Pigs at Varying
Ages 110
Q A Design for Breeding Barn 111
R A Design for Farrowing House 115
S A Design for Nursery Barn 118
T A Design for Growing Barn 121
U A Design for Finishing Barn 124
V Selected Locally Developed Technologies Related to Swine
Waste Management 127
W Key Legislations Affecting Swine Production 128
X Water Quality Criteria 129
Y Effluent Standards 130
Z Swine Management Perpetual Multipurpose Calendar
131
List of Figures:
1 The Philippine Native Pig with its Litter 14

2 Large White (Yorkshire) 15
3 Landrace 15
xiii
4 Duroc 16
5 Pietrain 17
6 A breeding Program for the Production
of Slaughter Pigs (Triple and Four-way Cross Pigs) 18
7 Triple Cross Pigs 19
8 Artificial Insemination 25
9 Artificial Insemination Procedure 26
10 Stages of Estrous Cycle in Sows and Gilts 31
11 Swine Feeding 38
12 Cooling System Using Tunnel Ventilation 43
13 Commercial Swine Housing System 44
14 Waste Management Hierarchy 48
15 Lagoon Used as a Temporary Storage of
Swine Waste 51
16 Body Condition Scores for Sows 57
17 Assisting the Piglet to Suckle Colostrum 58
18 Elevated Flat Deck for Weanlings 60
19 UPLB Earnotching System 62
20 Elements that Influence Health Status of Pigs 68
List of Tables:
1 Per Capita Consumption of Different Animal Meat

Products in the Philippines. 1
2 Inventory of Swine by Farm Type 3
3 Physical and Behavioral Signs of Estrus in Sows and Gilts
23
4 Boar Classification and Utilization for Natural Mating
33
5 Frequency of Boar Use in Natural Mating 33
6 Frequency of Semen Collection 33
7 Regular Activities Related to Proper Boar Management
33
8 Space Requirements of Buildings and Equipment for
Swine 46
xiv
The Pork Production
Committee 2004
Chairman
Mr. Menandro O. Maleon

Managing Director
Philippine Swine Industry Research and
Development Foundation, Incorporated
Cubao, Quezon City
Members
Dr. Valentino G. Argañosa Ms. Nimfa M. Brebante

Professor Emeritus Farm Manager
IAS-UPLB, College, Laguna Pig Improvement Company
Palasan, Sta. Cruz, Laguna
Dr. Elpidio M. Agbisit, Jr. Dr. Edwin C. Villar

Assistant Professor Director
IAS-UPLB, College, Laguna LRD-PCARRD
Los Baños, Laguna

Dr. Editha E. Cabilitazan Mr. Synan S. Baguio
Training Specialist III Senior Science Research Specialist
International Training Center LRD-PCARRD
on Pig Husbandry Los Baños, Laguna
Lipa City, Batangas

Dr. Jecee S. Fajardo Mr. Raymond M. Galamgam
Products Manager Science Research Specialist II
Pfizer Animal Health LRD-PCARRD
Makati City, Metro Manila Los Baños, Laguna
Mr. Ruel S. Pagcaliwagan

Volume Editor
ACD-PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna
xv
Glossary of Terms
Boar - male pig of any age that is usually intended for breeding
Castration - the removal of testes
Colostrum - a yellowish milky fluid secreted by the mammary
glands shortly before and a few days after farrowing. It
contains high amounts of protein, vitamins, minerals, and
antibodies that provides the young animal immunity against
infections.
Conception - act of fertilization
Contamination - an organism is inside the pig’s body without
causing any clinical damage or disease
Estrus - period of sexual receptivity in female, heat period
Farrowing - act of giving birth in sows
Gestation - pregnancy time from conception to birth
Gilt - young female pig under one year of age and has not yet
given birth
Heterosis - the existence of vigor or performance in crossbred
animals that is higher than the average of both parents. It is
also known as hybrid vigor
Lesion - the disruptive changes in the organs/tissues of the
animal when infected
Litter - group of pigs born in one farrowing
Litter size - the number of pigs born in one litter
Morbidity - number of affected animals
Mortality - number of dead animals
Ovulation - release of egg cell (ovum) from ovary
Pathogenic - the ability of the organism to cause damage or
disease
Puberty - sexual maturity as exhibited by first heat or ovulation
Sow - mature female pig, one that has given birth
Suckling - young pig, from birth up to weaning
Terminal sire - a boar used in a crossbreeding program for the
production of slaughter pigs (e.g., Duroc or Duroc x Pietrain
sires)
xvi
Triple cross pigs - pigs produced from the mating of a two-
breed crossbred sow to a carefully selected terminal sire of
different breed
Weaning - the process of separating the young from its dam
Weanling - young pig separated from the sow; about
30–90 days old
xvii
The Philippine Swine Industry
General Situation
Pork is a very important livestock commodity of the

Philippines. It is the Filipinos’ most preferred animal meat
product. Over the past decade, pork has consistently
represented more than 55% of the total daily animal meat
consumption of Filipinos. In 2002, per capita pork consumption
was estimated at 16.88 kg, representing 57.07% of the total
animal meat consumed by Filipinos. Table 1 presents per
capita consumption of different animal meat products in the
Philippines from 1993 to 2002. More than being the most
preferred meat, the importance of pork in the country is well
demonstrated by a developed, stable, and rapidly growing local
swine industry. To date, the local swine industry is the most
organized in terms of production and distribution systems.
Table 1. Per capita consumption of different animal meat products in the

Philippines from 1993 to 2002 (kg). a
Commodity 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Pork 13.31 13.28 14.05 14.75 15.13 15.35 15.91 16.08 16.33 16.88
Beef 2.00 2.17 2.32 2.54 2.77 2.66 2.77 2.82 2.50 2.47
Carabeef 0.80 1.04 1.12 1.16 1.28 1.18 1.29 1.46 1.54 1.62
Chevon 0.61 0.41 0.44 0.42 0.42 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.43 0.42
Chicken 5.57 5.49 5.85 6.51 6.96 6.75 7.03 7.19 7.68 8.04
Duck 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.15
a
BAS, 2003.
The local swine industry tops all other local livestock

industries in terms of production and in its contribution to the
national economy. In 2002, it produced 1, 667, 760 t of pork,
valued at P 86, 723.52 billion (B) at current prices. In addition,
the local swine industry also provides income to entrepreneurs
who are actively engaged in large-scale commercial swine
production and employment to farm laborers, traders, and
philippines recommends for pork production 1

retailers of swine production inputs and products. It also
provides employment to workers in slaughterhouses and
storage and processing plants. Similarly, small farmers in rural,
urban, and peri-urban areas benefit from swine raising through
the additional income and the financial security it provides.
Indirectly, it provides income to corn, rice, root crops, and
coconut farmers, as it is one of the major markets of their produce.
At present, the large commercial subsector of the swine
industry is the largest adoptor of improved genetics, production
inputs, and high-end technologies in its operations. Moreover,
this subsector catalyzes the development and implementation
of an organized pork production system in the country.
Development and implementation of effective marketing and
distribution systems for both its production inputs and product
outputs are also led by the commercial subsector of the industry.
In the recent past, more and more large commercial swine
farm units in the country are gearing up toward automation of
swine farm operations and more extensive application of
cutting-edge technologies in swine production. The
modernization of the pork production system and the
marketing and distribution of inputs and products that are
being initiated by the large commercial subsector are now being
adopted and are also benefiting small swine raisers.
The dramatic improvement achieved by the local swine
industry in terms of productivity, production efficiency, and
product quality is undoubtedly a result of the adoption of
improved genetics and technologies by both small and large
commercial swine raisers. These technologies, which include
breeding, reproduction, nutrition, animal health, production
management, processing, and marketing, are outputs of sustained
research and development (R&D) activities by both government
and the private sector of various swine-producing countries.
Population Trends
The total swine population in the country is kept in both

small and large commercial farm units. Table 2 presents total
swine population inventory of the Philippines by farm type
2 philippines recommends for pork production

Table 2. Inventory of swine by farm type (1993–2002) in '000 head. a
Year Backyard Commercial Total
1993 6,663 1,291 7,954
1994 6,766 1,461 8,227
1995 7,181 1,760 8,941
1996 7,239 1,787 9,026
1997 7,788 1,964 9,752
1998 7,239 1,787 9,026
1997 7,788 1,964 9,752
1998 8,031 2,180 10,211
1999 8,179 2,218 10,397
2000 8,327 2,386 10,063
2001 8,542 2,521 11,063
2002 8,935 2,717 11,652
Ave. Annual
Growth Rate (%) 3.85 8.71 4.79
a
BAS, 2003.
from 1995 to 2002. During the said period, total swine
population increased from 7.95 million (M) head in 1993
to 11.65 M head in 2002, at an average annual rate of 4.79%.
Similarly, swine population inventories in both the small and
large commercial subsectors posted consistent increase over
the said ten-year period. Pig population in small swine farms
increased from 6.66 M head in 1993 to 8.93 M head in 2002, at
an average annual rate of 3.85%. On the other hand, population
inventory of swine in the large commercial farms increased
from 1.29 M head in 1993 to 2.71 M head in 2002, at a higher
average annual growth rate of 8.71%.
In 1993, pigs in small farm units represented 83.77%, while
those in large commercial farms constituted 16.23% of the total
population. In 2002, however, the proportion of pigs in small
farm units decreased to only 76.68%; while proportion of pigs
in large commercial farms increased to 23.32%. This positive
growth rate in swine population and the higher rates of growth
in commercial farm units suggest the local swine industry’s
potentials to maintain its competitiveness despite globalization
of meat markets.
The consistent increase in population inventory, from 1993
to 2002, is attributed to the entry of new industry players,
expansion in the operations of some large commercial swine

farms, and proliferation of small swine enterprises in urban
and peri-urban areas in the country. This significant increase
in swine population is reckoned as the industry’s response to
the increasing demand for pork, which is brought about by
both the increase in human population and the increase in
per capita pork consumption by Filipinos. Moreover, the
consistent increase in swine population in the country, particularly
in commercial farms, indicates a favorable environment for
commercial swine production.
Supply and Utilization
The total volume of pork available in the country is derived

from both local production and importation. During the
period 1993-2002, total pork supply posted a consistently
increasing trend. In 1993, total supply of pork was estimated
at 881, 363 t, which grew to 1, 357, 984 t in 2002, at an average
annual growth rate of 4.29%. During this period, total pork
supply in the country increased by 52.23%, equivalent to
441,860 t. The significant increase in total pork supply in the
country is a result of the consistent increase posted by both
local pork production and pork importation.
In 1993, the supply of pork from local sources was
estimated at 880, 944.91 t, which grew to 1, 332, 347.21 t in 2002,
at an average annual growth rate of 4.12%. During the said
period, pork supply from local sources increased by 49.76%,
equivalent to 354, 377.80 t. Similarly, importation of pork
significantly increased from 1993 to 2002. Pork importation grew
from 418.47 t in 1993 to 25, 636.91 t in 2002, at an average annual
growth rate of 39.42%. Both locally produced and imported
pork posted positive growth rates, but imported pork showed
higher rate of increase than the local produce.
The difference in growth rate between local production
and imported pork resulted in change in the relative proportion
of imported pork vis-à-vis total pork supply. In 1993, imported
pork constituted only 0.05% of the total pork supply. However,
in 2002, it accounted for 1.89%. Pork is imported into the
country primarily to fill in the gap between local production
and domestic demand, which is consistently increasing, due to
increases in human population and in per capita consumption.

The increase in importation of pork indicates that increase in
local pork production is lagging behind increase in demand.
The total supply of pork in the country is generally utilized
as fresh meat for domestic or home consumption. A fraction of
the total supply (particularly import) is utilized as ingredients
of processed meat products by the meat-processing sector.
Live Hog Production
From 1993 to 2002, volume of production increased

consistently at an average annual growth rate of 4.24%. In 1993,
volume of live hogs produced by the industry was recorded at
1.1 M t and valued at P 38.96 B. In 2002, the volume of hogs
produced increased to 1.67 M t, which was valued at P 86.72 B
at current prices.
Competitiveness of Pork Production in the Philippines
As per the General Agreement on Tariff and Trade (GATT)

and the World Trade Organization (WTO), the country will
have to open its market to imported products including meat
and other animal products. This development has caused
apprehensions on local swine raisers on how to keep the local
swine industry competitive in the global market.
The Philippines remains as one of the leading swine
producers in the Association of South East Asian Nations
(ASEAN). However, unlike its competitors in the region, the
Philippine swine industry is not yet competitive as a pork
exporter. Apparently, the high production cost of pork in the
Philippines explains its lack of export competitiveness. Factors
that contribute to its high production cost include feed, transport,
handling, cold storage, shrinkage, and trading costs, which
are higher in the Philippines, compared with its ASEAN
competitors. However, despite the high-cost structure, the
Philippines’ swine producers (small and large alike) and
wholesalers realize net returns that are higher than what is
achieved by pig raisers in other ASEAN countries.

Trends in the Industry
The swine industry has undergone changes in response to

the changing preferences of the consuming public, environment,
and situations affecting production practices. Some of the more
significant trends in the local swine industry are:
 Preference for lean meat with less fat – Recently,

Filipino pork consumers discriminate against pork cuts
with high proportions of fat tissues. Consequent to this
apparent change in consumer preference, local butchers
respond by selecting slaughter pigs with thin backfat.
Thus, slaughter pigs (particularly those coming from
backyard farms) that are thought to be fat are offered
lower liveweight (LW) price. In an effort to match the
changing consumer demand, swine raisers (both small and
large alike) are paying particular attention to genotype
and nutrition to keep fat in their pigs at a minimum.
Some swine raisers (particularly backyard) sell their
pigs at lower liveweight to make sure that fat is within
acceptable levels.
 Preference for pork with minimal antibiotic residues –

With the increasing awareness in food safety and health
issues, consumer preference for food is shifting toward
those derived from animals raised with minimal, if not
totally free from antibiotics and other chemicals. In
response to this development, the “smaller module, multi-
location” type of swine raising is now being introduced
into large commercial farms in the country.
 Preference for fresh and fresh-chilled pork – In most

developed countries, pork is marketed either in frozen
or processed forms. However, in some countries,
including the Philippines, consumers prefer warm-
fresh and fresh-chilled pork. A large proportion of pork
in the country is marketed in wet markets where pork
is offered in its warm-fresh form.

 Preference for parts – In developed countries, only
standard cuts (e.g., ham, belly, picnic, etc.) of pork are
marketed as human food. In the Philippines, consumers
buy pig feet (pata), head, including the ears, tails, and
even offal; as these parts are used in preparing several
Filipino delicacies.
 Emergence of small enterprises type of swine

production system – With the proliferation of
agricultural-veterinary suppliers in most urban and
peri-urban areas of the country, the small enterprise
type of swine production emerged with an increasing
popularity among small farmers. This type of swine
raising differ from the traditional subsistence type of
production in terms of genotype used and the feeding
and management procedures applied in rearing the
pigs. The pigs used under this type of production system
are mostly hybrids or crosses of standard commercial
breeds of swine. Although small or backyard in scale,
this type of pig production system utilizes higher cash
investment and updated technology and technological
services. Feeding, housing, and overall management
practices are modified cheaper versions of what is
practiced in commercial farms.
Projected Demands and New Initiatives of the Industry
Data on pork consumption indicate a consistent increase in

the demand for pork. The increase in pork demand is attributed
to the increasing human population and increasing per capita
consumption of pork. From 1993 to 2002, human population
in the Philippines increased at an annual rate of 2.36%. On the
other hand, per capita pork consumption increased by 2.33%
annually. At these rates of increase in human population and
per capita pork consumption, total domestic demand for pork
in 2010 and 2020 is expected to rise to 1.61 M t and 2.53 M t,
respectively. With the current practice of slaughtering pigs at
85 kg LW, 26.80 M and 42.18 M head of slaughter pigs are
needed in 2010 and 2020, respectively, to satisfy the projected
demand for pork. This significant increase in number of

slaughter pigs needed to fill the local demand for pork and the
inevitable increase in swine breeder base population that is
needed to produce the slaughter pigs are expected to complicate
further the current problems of feed shortages, limited
production areas, and environmental concerns.
To minimize these anticipated problems, active players of
the local swine industry are advocating increase in the slaughter
weight of pigs from 80–85 LW kg to 90–100 kg LW. This
initiative is expected to reduce the number of slaughter pigs
needed to satisfy the demand for pork. Moreover, increasing
slaughter weight of pigs is also expected to improve dressing
percentage and reduce drip loss in pork.
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT)
To better understand the potentials and limitations of the

local swine industry, its SWOT were analyzed.
Strengths
 Relatively large, stable, and continuously increasing

pig population that is well distributed throughout the
country
 Large and continuously increasing domestic market for
pork
 High utilization of pork relative to other animal products
 Well-organized private industry players
 Easy access to good genetics and state-of-the-art
technologies on swine production, feed milling, and

other related activities from both local and foreign
sources
 Technically equipped entrepreneurs, farm managers,
and practitioners
Weaknesses
 Generally low purchasing power of pork consumers

 High cost of feeds and other production inputs
 Heavy dependence on imported feed ingredients

 Inadequate national program for disease prevention
and control
 Inefficient and inadequate technical and market
information services
 High overhead costs both in swine production and in
feed milling
 Presence of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in some
major swine-producing regions of the country
Opportunities
 Growing domestic market, increasing demand to meet

increasing per capita consumption of a continuously
growing human population
 Export of live hogs and pork carcasses to other ASEAN
countries
 Availability of certified breeder pigs will be assured
by the operationalization of the Swine Breeder
Farm Accreditation Program of the Department of
Agriculture (DA)
 Continuously improving swine productivity and
production efficiency (Appendix A)

 Improved feed efficiency and dressing percentage by
increasing slaughter weights
Threats
 Flooding/dumping of cheap pork and other meat

products from other countries
 Increasing control of traders and butchers on pricing of
live slaughter hogs
 Irrational implementation of rules and policies on
environmental protection
 Industrialization and urbanization of current swine-
producing areas

Selection, Breeds, and Breeding
Selection
Selection of breeding animals is one of the most important

aspects in starting a pig farm. Selection ensures the choice
of the best animals for reproduction. Most of the productive
and reproductive traits are greatly influenced by the kind of
breeding stocks in the herd.
There is no best breed for all conditions. A particular breed
may be highly productive in a given place, however, it may
not perform well in another place. Moreover, variations in the
performance within a breed in different places may be expected.
The following are recommendations in selecting breeding
animal:
 Select a breed/breed combination or strain that is most

common in the community. This is to ensure that the
chosen breed is adapted under local conditions. It is also
easier to find replacement and adopt accepted practices
employed by local swine raisers.
 Start preferably with crossbreds or upgraded animals.
They are not as sensitive as the purebreds in their
requirements for feeding, housing, health care, and
management.
 Consider the market outlet and the consumers’ preference
before starting a pig production business. Buyers prefer
white pigs over colored ones. Lean pork is given a higher
value in the market, thus, the pigs’ quality should be
considered.
General Recommendations in Selecting Pigs for Breeding
In selecting pigs for breeding, the following pointers are

recommended:
 Select pigs based on reliable production records. Always

remember that the performance of an individual is
determined by the interactions between the genetic
makeup and the environment.
 Start selecting/evaluating potential breeding animals,
when these are 2–3 months old. This will allow enough
time for the performance evaluation. Final selection
should be done when the animals are 5–6 months.
Bases of Selection
Selecting pigs involves the following:
 Physical Selection (e.g., strong legs, long body, good

body conformation, etc.)
 Performance (e.g., mothering ability, average daily gain,
backfat thickness, etc.)
Selecting Boars
Boars contribute half of the genetic makeup of the whole

herd. Therefore, they should be selected based on economically
important traits such as average daily gain (ADG), backfat
thickness, and feed conversion ratio. Pointers in selecting breeding
boars are the following:
Physical basis
 Select boars that are masculine with well-developed

testicles of about the same size.
 Select boars that possess a strong constitution and high
libido, but controlled temperament.
 Select boars with strong pasterns, particularly on the hind
legs, a strong back, and a long body. These traits influence
the ability of the boar to mount and are also heritable.
 Select boars with no physical and hereditary defects
such as hernias (umbilical and scrotal), undescended

testes (cryptorchidism), and blind or inverted teats.

Performance basis
 Select boars that possess good muscle development in

the ham, loin, and shoulder. Avoid those with excessive
backfat. Backfat thickness should not exceed 2 cm at
90 kg LW.
 Select boars that show an ADG of not less than 800 g
(28–90 kg LW) and a feed conversion efficiency of not

more than 2.5. Boars should be at least 90 kg and not
more than 160 days old during selection.
Selecting Replacement Gilts
Gilts represent the other half of the genetic makeup of

the herd, hence they should be carefully selected. Pointers in
selecting gilts for breeding are as follow:
 Select gilts with good temperament and smooth in

general appearance.
 Select gilts with at least six pairs of prominent, well-spaced
teats. Avoid blind or inverted teats or with extremely
small or large nipples.
 Select gilts with a relatively long body to comfortably
accommodate the suckling pigs while nursing.
 Select gilts with strong legs and pasterns. Avoid small
inside toe, particularly on the hind legs.
 Select gilts with strong, straight, or slightly arched but
not too broad back. Low, sagging back is a defect; it may
also cause the udder to touch the floor during pregnancy.
 Select gilts with backfat of about 2 cm at 90 kg.
Culling
Culling is the removal of undesirable individuals in terms

of economically important traits and overall performance. Like
selection, culling should be a continuous process and should be
based on the reproductive performance and physical appearance
of the animals.

Unproductive and undesirable animals that must be
removed from the herd can be based on any traits or combination
of traits such as:
 Boars that have difficulty in mounting for no apparent

reason
 Boars with poor semen quality
 Boars that are highly temperamental, vicious, and
difficult to handle
 Boars that can no longer breed or produce viable semen
 Gilts that do not settle after two repeated matings to a
proven sire
 Gilts that do not come into heat after ten months of age
 Sows that have poor performance in terms of littersize
for two consecutive farrowings
 Sows that have not been bred 30 days after weaning
their litter
 Sows with poor maternal instinct and mothering ability
 Sows which fail to wean at least eight healthy pigs.
However, nutrition and management provided to the

sow must be checked as these could be the factors that
cause the sow's small littersize.
 Boars and sows that are found positive of infectious
diseases such as brucellosis, leptospirosis, and/or

pseudorabies
 Boars and sows with unsound characteristics (e.g.,
hernia, blind, or inverted teats, and the like) that could

be passed on to their offspring
Common Breeds of Swine in the Philippines
The Philippine Native Pig
The native pigs are generally small and mostly solid black
or black and white, with small ears, sway back, and with weak
pasterns (Fig. 1). They have good mothering ability, mostly
prolific, and generally resistant to adverse conditions and
adapted to local rural farm conditions.
Most strains or genetic groups of native pigs are named
after the province or the region where they are found; thus, the

so-called Ilocano pigs, Tagalog pigs, and Waray pigs.
Improvement of native pigs through upgrading has produced
strains such as the “Diani” and “Kaman” of Batangas and the
Berkjala (Berkshire X Jalajala), which are now believed to be
extinct.
Fig. 1. The Philippine native pig with its litter.
Large White (Yorkshire)
Large White is a white breed known for its good mothering

ability and large littersize (Fig. 2). The ears are medium-sized
and carried erect. The snout is relatively short and straight, and
the legs are generally sturdy and strong. Some individuals in
this breed are relatively short with big belly. They also tend to
produce carcasses with thicker backfat.
Landrace
Landrace is also a white breed; some landrace have bluish-

black spots/markings on the skin (Fig. 3). This breed has a
long body, large drooping ears, and long and relatively straight
snout. It is also known for its mothering ability and prolificacy.
The major defect of this breed is the weak hind legs and
pasterns.

Fig. 2. Large White (Yorkshire).
Fig. 3. Landrace.
Duroc
This breed varies considerably in color of the skin and coat,

which ranges from light golden brown to very dark red (Fig. 4).
Most Duroc are cherry red. The head is small in proportion to

Fig. 4. Duroc.
the body, with medium-sized drooping ears, and a snout that

is relatively short and straight.
Duroc is considered a superior breed in terms of growth
rate and feed efficiency. It has a good muscle quality and is
probably the most resistant to stress. This breed is also becoming
popular as a terminal sire for the production of slaughter
pigs, which are characterized by fast growth rate, better feed
efficiency, and good muscle development with desirable
carcass quality.
Pietrain
This breed is mostly spotted black and white, with medium-

sized erect ears, although some individuals have slightly
drooping ears, and a moderately long and slightly dished snout
(Fig. 5). This breed is known for its good muscle development
in the ham, loin, and shoulder with very thin backfat. The
reproductive performance and mothering ability are relatively
good and acceptable.
Due to their well-muscled ham, Pietrain pigs usually have
weak hind legs and are highly susceptible to stress. When
crossed with other breeds like Duroc, they can produce a good
terminal sire for Landrace x Large White crossbred sows in the
production of good-quality market hogs.

Fig. 5. Pietrain.
Hybrids
Most hybrids introduced into the country do not have

distinguishing physical characteristics, which may differentiate
them from other breeds. Most of these hybrids, however, are
white with good muscle development. Hybrid sows are claimed
to be highly prolific; have better fertility; have bigger and more
uniform litter; and have heavier piglets at birth. Slaughter
hybrid pigs, on the other hand, are claimed to be outstanding
in terms of growth rate, feed conversion efficiency, and carcass
quality. Some hybrid pigs available in the country are Hypor,
Nieuw Dalland, Seghers, Camborough, JSR, and Topigs.
Breeding Systems
Purebreeding
Purebreeding is a mating of two purebred animals of the

same breed. A purebred animal is defined as a member of
breed, which possesses a common ancestry and distinctive
characteristics, and is either registered or eligible for registration
in that breed. Purebreeding is being done to produce genetically
superior animals for commercial pig production systems.

Crossbreeding
Crossbreeding is a mating of two individuals belonging to

different breeds. This is being practiced to take advantage of
heterosis or hybrid vigor and to elicit the desirable characteristics
of parental breeds. Therefore, crossbreeding is strongly
recommended for the production of market/slaughter hogs.
Its beneficial effects include increase in the size and weight of
litters at birth and at weaning; increase in the survival rate of
the suckling pigs; and improvement in the growth rate of
growing-finishing pigs. Success of crossbreeding depends
primarily on the quality and superiority of the parental stocks;
hence, purebred parents must be carefully selected.
Production of triple cross pigs. This is a modification of

three-breed crossbreeding where a carefully selected third
breed (purebred) is introduced as a terminal sire on the two-
breed crossbred sows (Fig. 6). This is the most practical and
popular scheme for the production of slaughter pigs (Fig. 7).
A crossbred boar (Duroc x Pietrain) may also be used as a
terminal sire for the production of slaughter pigs.
SOW LINE BOAR LINE
(GGP) Large White X Large Landrace X Duroc X Duroc Pietrain X Pietrain
(GP) Large White X Landrace Duroc X Pietrain
(PS) F1 X F1
Triple Cross Pigs

(Slaughter Pigs)
GGP = Great Grand Parental Line
GP = Grand Parental Line Four-way Cross Pigs
PS = Parental Stock (Slaughter Pigs)
Fig. 6. A breeding program for the production of slaughter pigs

(triple and four-way cross pigs).

Fig. 7. Triple cross pigs.
In any crossbreeding program, a careful evaluation of the
quality of the individual purebred animal should be done. For
breeds that will constitute the sow line, select those that are
superior in terms of mothering ability and litter size (e.g., Large
White and Landrace). For breeds intended for the production
of terminal sires, select those which are superior in terms of
growth rate, muscle development, and carcass desirability
(e.g., Duroc and Duroc x Pietrain cross).
Inbreeding
This involves the mating of individuals that are closely

related to each other by ancestry. Any form of inbreeding
should be avoided. The adverse effects of inbreeding, generally
termed inbreeding depressions, may include reduction in litter
size and weight at birth and at weaning; ovulation rate and
fertility; and sperm production.
Sound record keeping should be maintained to determine
the relationships of the sires and dams in the herd to prevent
inbreeding.

Swine Breeder Farm Accreditation Program
To assure the distribution of quality breeding stocks in the

country, DA signed Administrative Order (AO) No. 14 Series
of 2000 to identify, accredit, and promote swine farms that
produce genetically superior quality breeder stocks. The swine
breeder farm accreditation program is aimed at sustaining
advances in local swine production by ensuring availability
and wide distribution of good quality breeder stocks to both
large commercial and small swine raisers.
Criteria for Accreditation
The following are the criteria used in evaluating swine

breeder farms vying for accreditation:
 Must be a registered business entity with permit to operate

 Must have facilities for performance testing of selected
genetically superior animals such as:
– testing pens (minimum of 25 head-testing facilities)
– backfat tester or lean meter
 Must have records of pedigree and performance (e.g., ADG
and feed conversion ratio) of individual animals
 Must have sustained appropriate programs for FMD,
pseudorabies, and hog cholera prevention and should issue

certificates of vaccination, when necessary
 Must have a full–time animal husbandryman/veterinarian
 Must be certified as brucellosis– and leptospirosis–free

Reproduction
Breeding Age
Swine reach puberty at about five months of age. Puberty

is the beginning of the reproductive capability or sexual maturity
of the animal. At this stage, however, boars and gilts are not yet
ready for breeding. Breeding at this stage usually retards the
growth and development of the animals.
Gilts should be bred at not less than 225 days old (7½ months)
weighing around 120–130 kg and have already cycled at least
twice. Very young gilts, when bred, usually produce small litter
size and show poor maternal behavior to their young.
Estrous Cycle
Sows and sexually mature gilts normally undergo periodic

heat periods (estrous cycle),which last from 18 to 24 days or an
average of 21 days. The period of sexual receptivity, called the
estrus or heat period, lasts from 2 to 5 days. Duration of estrous
cycle maybe influenced by breed of swine.
Common signs of estrus are as follows:
 swelling and reddening of the vulva;

 thick mucous discharge from the vagina;
 mounting other animals (mounting heat) or willingness
to be mounted by others regardless of sex (standing heat);
also, assumes characteristic mating position when touched
on the back by a boar or caretaker;
 restlessness, moving around continuously, and grunting;
 reduced appetite;
 attempting to frequently urinate with very little or no
urine at all;
 difficult to be move or transfer in the presence of a boar;
and
 reacts to the boars’ mating sound.

Techniques in Heat Detection
It is important to know when a sow or gilt is sexually

receptive to determine the right time to breed them. The surest
indication of a sow in heat is her acceptance of the boar. When
sows are reared in groups, it is proper to bring the female to the
boar pen or to bring both to a designated mating pen. Sexual
receptivity in sows and gilts maybe determined through any of
the following methods:
 back pressure test,

 riding-the-back test,
 semen-on-snout test,
 teaser boar method, and
 examination of external signs of estrus (Table 3) and
records.
Pregnancy or Gestation Period
Pregnancy or gestation period in gilts and sows ranges

from 110 to 119 days with an average of 114 days (best
remembered as “3 months, 3 weeks, and 3 days”).
Common signs of pregnancy are:
 cessation of estrous cycle;

 develops good appetite and fattens readily; and
 enlargement of the abdomen towards the latter part of
pregnancy.
Animals in advanced stage of pregnancy show the following

signs:
 enlargement, swelling, and reddening of external

genitalia,
 nervousness and restlessness,
 fully distended mammary glands,
 presence of milk indicating farrowing within 24 hours;
and
 nest building in sows raised in pasture.

Table 3. Physical and behavioral signs of estrus in sows and gilts.
Signs Pre-Heat Standing Heat Post-Heat
Standing heat Does not stand stands still with does not stand
still when ridden arched back when still when being
on the back. ridden by other pushed.
sows or by the
farm caretaker
Vulva red, swollen pink, less swollen pale, almost no

with little mucus with clear, sticky swelling, no
mucus mucus
Behavior restless and calm normal

nervous, allows mounting
mounts other by other
animals, animals,
does not allow mounts other
mounting by animals,
other animals, cocking of the ears,
frequent actively seeks the
urination, and boar, stands
less feed intake arched back in
the presence of
the boar
Duration 2 days 1 day 1 day
Mating/AI NO YES NO
Methods and/or equipment used in pregnancy diagnosis

are as follows:
 review of records;
 evaluation of external signs;
 ultrasound-amplitude depth ultrasound machines;
 ultrasound-Doppler tests, and
 ultrasound-scanner.
Advantages of detecting early pregnancy are as follows:
 provides easy identification of sows for culling or

rebreeding, non-pregnant, feed-wasting sows;
 gives early warning of breeding problems due to
infertile boars and cystic ovaries of sows;

 enables the producer to make efficient use of his
breeding facilities and to plan more adequately for
farrowing, nursing, and finishing; and
 prevents selling of pregnant sows.
Mating Systems
Natural Mating
Natural mating involves bringing the boar to mate an “in-

heat” gilt/sow or vice versa, and then separating the two after
mating. This practice is termed as hand mating. A good record
will help identify a compatible mating system.
Hand mating is practiced for the following reasons:
 allows producers to easily identify which sow or gilt is

bred and which is not;
 permits the prediction of the farrowing date; and
 allows producers to easily determine the reproductive
performance of the sow.
Artificial Insemination (AI)
The most practical and efficient method to carry out genetic

improvement in swine is through AI. The strength of AI is
generally dependent on the genetic superiority of the boar and
the possibility of spreading its qualities to more females to
produce offsprings of better genetic quality.
This technique (Fig. 8) has gained wide acceptance among
many Filipino swine raisers due to the following advantages:
 increases the number of sows that can be serviced by a

boar;
 eliminates injuries, which may result from mating small
gilts or sows with large boars;
 reduces, if not completely controls, the spread of sexually
transmitted diseases;
 allows small raisers to keep a few sows without
maintaining a boar;

Fig. 8. Artificial insemination.
 allows economical use of performance-tested boars;

and
 provides access for breeding distantly located females
more conveniently and with less transport costs.
Limitations of AI:
 It needs a properly trained technician.

 There is difficulty in storing diluted boar semen over a
prolonged period.
 There are additional costs for equipment and laboratory
chemicals (Appendix B).
The success of AI depends largely on the accuracy of heat

detection and subsequent timing of insemination on the part
of a properly trained technician. It also depends on the proper
handling of semen before and during insemination. It should
always be a guiding principle that gilts/sows, which cannot
conceive, following service of a normal boar, will not perform
any better when artificially inseminated.

The use of AI involves component processes such as training
of boars and collecting, evaluating, processing, and storing their
semen. (Fig. 9). Each one of these processes is critical to the
success of the AI technology.
Fig. 9. Artificial insemination procedure.
Training of boar. The training of boars normally starts at

around 6 ½–7 months of age. Younger than this age, boars are
quite difficult to train. Boars for training are housed individually.
In some farms, a dummy is brought inside the pen, and it is a
common practice that boars are trained in the same place. If
there is a collecting pen, it is wise to train the boar there. Some
boars prefer to be inside their own pen when semen collection
is done. In this case, a movable dummy will be necessary.
Remember the following:
 Boars differ in characteristics and attitude. The same is
true among different breeds.
 Always check the semen quality and quantity.
 Check for any abnormalities like small testicles and
insufficient erection.

Semen collection. One of the basic differences between AI
and natural breeding is that the AI technician is responsible for
many of the tasks normally performed by the boar at mating.
It is crucial then that the AI technician understands the natural
processes of semen production, so that he can mimic them as
closely as possible during semen collection and processing.
When collecting semen for AI, the AI technician is responsible
in providing a suitable storage environment for the sperm cells.
One of the important points to remember is to avoid temperature
shocks. The semen should be collected in a pre-warmed
container that will maintain its temperature.
Moreover, the technician should understand the behavior
of each boar he handles. Some boars have penile erection once
they see the dummy and then leave the pen. Others walk
around the dummy before mounting it. A well-trained boar
mounts when presented with a dummy.
Procedure
1. A clean, dry, and warm collecting cup covered with

filter (surgical gauze or milk filter) is carried before
entering the collecting pen.
2. Prior to the collection, hands should be washed and
dried. If necessary, use gloves (vinyl gloves are
recommended) to make the collection more hygienic.
3. Introduce the boar to the dummy sow in the collecting
pen. Remove urine and preputial fluid by massaging
the prepuce starting from the base and pushing steadily
forward. Clean the surrounding area of the prepuce
with paper towel or tissue paper.
Allow the boar to mount the dummy sow in his own
time. Once mounted, the boar will begin its thrusting
movements, attempting to locate the sow’s vulva.
Grasp the penis with the fingers lightly at first and then
firmly. The penis should not be pulled out. Instead, the
boar is allowed to extend his penis on its full length.
The thrusting movements will eventually stop, and
ejaculation will start. Once in this state, slightly loosen
the grip.

4. Pressure exerted in gripping the penis can be learned
through experience. It varies from one boar to another.
While ejaculating, some boars prefer a rhythmic
contraction of the hand.
5. The appearance of the ejaculate will change as the boar
ejaculates the different fractions of the semen, which
is easily identified by an experienced technician. The
different semen fractions are:
 Sperm-rich fraction – This is grayish and milky. This

fraction is collected as it contains viable sperm cells
ideal for insemination.
 First gel with clear fluid fraction – Do not collect this
fraction as it contains very few sperm cells.
 Clear fluid fraction – One-third of this fraction can be
collected to add volume to the collected sperm-rich
semen.
 Gel-rich fraction (tapioca) – This fraction should be
filtered out during collection because it clogs the
catheter and causes death of sperm cells.

The aim should be to collect the sperm-rich fraction.
In practice, it is often very difficult to differentiate
between the clear fractions and the sperm-rich fraction.
In such situations, it is acceptable to collect all the
fractions and end up with a larger volume of more
dilute semen.
6. Be patient because the collection may take between
5-20 minutes. Do not release the penis until the boar
has finished ejaculating. It is not appropriate to
release the penis after the sperm-rich fraction has been
ejaculated. Do not rush the process. This may frustrate
the boar and make him potentially dangerous.
Semen evaluation. Immediately after collection, the

sperm-rich portion of the semen is taken to the laboratory for
evaluation. The semen is evaluated in terms of physical and
microscopic parameters.

Physical
 Volume – A mature boar should produce 75–150 ml

sperm-rich semen per ejaculation.
 Appearance – The sperm-rich fraction of the semen
should be thick and opaque-white. A reddish color
indicates possible infection or injury of the urethra or
the glans penis.
 Smell/Odor - A clean ejaculate has little odor. An
ejaculate that has been contaminated with preputial
fluid has a very distinctive odor.
Microscopic
 Concentration – The sperm concentration should be at

least 3 B spz/dose (100 ml). A concentration of 6 B spz
is recommended during summer months to compensate
for lower production due to heat stress.
 Motility – At least 70% of the sperm cells should exhibit
a progressive movement.
 Morphology – The semen should contain at least 75%
normal sperm cells. Sperm cell abnormalities such as
the presence of cytoplasmic droplet, curled, or coiled
tail, etc. may be present, but should not exceed 25% of
the total sperm count.
Semen processing. Once the semen is collected and

evaluated, it is immediately processed to preserve the potency
of the sperm for a period of time. Highest conception rate may
be obtained if the semen is used within 12 hours of collection
and dilution. Dilution allows the use of one ejaculate for more
than one female. Besides providing a favorable medium for
the sperm cells, a diluent or extender provides them necessary
nourishment. It also protects the sperm cells from harmful
microorganisms or foreign bodies. Commercial semen
extenders are now available in the market at a price of
P150–P450/1-L pack.
Semen storage. Immediately after processing, refrigerate

the extended semen at an ideal temperature of 16o-17oC.

Extended semen should be used for AI within 48 hours of
storage to achieve desirable results.
Handling and transport of semen. When transporting the

semen during AI, make sure that the temperature needed by
the semen is ideal. Too low and too high temperatures during
transport may decrease the motility of the sperm.
Inseminating an in-heat sow/gilt. The steps in artificially

inseminating sows/gilts are as follow:
1. Bathe the sow/gilt paying particular attention to the

vulva and its surrounding areas.
2. Clean your hands and dry them before you begin the
insemination.
3. Lubricate the catheter with a non-spermicidal jelly or
paraffin oil or few drops of semen.
4. Invert the semen bottle 2–3 times to mix the semen. Insert
the nozzle into the end of the catheter.
5. Grasp the tip of the vulva between the thumb and
forefinger, then pull it slightly downwards until it is
almost perpendicular to the ground.
6. Insert the catheter into the vagina with the point directed
slightly upward about 45o to prevent entrance into the
urinary bladder.
7. Twist, with a slight thrusting pressure, the spiral
catheter counter clockwise until it is “locked” in the
cervix. A correct lock is achieved when the catheter
tends to spring back when pulled.
8. Rub gently the sow’s back or flank during insemination
to induce uterine contractions.
9. Re-inseminate the sow in 12–24 hours.
10. Protect the sow from any form of stress after the
insemination. It is best if insemination is done in the
sow's individual pen.
Insemination Time
The best time to inseminate a gilt/sow is on the first

30 hours of the estrus phase (Fig. 10). Insemination at this

period usually results in better farrowing rate and litter size in
both gilts and sows. A second dose given 12 hours (for gilts)
or 24 hours (for sows) after the first dose may further improve
conception rate and litter size at birth.
Proper Timing is Important
HOURS
Proestrus Estrus Metestrus
Vulva reddens, swells, and Standing to boar (heat period)

subsides approximately 4 days approximately 2½ days
Honking stage
Male
characteristics
Standing to riding
test approximately 1 day
HOURS
Fertility Low High Low

Do not inseminate Inseminate Wait until next estrus
Fig. 10. Stages of estrous cycle in sows and gilts.
Management of Boars
The performance level of a swine herd is determined by

both genetics and environment. The genetic contribution is
determined by the boars and gilts selected and the breeding
program used. The environment consists of external factors
such as climate, housing, nutrition, and management that can
hinder the expression of genetically influenced performance
traits.
The goal of any good swine breeding program is to have
high farrowing rates with large litters (at least 10 piglets/litter).
Good boar management practices before, during, and after
the breeding season are vital in achieving farm performance
targets.

Puberty in Boars
Puberty in male pigs is considered to have occurred once

free spermatozoa are present in the semen. The boar reaches
puberty at around 4–6 months.
A boar is ready for breeding when it is:
 eight months old

 120–130 kg or more (controlled feeding)
 large enough to mount and mate with a normal-sized
female
 producing good-quality and -quantity of semen
When to Buy Boars
Boars should be purchased at least 6–8 weeks before it is

used for breeding. This gives enough time to select the superior
animals. Once selected, check them for health condition and
evaluate their reproductive performance.
Transporting Newly Purchased Boars
Newly purchased boars should be transported with proper

care. During transport, ensure maximum safety to minimize
stress, injury, and diseases. Any stressful condition or disease
can lower fertility or even lead to temporary infertility, which
might last for 6–8 weeks.
Boar Usage
The extent of boar utilization is dependent on the methods

of breeding practiced in the farm, which include natural,
artificial, combined system (AI on first service then natural as
follow-up service or vice versa), or sandwich system (natural-
AI-natural, natural-AI-AI, or AI-natural-AI) of breeding.
Tables 4–7 show classification of boars used, and frequency
of utilization and activities related to boar management that
may serve as a guide in both natural mating and AI in pigs.

Table 4. Boar classsification and utilization for natural mating.
No. of Services per Sow Boar< 1 Year Old Boar >1 Year Old
per Heat Period (Junior boar) (Senior boar)
Two services 2 boars : 15 sows 1 boar : 15 sows
One service 1 boar : 20 sows 1 boar : 30 sows
Table 5. Frequency of boar use in natural mating.

Boar Age Service Interval
8-10 months 5-10 days
11 months 4 days
12 months - up 3 days
Table 6. Frequency of semen collection.

Boar Age Collection
8 - 12 months Once a week
13 months - up 2–3 times a week (4 consecutive days of rest)
Table 7. Regular activities related to proper boar management.

Age Activity
4–6 months Selection
6–7 months Acclimatization
7–8 months Training
8–12 months Breeding schedule and utilization
Once-a-week utilization (maximum of two times)
12 months and above Three times-a-week utilization (staggered basis)
30–36 months Planned culling
Other Considerations
 Have one extra boar for every 30 sows, if possible.

 Start service of the boars at eight months of age. For the
first service, introduce the boar to the sow, which is on
standing heat.
 Replace boars every 1.5–2 years (if only one boar is
used), if replacement is to be obtained from the farm.

 It is advisable that boars be of different ages and sizes.
 Acclimatize new boars at least one week before use and
after a prescribed quarantine period.
 Check semen quality of the boar regularly (at least every
six months), especially during summer, if possible.
 Subject newly acquired boars to blood test, if possible.
 One caretaker should handle the boar.
 Make sure that the mating area is not slippery.

Nutrition and Feeding
Proper nutrition, health care, and good management

practices contribute a lot to a successful piggery operation. A
well-nourished pig grows faster, attains market weight earlier
and is more efficient in feed utilization, more resistant to
diseases and stresses, more prolific, and is better in mothering
ability.
Physiological States Requiring Nutrients
The physiological states, which require nutrients, are as

follow:
 Maintenance – when the animal is neither gaining nor

losing weight; and does not work, produce product,
store fat, and develop fetus.
 Growth – when tissue synthesis (muscle, bone, organ,
and some fats) takes place in the young animal.
 Fattening – when increased fat deposition becomes
desirable (finishing).
 Reproduction – when there is an increased need
for nutrients for ova/sperm production or for fetal

development in the gestating female.
 Lactation - when the dam requires extra nutrients to
sustain production of milk for her litter without

sacrificing her own body reserves.
Physiological requirements are additive (e.g., growth

requirements must include maintenance needs and gestating),
but growing animals need nutrients for their maintenance,
growth, and reproductive requirements, and so on (Appendices
C, D, E, and F).

Nutrient Classification According to Function
Nutrients are classified into:
 energy nutrients (e.g., carbohydrates, fats, and proteins);

 nutrients for tissue building, maintenance, and repair
(e.g., proteins, minerals, and water); and
 nutrients for regulation of metabolic body processes
(e.g., water, proteins, fats, minerals, and vitamins).
All these nutrients, except water, are contained in various

feeds in varying amounts and bioavailabilities to the pig.
Water is primarily given for drinking, although it may be part
of the feed or is derived from biochemical changes in the feed
nutrients after absorption (Appendices G, H, I, and J).
Minerals
Pigs require at least 13 elements, namely: calcium (Ca),

chlorine (Cl), copper (Cu), iodine (I), iron (Fe), magnesium
(Mg), manganese (Mn), phosphorus (P), potassium (K),
selenium (Se), sodium (Na), sulfur (Su), and zinc (Zn). Cobalt
(Co) is also required for vitamin B12 synthesis.
Functions of the inorganic elements range from structural
(e.g., Ca, P, Mg) to regulation of metabolic processes (e.g., Mg,
S, Na, K, trace elements). Confined pigs demand dietary
mineral supplements to avoid deficiencies and disruption of
vital processes (e.g., acid-based balance, fluid balance) and
normal physiological functions (growth, pregnancy, lactation,
metabolism).
Appendix K describes the sources of minerals for swine.
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds distinct from amino acids,

carbohydrates, and lipids. These are needed in very small
amounts, but are necessary for normal growth and production.
Vitamins are classified as fat soluble (vitamins A, D, E, and
K) or water soluble (members of the B-complex, and ascorbic
acid). B-complex vitamins (biotin, choline, folacin, niacin,

pantothenic acid, riboflavin, thiamin, pyridoxine, and
cyanocobalamin) act as coenzymes in carbohydrate, fat, and
protein metabolism. Deficiency in any of these will decrease
energy delivery to energy-requiring body systems. Each fat-
soluble vitamin has specific metabolic functions. Vitamin C is
not a dietary requirement, pigs can synthesize it.
Vitamin requirements are expressed either as international
unit per kilogram (IU/kg), milligram per kilogram (mg/kg)
feed, or parts per million (ppm). Some B-complex vitamins are
synthesized by the bacteria in the pig’s cecum.
Feed Additives
Antimicrobial agents are commonly added to swine diets

to improve the weight gains, feed conversion efficiency, and
reproduction. These additives reduce morbidity and mortality
in young pigs. Recent findings show the danger of
indiscriminate use of additives to animal or human health.
Therefore, their use should first be approved by the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) or any concerned agency. Additives,
such as enzymes and probiotics, improve nutrient availability.
Sweeteners and flavoring agents, which improve palatability of
feeds, may also be added.
Feeds for Swine
Swine belongs to the monogastric (simple stomach) species

and should be given combinations of high-energy, low-fiber
feeds (concentrates) at the least possible cost (Fig. 11). Feed cost
usually accounts for 75–80% of the total production cost.
Low-cost, high-quality rations for the different classes of pigs
can be formulated. However, this requires knowledge of the
nutritive characteristics, limits in utilization, and relative prices
per unit nutrient of each feed group.
Feed Ingredients
Swine feeds are grouped into basal or energy and protein

feeds. Basal feeds are low in fiber (<18% crude fiber [CF]) and
high in energy. Protein feeds are low-fiber feeds containing

Fig. 11. Swine feeding.
20% or more crude protein (CP). These are either legume grains
or oil seed residues from oil extraction (plant proteins), or
animal proteins from animal, poultry, or marine sources.
Animal proteins are superior to plant proteins because they
contain higher essential amino acids, however, they are more
expensive. Of the plant proteins, soybean oil meal (SBOM)
is comparable with many proteins in terms of quality. Most
legume grains contain anti-nutrients (e.g., protease inhibitors,
hemagglutinins), which depress nutrient availability. Thus,
they have to be heat–treated (moist-heat) to destroy the toxic
and anti-nutrient contents. Dry heating (e.g., toasting, roasting)
of some legumes does not destroy the toxic content.
Plant proteins in swine rations can replace wholly animal
proteins for older pigs, provided that the essential amino acid
balance is met. However, it is advisable to include minimal
amount of animal proteins (e.g., fish meal) in rations to ensure
good protein quality.
Know the maximum limit of using different feeds for
successful formulation and optimum animal performance.
Appendices C and D present these limits.

Feed Processing
Cooking. While some feeds can be given directly to the animal,

others need some forms of processing for more efficient nutrient
utilization. Thus, feed grains (cereals) and by-products, such as
corn, sorghum (whole or ground), rice bran, pollard, and corn
bran, can be fed as such or mixed with other feeds (hog mashes)
without undergoing further processing.
Some root crops like cassava or sweetpotato can be fed fresh
(in limited quantities) to pigs. Also, these can be dried as meal
or cooked (boiled) to increase palatability or to remove toxic
components (e.g., hydrocyanic acid in cassava). Other root crops
such as 'pongapong' (A. campanulatus) and tannia (Xanthosoma
spp.) must be cooked to eliminate/minimize itchiness and to
encourage higher intake.
Legumes with antitryptic factors or hemagglutinins (e.g.,
raw soybean, winged bean, jack bean, and sword bean) should
also be cooked. Cowpea, mungbean, and 'tapilan' may not be
cooked before feeding. Feedstuffs, which may contain higher
pathogenic organisms (e.g., kitchen refuse, raw fish, and offals),
must be cooked to prevent disease outbreaks in the herd.
Grinding. Grinding of coarse ingredients (e.g., copra cakes)

and big seeds (e.g., corn) is necessary where selective feeding may
ensue. This is also done when pigs may be in such a hurry to eat
as much or as fast as they could without properly chewing the
grain feed. Small seeds like sorghum may or may not be ground.
Grains should be medium ground. Avoid fine grinding because
it results in unpalatable, dusty feeds. Moreover, it increases
power, time, and labor costs. Grinding also facilitates mixing
of unpalatable feeds with more palatable ones.
Pelleting. Pelleting improves the physical nature of bulky

feeds; increases feed density; improves feed intake; avoids
wastage/selective feeding; and reduces storage space. The
high temperature and pressure during pelleting improve the
high-fiber feeds’ digestibility by loosening the ligno-cellulose
bonding and destroying the growth-inhibiting microorganisms.
A disadvantage of pelleting is the added power cost.

Feeding Dry and Pregnant Sows
Proper swine nutrition begins with the sow. Sows should

be flushed (i.e., given high-energy diet) to promote ovulation
and increase number of ova released from the ovary. Prevent
gestating sows from becoming too fat to reduce embryonic
mortality. Provide pregnant sows/gilts additional nutrients to
allow about 25 kg maternal weight gain and 20 kg conception
products for normal reproduction. Maintenance requirement
increases with increasing body weight of the sows, however, it
is not affected by the gestation weight gain of 45 kg.
To control weight gain during gestation (pregnancy), adopt
the following measures:
 Limit energy intake of the sow/gilt only to cover

requirements for its maintenance, and deposition of
protein and fat in the maternal tissue and conceptus.
 Limit feeding to allow maximum efficiency of pregnant gilts
and sows. Fibrous, bulky diets keep them from becoming
too fat and prevent constipation. Bulky diets or rations
(e.g., high rice or wheat bran, lower copra meal) should
be fed a few days before expected farrowing to prevent
constipation. Soilage and drinking water also minimize
constipation. Do not feed sows on farrowing day.
Adding fat to the sow’s diet before farrowing increases the

fat content of colostrum (the first milk after farrowing) and milk
and improves the baby pig’s survival.
Feeding Lactating Sows
Plan the sow’s feeding management to obtain optimum

nutrient intake during lactation. Growth and survival rates of the
litter, as well as the sow’s subsequent reproductive performance,
depend on her nutrition during lactation. Gradually increase the
feed given each day to lactating sows and then allow full feeding
on the 4th and 5th day after farrowing. This is done to increase
the milk yield; condition the sow’s body; and ensure successful
rebreeding soon after weaning. The average milk production of
sows is 7.5–9.5 L/day.

Good indicators of adequate lactating sow nutrition are the
weight of 28-day old piglets (should be about 7.5 kg), and the
duration between weaning and postweaning heat (4–7 days).
Average piglet-weaning weight of 5.5 kg or less and/or greater
than seven days postweaning to estrus interval suggest inadequate
feeding of lactating sows, hence, should be remedied.
Lactating diet should be high in energy and low in fiber, with
adequate protein/amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. The
use of additives (antibiotics) must be justified and depends on
prevailing farm conditions. Flavoring agents are not necessary
in fresh, palatable feeds.
Feeding Suckling/Baby Pigs
Sources of carbohydrates for very young pigs are different

from those of older ones. Pigs less than seven days old utilize
only glucose and lactose; those aging 7–10 days old, fructose and
sucrose. Feeding fructose and sucrose to pigs younger than seven
days can result in severe diarrhea, weight loss, and high mortality.
Feed two-week-old or older pigs with starch or cereal-based
diets since their digestive systems are sufficiently developed to
produce pancreatic amylase and intestinal disaccharidases. Peak
production of milk occurs between the 3rd and 4th week, then it
declines. During this period, piglet requirements (average of
8 piglets/litter) may exceed milk production. Thus, introduce
booster feed to piglets at five days old and then shift to prestarter
feed when piglets are 5–10 kg LW. Booster and prestarter feeds
are high in protein (21–24% CP), low in fiber, and well fortified
with vitamins, minerals, and antibiotics. Appendix L shows
recommended energy and amino acid digestibilities for piglets
and finishing pigs for improved growth performance.
Feeding Starter Pigs
One week after weaning (10-12 kg LW), shift to starter ration

(18% CP). Gradually replace prestarter feed with starter ration
until weanlings are fully fed with starter ration. Gradually shift
from starter to grower feed when the pigs are 18–20 kg LW.

Feeding Grower/Finisher Pigs
Grower phase is the stage when the pig is about three months
old and weighs 20–60 kg LW. Feed 16% CP grower mash to
20–35 kg pigs, and 15% CP grower mash to 35–60 kg animals.
Beyond 60 kg, the animal’s protein requirements are decreased,
thus, reduce the CP content to 14% (finisher ration). Feed the
pigs up to market or slaughter weight of 90–110 kg.
Grower/finisher pigs adjust their feed intake according to
the energy content of the diet. At each growth stage, formulation
should meet the energy, amino acid, vitamin, and mineral (macro-
and trace elements) requirements of the animal (Appendices M,
N, and O). Appendix P shows the daily feed intake and expected
animal weight at a given age.
Feeding Breeding Pigs
Give breeders high-energy feeds before breeding to increase

ovulation rate and produce large litter size at farrowing. The
sow should not be too fat at breeding as it may lead to reduced
litter size and increased number of stillborn pigs and mummified
fetuses. To attain the best reproductive efficiency of the sow,
minimize the weight and fat loss during lactation.
Do not feed boars shortly before mating. A full stomach
causes sluggishness.

Housing and Equipment
Building Orientation and Cooling System
In designing a pig house, the first requirement is to protect the

animals from direct sunlight; thus, the long axis of the building
must be laid in an east-west direction. Air temperature, air
velocity, floor insulation, infrared radiation, and relative humidity
determine the thermal environment around the animal, hence,
should also be considered.
Majority of pig houses in the country only allow for a
comparatively slow-air velocity. To offset the ill effects of high
temperature, a cooling system may be provided. Blower fan with
flexible ducts to achieve better air distribution may be installed
(Fig. 12). Another approach is to install a sprinkle-nozzle system;
either on the roof or inside the building.
Fig. 12. Cooling system using tunnel ventilation.
Roofs
Roofs must be designed to reduce the ambient heat load

reaching the animals and to provide for an efficient removal of
the animal’s body heat.

Common roofing materials are made of corrugated
galvanized iron (G.I.) sheet and heat insulators. The roof’s
outer surface must be light colored to efficiently reflect the
sun’s radiation, while the inner surface of the roof must be dark
colored to minimize heat buildup inside the house.
Partition Walls and Doors/Gates
Slatted partition walls made of round iron bars and G.I.

pipes may be adopted. Provide easy access to and from the pen.
Doors must be durable and provided with security-tight locks.
The most commonly used materials are round iron bar, round
black iron pipe, round G.I. pipe, square iron bar, flat bar, wood,
or bamboo.
Housing System
Housing system and facilities depend on the size and extent

of operation. For a small-scale operation, adopt the conventional
or all-purpose housing system. This system combines several
farm operations into one building. It can accommodate non-
pregnant and pregnant sows, gilts, and piglets. It can also be
used for growing-finishing operation.
Medium-scale and commercial farms may adopt the “life
cycle” housing system (Fig. 13). This system is designed to
Fig. 13. Commercial swine housing system.

provide the animal with proper space requirements; maximize
labor efficiency; and promote better biosecurity.
The life cycle housing system is composed of the following
units: pregestation and boar, gestation, farrowing and nursery,
and growing-finishing.
Pregestation and boar unit. The breeding house must have

sufficient space to accommodate mating activities. Mating
should take place in the boar’s pen because of its labor and safety
advantages.
Consider the following requirements:
 The air moisture level (relative humidity) should be

maintained at about 70%.
 Approximately 16–18 hours of light should be maintained
daily.
 Facilities should allow close supervision and easy access
to the pen during mating.
 Boars should be housed individually to avoid injury due
to fighting and for better mating performance.
 Bedding materials such as sand, wood shavings, or rice
straw may be used in cases of leg problems.
Pregestating gilts or sows can be housed in two ways. They
may be kept in individual feeding-lying stalls that are made of
G.I. pipes, wood, round bars, concrete cement, and/or black iron
pipes, or they may be housed in group pens.
Gestation unit. House recently bred and pregnant gilts and

sows in individual stalls to prevent injury, feed competition,
and unnecessary stress that may lead to failure in fertilization

or abortion.
Farrowing unit. Transfer pregnant animals to this unit one

week before the expected farrowing date. House the animals
in elevated and slatted farrowing crates.
Usually, the sow is confined between two tubular gates.
Galvanized steel pipes and plastic flooring are commonly used
for this purpose. Other materials such as wood, bamboo, and
round bars may also be used. Use slatted floors to maintain
hygiene. The flooring can be constructed out of concrete

cement, round bars, t-bars or trapezium iron bars, or plastic
matting.
Always provide the farrowing crate with a creep area
equipped with sufficient heat source. Light bulb, ultraviolet
lamps, or LPG-fired convection lamps are common sources of
heat. Common types of flooring for the creep area are plastic-
coated wire mesh, plastic, and/or metal flooring materials.
Growing-finishing unit. Adopt an “all-in, all-out” scheme

per pen. Animals can be housed in conventional pens with
concrete floor and partition walls made of either concrete,
round bars, or G.I. pipes.
Table 8 presents the space requirements of buildings and
equipment for swine. Appendices Q, R, S, T, and U present the
building designs for a commercial pig farm.
Table 8. Space requirements of building and equipment for swine.

Age and Size Pen Size/ Height of Feeder Partition
of Animal Dimension (m2) Door (m) Space (cm) Wall (m)
Before farrowing
Gilts 2.00 1.0 35–45 1.20
Sows 2.70 1.0 4 5 – 5 0
1.20–1.50
After Farrowing
Young sows
Solid flooring 4.12 1.0 35–45 1.20
Slatted flooring 3.00 1.0 45–50 1.20
Mature sows
Solid flooring 5.62 1.0 45–50 1.20
Slatted flooring 3.96 1.0 4 5 – 5 0
1.20–1.50
Herd Sows 2.70 1.0 4 0 – 5 0

1.20–1.50
Boar Pens with

Mating Area 6.00 1.0 40–50
1.20–1.50
Weaning Pen (per weaner)

Solid flooring 0.50 0.6 20 0.75
Slatted flooring 0.30–0.40 0.6 20 0.75

Waste Management
Most of the environmental concerns associated with

piggeries relate to water quality, soil degradation, air pollution,
and rural-urban interface issues. Many factors affect the
pollution potential of swine waste. Nutrient content of animal
waste and the climate conditions contribute to the pollutive
effect of animal waste. The collection, storage, and application
of manure are linked to the emission of odor, ammonia, and
other gases; and pollution of ground and surface water with
organic matter, N, P, and pathogens. Storage facilities that
leak can be direct sources of large quantities of manure
contaminants to ground water. Also excessive or improperly
timed manure applications on permeable soils can result in
elevated nitrate levels in shallow ground water.
Waste Management Practices
Waste management planning in swine production can reduce

the risk of pollution. It can ensure facilities for collection, storage,
treatment, and distribution of waste that are appropriate and
effective to meet the effluents’ standard values. The number
of animals is important in directly determining the amount of
waste available and indirectly, the system that can be put in
place. In selecting the best waste management system, the waste
management hierarchy (Fig. 14) should be the guiding principle.
Source Reduction
Source reduction technique emphasizes changes in operational

procedure, technology, infrastructure or equipment, and farm
inputs. By considering these aspects, waste production can be
reduced both in terms of quantity and quality.
Operational Procedure
 Collect and separate swine manure from wash water.

SOURCE REDUCTION MOST DESIRABLE
Recycle/Reuse
Treatment
Disposal
LEAST DESIRABLE
Fig. 14. Waste management hierarchy.

 Reduce gradually feed distribution to feeders during
feeding time until minimal leftover is observed.
 Monitor water consumption.
 Institute a standard operating procedure during pen and
pig washing.
 Train laborers on ways to optimize water utilization.
 Practice good maintenance of water supply system to
decrease farm water consumption.
Technology
 Fine grinding of feed

 Pelletize/extrusion
 Multiphase feeding
 Split sex feeding
 Choice feeding
Infrastructure or Equipment
 Installation of feeders in pens where floor feeding is

practiced
 Feeder design
 Installation of small catch pan to nipple type waterer and
small drip pans or drip pools
 Use of high-pressure hoses
 Application of scraper systems and flushing systems

Farm Inputs
 Use of highly digestible feed ingredients

 Use of enzymes
 Use of yucca plants
 Use of aerobic and anaerobic bacterial cultures
Waste Re-use and Recycling
While it is true that wastes produced in piggery operation

contain substances that are potential environmental pollutants,
the same substances when handled properly can still prove to
be beneficial. Two major ways by which waste from piggeries
can be recycled is by reusing them as fertilizer and feed.
Re-use as Fertilizer
Nutrient content of manure is highly variable, depending on

species, breed, and age of livestock; diet; and type of production
and storage systems. In addition, type of ration fed, amount of feed,
presence of diluents, method of collection and storage, time and
method of land application, nitrification, and soil characteristics
are factors that affect the fertilizer value of manure. A problem in
utilizing manure is that the nutrients are diluted; they are mixed
together; they are in relative proportions that are inappropriate
for most plant and animal uses; and nutrient content of manure
may vary over time and from sample to sample.
One way to produce a uniform organic fertilizer is by
composting. Composting is an aerobic microbial treatment of
solid manure. It is a process by which organic waste is converted
into organic fertilizer by means of biological activity under
controlled conditions. Use of compost fungus activator (CFA),
Trichoderma harzianum, enhances the process of decomposition
by reducing composting time from 5–6 months to just
3–4 weeks. Making briquette and pelletizing of composted
manure can also be an option.

Re-use as Feed
Treated animal waste may be used as feedstuff. Pig manure

can be refed to livestock or used to support on-site ducks,
chicken, or fishponds. Ensiled mixture of 50% swine waste and
50% rice straw can be fed to cattle.
Re-use as Energy Source
Appendix V shows selected locally developed technologies

related to swine waste management.
Treatment and Disposal

The swine farm is unlikely to attain 100% waste reduction;
thus, wastes that cannot be minimized should be treated.
Fortunately, numerous accepted treatment options are available.
Cost associated with waste treatment maybe considerable.
However, to comply with waste water regulations (Appendix
W), all waste that is discharged must be treated to comply with
the water quality criteria and effluent standards set by the DENR
(Appendices X and Y). Options for physical and biological
treatment unit to degrade organic matter are listed below:
Physical Treatment Unit
 Coagulation/flocculation
 Sedimentation
 Filtration
Biological Treatment Unit
 Activated sludge processes

 Trickling filters
 Land treatment processes
 Anaerobic and biological treatment lagoons (Fig. 15)
The combination of treatment units in series can be effective

in lowering the pollutive capacity of swine wastewater.
Important factors when evaluating and selecting treatment

Fig. 15. Lagoon used as temporary storage of swine waste.
operations and processes are organic and hydraulic loading,
climatic and environmental constraints, reliability, complexity,
compatibility, land availability, and other resource requirements.

Odor Control
Odor originates in a pig farm from the pig’s manure within

the building and storage facilities. Odor emission also come
from feed products and feed processing. Swine odor is complex,
as it results from a mixture of more than 165 identified volatile
compounds. Interactions between those compounds are not yet
well known and understood.
There are different methods that can be considered to
reduce odor from pig farms. The three areas of pig production
and manure management that can be focused on to reduce
odor are pig nutrition, site and building consideration, and
storage and treatments of manure. The following are
recommendations to decrease odor:
 Pig Nutrition
- Use feed additives (calcium bentonite, zeolite,

charcoal, plant extracts, enzymes, and microbial).

- Match the feed nutrient yield to the animal nutrient
need.
- Implement phase and split feeding.
- Avoid dietary excesses of protein, feed ingredients
high in fiber, and sulfur-containing mineral sources.
 Site and Building Consideration
- Ensure adequate distance between buildings.

- Consider prevailing wind direction.
- Plant shrubs and/or trees to serve as natural
windbreaks.
- Ensure that pigs remain clean in the pen.
- Scrape and remove manure with less water.
- Wash regularly and use easy-to-clean surfaces.
- Limit surface contact between ambient air and manure.
 Storage and Treatment
- Biofilters. Filters made of biological material reduce

odor by about of 60–80%. Inexpensive and easy to
install, but must be replaced every five years.
- Manure additives. Masking agent, counteractants,
odor-absorbing chemicals, and biological
compounds reduce odor by about 70–84%. But
these are oftentimes expensive and have conflicting
effectiveness results according to different studies.
- Shelter belts. Dense stands of trees and bushes
planted around treatment ponds effectively control
odor by redirecting wind. But this requires a long
time for the plants to grow and provide the benefits.

Herd Management
Effective Management Programs
Efficient management aims to elicit better productivity

from available resources such as hog stocks, feeds, facilities and
equipment, medicines, and biologicals. Farm helpers’ technical
know-how, commitment, and cooperation significantly affect
production results.
Sows are production machines, which yield market hogs.
Boars determine the quality of market hogs that will be
produced. Gauge the running efficiency of sows and minimize
losses or rejects (runts) from the piglets produced. An idle sow
consumes an average of 1,100 kg feeds/year.
Establishing the Objectives
In establishing objectives, the manager must be able to

measure the progress. Thus, he must have a good recording
system for a successful operation.
An effective sow must give a minimum of 16 good finishers/
year. Under tropical conditions, some farms can produce as
much as 18–19 finishers/sow per year. It means that better
genetics, management, and resources utilization can bring as
much as three additional finishers per sow each year.
Basic industry measuring stick dictates the ratio of finisher
weight in relation to its average age at the time they are
marketed. These parameters spell out the production quantity
and quality in a nutshell. Market acceptability in terms of meat
quality and backfat thickness is also important. To gain better
profit, farmers should market their pigs at a higher weight of
around 90 kg and above at 5 ½ months of age.
Knowing the Performance and Setting Targets
Aspiring for three additional finishers marketed per sow

per year is futile if the average number of times a sow has

farrowed is five or more. Likewise, poor stock facilities and
improper nutrition may negatively influence the growth of
the finishers and even the farrowing performances. Beginners
should consult swine practitioners or competent institutions
for this purpose.
Experienced managers and owners, however, always eye
areas for improvement. Given the right priorities, each section
of the farm operation such as breeding, farrowing, and rearing/
fattening can benefit from a well-studied approach.
Care of Boars, Dry Sows, and Gilts
 Gilts and boars should be purchased from a reliable and

clean breeding farm. Thirty days quarantine period is
advised for newly acquired gilts or boar. House them
150–350 m away from the herd.
 At 3–4 months old, replacement gilts should be selected and
identified. Full feeding should be implemented to maximize
growth rate and develop body conformation until they
reach 180 days for final selection and prebreeding program.
Gilts should weigh 120–130 kg at first mating.
 Before buying boars from breeding farms, make sure they
have been tested for mounting capability and sperm
quality. They should be seven months of age with negative
leptospirosis and brucellosis test results.
 Buy replacement gilts at 5–6 months old. Check the
vaccination record. Administer booster vaccination for hog
cholera, and FMD before breeding.
 Before breeding, mix gilts with young dry sows (4–8 head)
in a pen to adequately expose the new stocks to the farm
bacterial flora to improve natural immunity. This may help
reduce piglet scouring, which is highest in first parity litters.
 Observe for the heat period, which should come regularly.
Breed gilts on the second or third heat.
 Do not feed sows on the day of weaning to facilitate drying
the udder off. Mix the dry sows of similar sizes in colony pens
to stimulate them to come in heat. Introduce teaser boars for
two hours each day into the pen for easier heat detection. Sows
should come in heat within 4–7 days after weaning.

 Apply 5% copper sulfate plus formalin solution at regular
interval on the boar’s hoof to prevent cracking and foot rot.

Care of Pregnant Sows and Gilts
 Confine the mated gilts and sows in individual pens or

gestating crates. This practice favors higher conception and
farrowing rates and larger litter size.
 To ease out discomfort during hot weather, install shower
or drips (head/shoulder area). Also, install air blowers
above the gestating pens to offset high humidity.
 Provide freshwater at all times and ensure that the amount
of feed offered is proportionate to each stage of the
gestation period.
 Observe body development such that thin sows should be
given more feed and less feed for fat sows. A good feeding
regimen should give a minimum average birth weight of
1.35 kg. This will ensure better survival, lesser mortality,
and good weaning weights.
 Thoroughly clean the sows with soap and water before
transferring them to the farrowing crates. Administer
dewormers and medicated feed during this period.
 Transfer the pregnant sow to a clean, disinfected farrowing
stall 7–14 days before the expected due date.
Care of the Sow and Litter at Farrowing
 Watch out for signs of approaching farrowing. Do not feed

the sow if farrowing signs are observed. When the teats are
stripped and milk comes out, the sow will farrow within 24
hours.
 Make sure proper materials and equipment are available
and properly disinfected before each farrowing. The
needed materials/equipment include clean dry cloth,
needle teeth cutter, forceps, surgical scissors, clean suture
or knitting thread, brooder with infra red lamp or 100-watt
bulb, and tincture of iodine 2% USP solution. Attend to every
farrowing. Sows and piglets survive better when cared for
during farrowing.

 As soon as a piglet is expelled, remove the transparent
fetal membrane covering the body with a clean dry cloth.
Remove also any mucus that clogs the snout to let the piglet
breathe freely.
 Rub the sides of newly born pigs to stimulate the vital organs
(heart and lungs) and activate breathing and blood circulation.
 In an apparently lifeless piglet, examine the base of the
umbilical cord. If a pulsating movement is observed, apply
artificial respiration to revive the piglet.
 Expulsion of the placenta indicates that farrowing is finished.
Remove the placenta or the afterbirth from the pen.
 Observe any hardening, moderately hot, and reddened
udders as these indicate a developing case of mastitis.
Inattention to these symptoms may lead to mastitis-metritis-
agalactia (MMA) syndrome. Survival of the piglets depends
on the early detection of this malady and the sow’s fast
recovery.
 Do not feed the sow right after farrowing. She may produce
milk that the newly born cannot totally consume which may
cause udder hardening. Gradually increase the feed up to
where sows can be fed (4–5 days after farrowing) ad libitum
up to weaning. Feed lactating sows appropriately to maintain
good body condition and ensure early return to estrous after
weaning. Ideal body condition scores for sows is 3 and 4
(Fig. 16).
Care of Baby Pigs After Birth
 Right after birth, the navel cord may be cut at 5–6 cm from
the body. Dip the stub into a tincture of iodine (2% USP
solution). The navel cord is a good opening for bacterial entry,
which could result in joint problems and other abscesses. If
excessive bleeding occurs from the navel, tie the navel cord
with a suture thread or knitting thread previously immersed
in iodine 4 cm from the base of the navel.
 Clip the piglet’s eight sharp needle teeth to prevent injuries
to the sow’s udder and lacerations to the piglets when they
fight for a teat. A pair of needle teeth cutter works best,
but a small side cutting pliers may also be used as clipper.
Remove about half of each tooth, taking care not to injure

1 2 3 4 5
Condition Score 1: The sow is visually thin, with hips and
backbone very prominent and no fat cover
over hips and backbone.
Condition Score 2: The hip bones and backbone are easily

felt without any pressure on the palms.
Condition Score 3: It takes firm pressure with the palm to

feel the hip bones and backbone.
Condition Score 4: It is impossible to feel the bones even

with pressure on the palm of the hands.
Condition Score 5: The sow is carrying so much fat that

it is impossible to feel the hip bones and
backbone even pushingdown with a single
Fig. 16. Body condition scores for sows.
the gums. Clean and disinfect the clippers after working

with each piglet.
 Be sure that the piglets suckle colostrum, the first milk of
the sow produced after farrowing. Colostrum contains high
protein (albumins and globulins), vitamins, and minerals;
but it is low in sugar and fats. It supplies antibodies to
piglets and helps in the establishment of intestinal
functions. Assist small and weak pigs (Fig. 17). Suckling
stimulates the release of oxytocin, thus hasten farrowing. It
also stimulates milk secretion.
 Ear notch and identify the piglets for record-keeping
purposes.

Fig. 17. Assisting the piglet to suckle colostrum.
 Place the piglets in a warm brooder box. The baby pigs’
ability to regulate their own body temperature increases
slowly from birth to seven days; hence, their need for extra
warmth.
 Adjust the size of the litter to the number of functional teats
or the nursing ability of the sow. Divide the pigs into two
batches during the feeding time or transfer excess pigs to a
foster sow, which has produced a smaller litter of similar
age. Fostering should be done within 48 hours of birth.
 In the past, “mercy killing” of non-viable piglets was done.
Presently, with the rising production costs, an extra effort is
worthwhile in trying to save these pigs.
 Keep the piglets and the farrowing crate clean and dry at
all times. When sows pant during hot weather, apply wet
cloth or cold water to their heads and necks. Always keep
the sows and the piglets comfortable.

 Since the sow’s milk is deficient in iron, inject 2 cc iron
preparation to 2- to 3-day-old piglets. It is safer to inject
at the neck muscle to prevent residual stains in the ham
muscle. Iron stains can be visible in ham meat at slaughter
when injection is improperly done.
 Start feeding the piglets on the fifth day. This is a good
support to young pigs’ nutrition, especially when sows
have large litters.
 Baby pig scours caused by various strains of Escherichia coli
is the most common ailment of piglets. It is characterized
by watery, yellowish stool. Piglets are more susceptible at
1–4 days old, at three weeks old, and at weaning. Lower
disease resistance of piglets is at three weeks old; thus,
avoid unnecessary stress like castration, vaccination, and
deworming at this time. Oral preparations may be given to
prevent scouring.
 Provide a dry, warm, draft-free environment to reduce
scours.
 Castrate the pigs intended for meat at five days of age. At
this stage, pigs can easily be handled; operation is easy;
and the healing of the wound is faster.
 Do not wean, immunize, and castrate the piglets at the
same time to prevent stress. Allow 5– to 7–day intervals
between any two of these practices.
 Wean the piglets at around 28 days (about 7.5 kg in weight).
Newly weaned piglets are susceptible to postweaning
scours. Control the feed for 48–72 hours and increase it
gradually. On the average, a piglet consumes 400 g or
more of feeds after weaning. Provide clean drinking water
at all times. Wet feeding can be considered 1–5 days after
weaning.
 Feed ad libitum as the animal grows older. Group the pigs
according to size, especially when weaning two or more litters
at the same time. Maintain ten piglets/pen at the flat deck;
20 head/pen is the maximum limit, depending on the size
of the pen. Elevated flat deck pens promote faster growth
than concrete floors (Fig. 18).

Fig. 18. Elevated flat deck for weanlings.
Care of Growing-Finishing Pigs
 Transfer the piglets from the elevated decks to the

growing-finishing pens at 90 days or around 35 kg weight.
At this weight range, they are sturdy and will easily adjust
to their new environment. Group the pigs according to sizes
and weight, and/or according to sex.
 When the piglets have “settled in”, minimize the transfer
of pigs from one group to another. Fighting among newly
regrouped pigs may happen, which may cause undue
stress; thus, affecting the feedlot performance. Gradual
change of feeds should be practiced. Mix the previous
ration to the new ration by using the following ratios: 75%
previous ration: 25% new ration on the first two days; 50%
previous ration: 50% new ration on the next two days; and
25% previous ration: 75% new ration on the last two days.
Give the entire new ration after these transitions.
 A good finisher will weigh at least 90 kg at the age of
5½ months.
 Sell the slow growers (runts) for “lechon” or other purposes.
These are inefficient feed converters, which may pull down
the average growing herd performance. Moreover, in

most cases, the runts are subclinically sick and may harbor
infections that may lead to disease outbreak in the farm.
Runts and slow growers should not be more than 5% of the
growing-finishing population.
Pointers in Pig Production
Some pointers for successful pig farm operation are as follow:
 Buy only healthy and vigorous stocks.

 Quarantine new stocks for not less than 30 days.
 Follow nutritional and husbandry requirements of
improved/hybrid stocks.
 Maintain optimum herd population in relation to personal
staffing and facility capacity.
 Keep good managers and farm personnel.
 Group the animals according to size, age, or function (e.g.,
slaughter or breeding).
 Provide improvements in the facility and always consider
the animals’ comfort.
 Provide good quality feeds and pay close attention to
feeding for all classes of animals at all times.
 Have a sound herd health program. Consult veterinarians,
as well as animal husbandry/swine specialists.
 Maintain high levels of sanitation and hygiene.
 Have a good recording system. Keep track of costs.
 Be aware of current trends in the industry and relate the
farm performance to industry targets and standards.
Record Keeping
Records must be simple, practical, and easily understood.

These should contain all the necessary information, logically
and systematically arranged. Record keeping is essential in
the decision-making process for future management
operations. Critical evaluation of the profitability of the
enterprise; judicious culling of undesirable animals; intelligent
selection of individuals for replacement or expansion; and
formulation of a sound breeding program are entirely dependent
on record keeping and proper analysis.

Mark each animal for proper identification either by
tattooing or ear notching. The most commonly used method
is ear notching (Fig. 19) of pigs, 24 hours after birth. One can
design his own code in the farm.
300 100 1000 3000
900 9000
30 3
90 10 1 9
Fig. 19. UPLB ear notching system.
Keeping Important Records
 Livestock Inventory. This should give pertinent information

about the number and classes of pigs being kept in the farm
and keep you abreast with the major changes in population
in the herd.
 Daily Breeding, Farrowing, and Weaning Record. This
should provide information on the number of sows and
gilts that have been bred for any period of time. The record
also helps in determining the number of sows scheduled to
farrow and the farrowing rate of the farm.
 Sow and Litter Performance Record. This is used to record
the litter. Keeping this record will help avoid inbreeding
when a pig is selected as replacement gilt or boar and is
essential in evaluating disease and other management
program.
 Sow Breeding Performance Record. This should provide
all information of the individual sow from breeding to
weaning its litters. The information obtained from this
record are the objective basis of culling sows and gilts for a
more profitable swine enterprise.

 Boar Performance Record. The information in this record
will tell us the frequency of use of a boar, the littersize it
produced, and its fertility level. This record is used in
deciding whether to cull the boar or not.
 Mortality Record. Items to be included in the record are the
numbers and class of the animals that have died within a
certain period. This will give an assessment of the disease
level and effectiveness of the control undertaken in the farm.
 Summary of the Average Performance of Swine. This
form is to be filled up on a monthly basis so that the results
of analysis may be compared with the farm standards or
expectations, or with data from other piggeries. This form
will provide all productive and reproductive data of the
farm.
 Farm Efficiency Record. Items to be included in this form
should include the number of animals that were sold in a
week/month, from weanlings to market hogs and breeders;
animals acquired from outside source; and the total feed
consumption. By knowing this information, the apparent
profitability of the farm can be determined.
A multi-purpose swine calendar (Appendix Z) is a useful

tool in record keeping.

Herd Health Management
Biosecurity Measures
Biosecurity means keeping your herd safe from the

introduction of diseases from the environment and other
pigs. Producers need to discuss with their veterinarian the
procedures to minimize the risk of disease transmission from
outside the production unit. Attention should be given to
reducing the likelihood of transmission of disease-causing
organisms from one group to another within the same farm.
Good biosecurity is not only a matter of using disinfectants. It is
more like a complete culture or way of working. It means doing
whatever we can at the farm to prevent the entry and spread of
infection.
There are ten areas of biosecurity concerns, which include:
 Location - pig density in the area, distance from the

nearest pig farm, pig slaughterhouses, sale barns, and
roadways with pig traffic. Ideally, a pig farm must be 1
km away from the main road.
 Perimeter – farm boundary fences or blocked driveway,
warning information signs, locked doors, and clean
area next to buildings.
 Entrance – no entry for non-essential people, no contact
with pigs outside, minimum down-time for incoming
people, separate change area, showering requirement,
clothing and boots provided, outside equipment
disinfected.
 Buildings – surroundings, bird-proof, rodent and fly
control, and no stray domesticated animals.
 Shipping – empty and clean vehicles only, no truck
coming from contaminated barn, owned truck/trailer,

truck/trailer washed and disinfected, special boots, and
overalls.

 New stock – replacements’ health status, health
technologies for introduction, number of source farms,
introduction frequency, isolation of incoming stock,
isolation unit with separate ventilation and manure
removal systems, length of isolation, diagnostic tests on
new animals, no returns after exposure outside.
 Feed and water – safe delivery methods, chlorinated
water of farm well at 15 m minimum depth, water tested

every year.
 Dead stock – secured disposal.
 Manure removal – secured storage and disposal.
 Disinfection and vaccination program
Different Causes of Diseases
For humans, the World Health Organization (WHO)

defines “health” as the state of optimal well-feeling in relation
to the body as well as to the mind. As for animals, and pigs
for that matter, little is known about their mind; thus, a healthy
pig means the tissues and organs are functioning normally in
harmony with each other and with its environment. Disease
results when this harmony is disturbed and the pig is not able
to maintain the balance between its body functions and its
environment. The degree of imbalance determines the severity
of the disease. In effect, the causes of a disease can be in the
animal itself or in the environment.
Animal as a Cause
These are the causes, which we can attribute to the pig

itself. Primarily, there is something inside or within the pig
which is wrong, such that problems or diseases occur.
 Inborn defects decrease the chances of piglet survival,

or it can make it impossible for them to live at all. These
inborn defects can be heritable, such as absence of skin
and atresia ani; or non-heritable, such as trembling in
piglets that are infected of hog cholera from the sow.

 Acquired defects, such as tail biting, give a higher risk
for infection.
 Breeds have different characteristics. The Pietrain is
known for its stress-sensitivity, while the Duroc is

known for its resistance and strong legs. Generally,
crossbreeds have a better (stronger) constitution than
purebreeds.
 The age of the animal is also one determining factor as
very young and very old animals are more susceptible

to certain diseases.
 Constitution is the ability of the pig to cope with
diseases. It also determines the general susceptibility of

the pig to diseases. Pigs with bad constitution need more
care. Each pig has its own inherent body constitution.
One piglet may die of diarrhea, while another one may
survive, and yet the two belong to the same litter.
Environment as a Cause
Environmental causes of diseases generally refer to those

external to the animal. The things outside the animal’s body that
may cause harm are called “environmental” or external factors.
They are classified as either infectious or non-infectious.
Non-Infectious Causes
The non-infectious causes refer to the different management

practices implemented in the farm. It includes the following:
 Feeds and feeding - deficiencies/excesses, sudden

changes in the feed quality and quantity, overfeeding/
underfeeding, spoiled feeds or toxic components in the
feed.
 Drinking water - availability of fresh/clean drinking
water at all times.

 Management - faulty management practices, especially in
newborn and newly weaned animals can cause chilling/
crushing and/or diarrhea.
 Housing - poor ventilation, wet/dirty floors, bad
flooring.

 Trauma/stress - trauma, like fighting resulting in
injuries, predispose the pig to other diseases. Stress
(castration, transport/transfer) lowers the pig’s body
resistance, rendering it more susceptible to disease.
 Toxic substances - improper/incorrect medication, toxic
plants (ipil-ipil), and chemicals (organophosphorus
compounds)
Infectious Causes
Infectious causes refer to the involvement of microorganisms

as the main cause of the disease or problem. Generally, infectious
organisms enter into the pig’s body only if something goes
wrong with the non-infectious environment.
 Viruses – hog cholera, FMD

 Bacteria – colibacillosis
 Yeast – candidiasis
 Fungi/molds – aflatoxicosis
 Protozoa – coccidiosis
 Parasites – mange, worms, ringworm
Economic Importance of Diseases
There are some diseases that are, by nature, more

“economically important” than the other diseases because once
they infect the pigs, they will cause considerable losses to the
pig business such as:
 increased cost of preventive measures like vaccinations

 additional costs of treatment like drugs, instruments, and
labor (time for extra care)
 loss of production due to:
- increased mortality
- decreased growth and production
- deteriorated feed conversion
- decreased quality of products
- disturbed production planning (sub-optimal
utilization of the production unit)

 problems in marketing
- poor live weight
- risks for contamination
- export limitations
General Preventive Measures
General preventive measures directly involve sound

and efficient farm management practices. As mentioned
earlier, the harmony between the pig itself and its environment
determines the health status of a pig. Environment is further
subdivided into infectious and non-infectious factors. Together,
there are three elements that influence the pig’s health status.
The relationship among these three factors is illustrated in
Figure 20. Each element can be reasonably controlled by the
farm manager.
< Farm Manager
Non-infectious Infectious
environment environment
Farm Manager
Animal
< Farm Manager
H - HEALTH STATUS
Fig. 20. Elements that influence health status of pigs.
How to Avoid the Multiplication of Pathogens:
 Avoid overcrowding in order to decrease the number of

pathogens.

 Remove manure from pens daily. Water is not always
necessary in cleaning. When water is used, a dry space
should be left, and the pen should not remain wet for a
long time.
 Proper drainage should be maintained.
 Isolate sick pigs to avoid spread of diseases and to give
them a better chance to recover.

 Remove dead pigs from the pen and bury immediately,
unless a veterinarian will do a necropsy. Burning is also

applicable. Pigs should be buried at a depth of not less than
1 m (sometimes depending also on the size of the dead pig).
 Disinfect empty pen regularly. It is generally recommended
to implement aerosol disinfection during disease outbreaks.
 Sterilize medical instruments after every use. They should
then be stored in a dry and clean place.
 Group pigs according to their age and weight.
 Avoid mixing pigs of different ages.
 Vacate/rest pens after thorough cleaning and disinfection.
This practice is very important to break the disease cycle. Most
pathogens cannot survive outside the pig’s body, especially
under dry conditions.
 Introduce fecal matter to newly purchased stocks to
acclimatize them to the normal microflora of pigs on the farm.

 Quarantine newly purchased pigs. This should be done for
at least a month.
 Practice all-in/all-out system or the “by batch” system. Start
with a clean section. Vacate the entire section or dispose/sell
pigs at the same time. Clean again before the entry of a new
batch of pigs.
 Practice regular parasite control.
 Implement proper vaccination program.
Common Post-Farrowing Problems
The first few days after farrowing are very important for the
sow and its piglets. Any health-related problem or disease can
result to loss of milk. This will contribute greatly to piglet (pre-
weaning) mortality.

Vulvar Discharge/Metritis
Metritis is the inflammation and infection of the uterus. It

often occurs after farrowing, dystocia, or abortion. Metritis is
part of the MMA syndrome so frequently met as a clinical
entity in pig practice. Improper manual extraction of conceptus
during farrowing can increase incidence of metritis.
The following organisms are frequently isolated from
animals suffering from metritis: Streptococcus, Escherichia coli,
Enterobacter aerogenes, Klebsiella spp.
Clinical Signs
Sows will initially show inappetence and depression. The

signs of the disease usually appear 1–3 days post-farrowing.
The sow may be found lying in its pen, shivering and trembling,
with elevated body temperature, ranging from 39.5° to 41.3°C.
The udder is hot, and milk flow is inhibited. A thick, whitish
to yellowish discharge from the vulva is seen by the end of the
first or second day. Metritis resulting from retained fetuses,
laceration, and infections following dystocia is accompanied
by a more watery, foul-smelling discharge from the vulva. Fever,
inappetence, and agalactia will also be present.
Control and Treatment
 Antibiotic treatment given intramuscularly to control the

infection, as indicated.
 Uterine flushing or lavage is highly recommended.
 Proper diet and exercise. Fat sows will have a high incidence
of dystocia and weak, atonic uterus.
Mastitis
Mastitis is the inflammation of the mammary glands.

Mastitis involving individual udder sections is diagnosed by
keen, visual observation and manual examination.
The following organisms are associated with mastitis in
the sows: Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Actinomyces

sp., Actinobacillus lignieresii, Corynobacterium pyogenes,
Mycobacterium sp., E. coli.
Clinical Signs
Chronic mastitis is characterized by one, two, or more

sections of the udder being affected. These are reddish or
bluish/violet in color, hard, and hot to the touch. The sow is
inappetent and febrile. It does not want its teats to be touched
or suckled on. Thus, the piglets become hungry and very noisy.
Piglets may show diarrhea due to bacterial contamination of
the milk. Milk coming from affected teats is blood-tinged, with
pus and foul-smelling. Acute mastitis is manifested by
generalized effect on all udder, fever of the sow, and inappetence.
 Administer antibiotic intramuscular injection, if the sow is

showing generalized signs and has fever.
 Give occasional, mammary infusion.
 Give particular attention to cleanliness, proper feeding, and
exercise.
 Apply hot compress to stimulate blood and milk flow.
Agalactia/Hypogalactia
Agalactia is the absence of milk, while hypogalactia is the

decrease in the amount of milk secreted. It results in the death
of individual piglets and even the whole litter during the first
few days following farrowing. The piglets are also deprived of
quality colostrum needed for immunity.
The following organisms are associated with sows
suffering from agalactia/hypogalactia: Citrobacter, Enterobacter,
Escherichia, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Proteus, Staphylococcus,
and Streptococcus spp. Any individual causative factor or a
combination of factors may cause this clinical syndrome.

Clinical Signs
The condition is encountered 2–3 days post-farrowing. It

will be apparent that the piglets are hungry, in various stages
of starvation and hypoglycemia. Sows with agalactia are
uneasy and lie in the sternal position. Some sows lie out flat and
permit the piglets to suckle but fail to secrete milk. The sow is
partially or completely off-feed. The udder is firm and congested.
The sows show various degrees of trembling probably due to
intoxication and fever. Feces are dry and scanty. This type of
agalactia appears to be due to a combination of overfeeding,
auto-intoxication due to a sluggish digestive tract, atonic uterus,
and, in many cases, secondary uterine infection.
 Oxytocin administration and antibiotic treatment are

indicated if infection is suspected.
 Symptomatic treatment for piglets is also indicated which
may include administration of electrolytes.
Diarrhea in Piglets
Diarrhea in piglets can be caused by several factors.

Prevention and control of diarrhea should not only center on
infectious agents or nutritional factors, but should also focus on
providing favorable environmental conditions.
Common Infectious Causes of Diarrhea
1. Escherichia coli
This is a common cause of piglet diarrhea in commercial

farms. The disease can readily be identified through the
character of the feces. These are generally foul-melling,
yellowish, and watery.
It is possible to prevent this type of diarrhea through
a continuous and effective sanitation program in the
farrowing house. Antibiotic administration also helps in its
prevention. When farrowing pens are continuously used,

diarrhea is very difficult to prevent and treat. Vacating
farrowing pens after use for at least 5–7 days will help break
the disease cycle and lessen the microbial load in the area.
2. Swine Dysentery
This is an infectious disease of pigs that causes

diarrhea, poor growth, and death. This mostly affects pigs
in the early post-weaning or grower periods, but occurs in
pigs of any age, particularly after the withdrawal of
medicated feeds. It is caused by Brachyspira hyodysenteriae
that lives in the large intestine, where it causes damage to
the lining of the gut.
Pigs affected by the disease should be treated
immediately with an appropriate antibiotic, either by
injection or in- water. Water consumption of sick pigs may
be reduced so it is important to calculate accurately the
amount of antibiotic needed by the animal.
Prevention and Control of Diarrhea

 Build a well-designed farrowing pen that will allow pens to
remain clean, dry, warm, and free of draft.

 Implement good sanitation, management, and health
program.

 Ensure pregnant sows have sufficient functional teats, are
healthy, and fed with well-balanced diet.

 Move sow into clean farrowing crates at least one week before
they farrow.

 Ensure proper immunization of gilts/sows either through
natural immunity or vaccination.

 Provide heaters to newborn piglets for the first 5–7 days of
the piglet’s life and ensure that they have suckled colostrum
during the first three days of life.

 Provide necessary assistance to weak piglets.

 Pig dosers can also be given to suckling piglets to prevent
diarrhea. These are widely available in the local market.

Treatment of Diarrhea
 Give appropriate antibiotics to scouring piglets or whole

litter for bacterial diarrhea. (It is also advisable to conduct
an antibiotic sensitivity test if diarrhea is severe and
involves a great number of animals and does not respond to
the antibiotic being used.)
 Provide supportive therapy. Replace body fluids of
dehydrated or scouring piglets with water, electrolytes,

glucose, etc.
 Improve environmental conditions. Unsanitary conditions
allow challenge to build-up.
 Ensure that sows are healthy. Sows with mastitis, agalactia,
insufficient or damaged teats, and restless sows may
not provide sufficient colostrum to piglets. Treat them
accordingly.
 Treat for any disease present.

Pneumonia in Pigs
Pneumonia is the inflammation of the lungs leading

to colds and coughing in pigs. The usual predisposing
factors include: climatic changes, stress due to transport and
movement, overcrowding, parasitic load, and many more.
In commercial farms, pneumonia is very difficult to prevent
and eradicate. The objective of the treatment is to prevent the
development of more severe symptoms and clinical signs.
Common Infectious Causes of Pneumonia
 Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae
The microorganism causes a disease called enzootic

pneumonia. It is associated with intensive pig production.
The signs are less serious, but the economic importance is
considerable. The pigs show a slight and constant dry cough,
sneezing, loss of appetite, fever, poor feed efficiency, and
runting. Young pigs suffer more at the onset of the disease
than older pigs. Mortalities are rare and commonly caused
by secondary infections. Treat with antibiotics. Affected

animals should be isolated. The whole herd should be
given antibiotics in the feed or water to minimize spread
of the disease. General preventive measures are important.
Once you treat this, you can do away with other forms of
pneumonia.
 Actinobacillus pleuropneumonia (APP)
This disease shows pleuropneumonia, a condition

where there is inflammation of the lungs and the tissues
surrounding it. The disease can be very acute, causing
sudden death without any symptoms. Dead pigs are found
with blood-tinged froth coming from the mouth and nose.
When the disease process takes a longer time, the pigs show
general symptoms such as inappetence, fever, and depression.
More specific signs are coughing, breathing difficulties or
thumping, and in some cases, cyanosis of the skin (red or
bluish coloring of the ear tips, belly, legs, and tail end).
Treatment should be directed to the whole herd.
Antibiotics should be given preferably by injection for
three days. It should be followed by mixing antibiotics with
the water or the feeds.
 Swine Influenza Virus Type A
All ages can be affected by influenza or ‘flu’, but it is

most common in growers and finishers. The pigs are very
sick, depressed, always lying down, have no appetite,
have high fever, coughing, sneezing frequently, and have
difficulty in breathing. Discharges can be seen from the nose
and eyes. The disease spreads rapidly throughout the farm,
but recovery starts after 3–5 days and is usually also rapid if
not complicated by other infections.
Mortalities are rare. As in most viral diseases, there
is no specific treatment. Antibiotics are given to prevent
secondary bacterial infections.
General preventive measures should be practiced to
avoid occurrence. Vaccines are available against swine
influenza.

 Pasteurella multocida
The bacteria causing the disease is called swine plague

or pasteurellosis. All types of pigs are affected (sows, boars,
piglets, finishers). It is commonly a secondary bacterial
infection following primary invasion by other organisms
such as Mycoplasma sp. and hog cholera virus. The signs are
mouth breathing, coughing and nasal discharges, bluish
discoloration of the extremities, fever, and loss of weight.
Together with Bortedella, it may cause atrophic rhinitis in
pigs.
Prevention and Control
 House a maximum of only 250–300 finishers in one fattening

unit.
 Keep only 10–12 finishers in one pen.
 Implement the all-in/all-out or “by batch” system of
management.
 Get weaners from reliable source.
 Clean and disinfect pig pens regularly.
 Remove regularly and dispose properly pig manure to
prevent build-up of microbes.

 Provide adequate ventilation and draft-free environment.
 Supply an adequate amount of clean, fresh drinking water.
 Bathe pigs regularly.
 Implement pulse medication, if necessary.
 Institute a sound vaccination program.
Suggested Medication Program
Gestating Sows
 External Parasite Option 1
- Injectable (e.g., ivermectin, doramectin, etc.):

10-14 days before farrowing
---------------
1. Always scrub and bathe animals thoroughly before application of pour-on or spray
drugs for mange treatment.

- Topical (pour-on/spray): 14 and 7 days before
farrowing
 Deworming Option
1. Injectable (e.g., ivermectin, doramectin2, levamisole,

etc.): 10–14 days before farrowing
2. In-feed: 10 days before farrowing3
 Vaccination Option
1. Current vaccination program instituted are Hog

Cholera, E. Coli, Atrophic Rhinitis, APP, FMD,
Mycoplasma. Institute a vaccination regimen as
recommended by the municipal, city, or provincial
veterinarian in the area where the farm is located.
Lactating Sows
 Antibiotic Administration
- Injectable: given once or as indicated after

farrowing.
- In-feed: given for 10–14 days from the day of
farrowing
 Flushing/Lavage4
- Given for three consecutive days after farrowing;

the following may be used:
a. herbal: guava decoction
b. 5% normal saline
c. 2% potassium permanganate
d. iodine
---------------
2. If injectable/in-feed ivermectin or doramectin is used in mange treatment, there is
no need to deworm. These two drugs are indicated for both internal and external
parasites.
3. The duration (number of days) depends on the drug used.
4. Lavage/Flushing is highly recommended on sows, which suffered from dystocia or
those which were manually assisted during farrowing. Flushing solution should be
lukewarm.

 Vitamin A, D, E injection - given before, on, or after
weaning
 Vaccination
- Current vaccination programs include Parvo-

Lepto, Hog Cholera, and FMD depending on
prevalence of the disease in a particular locality
Suckling Pigs
 Medication5
- Iron Administration: three days after birth;

generally, dosage is as follows:
1 100 mg Fe/ml - 2 ml/piglet
2. 200 mg Fe/ml - 1 ml/piglet
- Multivitamin/Vitamin B12 Administration
Given 10–12 days after birth (or after castration) to

be repeated before, on, or after weaning.
- Antibiotic Medication
Some farms institute pre-weaning antibiotic

injections to reduce bacterial load on piglets.
 Vaccination
Mycoplasma and APP vaccination may be given

depending on prevalence of the disease.
Weaners
 Provide water medication for seven consecutive days

(one week) starting on the day of weaning.6
---------------
5. Some veterinarians recommend the administration of pig doser on the first day after
birth.
6. Water with medicine is given “fresh” daily, morning, and afternoon.

 Deworming7
- In-feed: given at 2–3 months of age provided the sow

was dewormed, otherwise it can be done 1–2 weeks
after weaning
- Drench: follow similar schedule as in #1.
 Vaccination
Usual vaccinations are done against APP, Hog

Cholera, FMD, depending on the local veterinarian’s
recommendation.
Growers/Finishers
Pulse medication is recommended if one was able

to establish periodicity of a certain disease (especially
pneumonia).
Replacement Gilts/Replacement Boars
 Water/in-feed medication for seven consecutive days

starting on the day of arrival
 Deworm, as soon as possible, to be repeated two weeks
before expected breeding schedule
 Mange Treatment
 Vitamin ADE before breeding
 Vaccination
1. Hog Cholera
a. given twice before breeding with two weeks

interval
b. if the animal is vaccinated at six months then one
shot before breeding would be enough
2. FMD
- follow similar vaccination scheme for Hog
Cholera
---------------
7. Piglets from other farms should be dewormed as early as possible.

3. Parvo-Leptospirosis
- given before breeding
Boars
 Deworm every six months

 Mange treatment every six months
 Vitamin ADE every six months
 Vaccination every six months
Vaccination
Guidelines for the Use of Vaccines
 Vaccinate only apparently healthy pigs as much as possible.

 Avoid stress on the pig during vaccination. In stressed pigs,
wait until they are relaxed/calm.
 Do not buy and/or use expired vaccines and those with
broken seals. Always check expiration dates and read the
label instructions. Check also the contents for any signs of
damage, like discoloration, moldy growth and the like.
 Store vaccines (“live” or “killed”) in the refrigerator
(2°–8°C).
 Transport vaccines in an ice chest or covered plastic/
styrofoam containers packed with ice. Do not place
vaccines in your pockets. In transporting vaccines, place
them in a plastic bag with cracked/cubed ice.
 Prepare sterilized syringes and needles in advance.
Sterilize them only by boiling for at least 15 minutes. Do not
use chemical disinfectants. Use disposable syringes and
needles once.
 Clean and wipe dry the surface of the rubber stopper
of vaccine vials with sterile absorbent cotton before
inserting needles.
 Use only approved diluents for vaccines, preferably use
one that comes with the vaccine.
 Mix diluent with vaccine shortly before use. Avoid more
than one-hour interval from mixing to actual use of the

vaccine, although there are some reconstituted vaccines
that can still be used within three hours.
 Dispose and burn vaccine containers and unused portions
of the vaccine. Discard unused portions of reconstituted
vaccines if it is not to be used within three hours from
the time of dilution. In case of oil-based vaccines, unused
portions of big quantities may be stored for a few days (one
week), provided aseptic precautions have been followed
during aspiration.
 Be ready against allergic reactions. Always have available
epinephrine preparation ready for use within 2–3 minutes
in case of anaphylactic shock. Record and immediately
report to a veterinarian any untoward reactions of the
animals to the vaccine.

Marketing and Economics
The production-marketing channel is composed of

swine breeders, slaughter pig growers/raisers, traders,
butchers/retailers, and processors. The breeders produce
quality pigs for breeding purposes, while the slaughter pig
growers/raisers raise and grow hogs for slaughter. In general,
both breeders and growers/raisers produce and sell live pigs.
The hog traders and butchers/retailers market and
distribute pork and pork products. The butchers also convert
live pigs into consumable pork cuts. On the other hand, the
processors convert live pigs into consumable fresh pork cuts
and into value-added processed pork products.
The key players of the Philippine swine industry can be
grouped into swine producers and traders, and processors.
Government agencies (research and extension organizations),
non-government associations, and other organized groups also
provide support services to the swine industry.
The processed meat industry is participated in by large
meat processors carrying well-known brand names, medium-
scale meat processors, and small-scale or home-based
processors.
At present, distribution of swine industry products is
limited to local markets only. So far, competition with other
pork-producing countries is hardly felt in the local fresh pork
markets. However, implementation of the GATT poses a
threat to the local swine industry as processed pork products
have started to invade the local markets. This development,
however, is positively taken as a challenge by the local swine
industry to improve its production efficiency and ensure a
good market position to withstand pressures created by other
pork-producing countries.
Technologies for improving swine marketing are
available. However, utilization of these technologies is limited
due to lack of facilities and infrastructure. Among the needed
facilities and infrastructure are the following:

 walk-in weighing scales;
 transport vehicles for live pigs and refrigerated transport
vans for pork;
 fully equipped and sanitary AAA slaughterhouses; and
 cold storage facilities.
Cost-and-Return Analysis
Basic Assumption
A. Production
Sow index ................................................................. 2.20

Littersize born alive................................................ 9 piglets
Mortality
Preweaning...............................................................10%
Postweaning.............................................................. 4%
Average parity..................................................... 3.5 times
B. Feed Consumption (Daily)
Breeder (0–84 days)................................................. 2.50 kg

Lactating (85–113 days).......................................... 2.75 kg
Lactating (Post farrowing)..................................... 3.50 kg
Suckling (5–28 days)................................................ 0.04 kg
Weanling (29–45 days)............................................ 0.40 kg
Pre - Starter (46–90 days)........................................ 0.50 kg
C. Feed Cost/Head
Total Feed
Age Feed Type Price/kg Feed/day Cost/head Consumed/
(days) (P) (kg) (P) head (kg)
76–90 Prestarter 25.40 0.75 285.75 11.25
91–120 Starter 16.40 1.25 615.00 37.50
121–165 Grower 14.26 2.25 1,443.82 101.25
166–180 Finisher 13.80 2.75 569.25 41.25
TOTAL 2,913.82 191.25

Production Analysis
A. Market Hogs Production: Basic Assumption
Weight of weanlings.........................................................15 kg
Age...................................................................................75 days
Weight at market age........................................................85 kg
Age at market (from birth).........................................180 days
Purchase (price of weanlings).......................................P 1,750
Selling price of market hogs........................................P 78/kg
Average daily
gain (ADG)........................ 667g from weaning to market
Feed conversion
ratio (FCR).......................... 2.75 from weaning to market
Mortality.................................................................................1%
B. Market Hogs Production: Weanling to Market (180 days

old)
Per Head
Per Kg Per 100
(P) (P) head (P)
Weanlings 1,750.00 20.59 175,000.00
Feeds 2,913.82 34.28 291,382.00
Medication 250.00 2.94 25,000.00
Labor 71.28 0.84 7,128.00
Water and Electricity 100.00 1.18 10,000.00
Repairs and Maintenance 50.00 0.59 5,000.00
Depreciation (amortization
of building and equipments) 100.00 1.18 10,000.00
TOTAL 5,255.10 61.83 525,510.00
Selling Price is P78/kg x 85 6,630.00 663,000.00
Gross Profit over

Production Cost (P) 1,831.72 18.17 137,490.00

C. Cost and Return for 100 Breeders: Weanling Production
Production Cost Cost per Head (P)
Feed .................................................................................582.03
Medication....................................................................... 71.75
Amortization of breeders..............................................249.75
Labor................................................................................. 81.11
Water and electricity...................................................... 33.67
Repair and maintenance................................................ 45.30
Amortization of building/equipment.........................224.47
Miscellaneous.................................................................. 20.00
TOTAL..........................................................................1,308.08
Selling Price of Weanlings at 15 kg...........................1,750.00

Less : Production Cost................................................1,308.00
Gross Profit per Head.................................................. 442.00

References
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Guzman, A.L. “Productive performance of Yorkshire,
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Appendix A
Productive and reproductive performance of swine in the Philippines.a
Parameters 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Target
Number of Participating Farms 26 32 29 23 29
Litters Farrowed 21,759 34,810 44,999 40,425 48,405
Total Littersize 9.74 9.88 9.77 9.82 9.81 10.00
Littersize Born Alive 8.99 9.21 9.20 9.17 9.23 9.50
Average Birth Weight (kg) 1.46 1.47 1.46 1.48 1.49 1.40
Litter Size at Weaning 8.21 8.36 8.29 8.23 8.45 8.55
Weaning Age (days) 28.29 28.69 28.33 28.71 28.80 30.00
Dry/Rest Period (days) 12.89 13.31 12.93 14.43 13.78 11.00
Gestation Period (days) 114.83 114.77 114.77 114.55 114.68 114.00
Farrowing Interval (days) 156.84 157.85 157.56 159.31 158.93 155.00
Farrowing Rate (%) 75.03 76.19 76.73 74.55 75.86 80.00
Preweaning Mortality (%) 8.80 9.24 9.88 10.20 8.37 10.00
Mortality Based on Total Population 3.58 3.57 3.16 3.77 3.80 2.25
Adjusted 30-day Weight (kg) 7.28 7.38 7.62 7.37 7.76 7.50
Farrowing Index 2.33 2.31 2.32 2.29 2.30 2.35
Pigs Weaned/Sow/Year 19.12 19.36 19.24 18.89 19.43 20.08
Average Daily Gain (g) 475 485 492 498 505 475
Adjusted 180-day Weight (kg) 85.52 87.29 88.56 89.61 90.82 85.00
Farm Efficiency (adjusted) 3.59 3.63 3.54 3.53 3.57 3.75
Feed Cost/Kilogram Live Animal Sold (adj) (P) 33.40 37.04 40.11 41.51 43.07
Slaughter Pigs Produced/Sow/Year 16.11 15.77 16.36 15.27 15.33 18.00
philippines recommends for pork production

a
Argañosa et al. 2004.
89
Appendix B
Cost of Establishing a two-boar AI Operation
A. Technical assumption
Litter index......................................................................................2
Doses per litter...............................................................................2
Semen volume per ejaculation (ml).........................................200
Number of doses per collection.................................................10
Volume per dose extended semen (ml).................................100
Price per dose of extended semen...........................................200

Particulars 200 to 400 sows
Boar-to- sow ratio 1:100
Number of boars needed 2

Cost per boar (P) 25,000
Total cost of boar (P) 50,000
Boar usage Once every 4 days

Total number of collection/year 182.5
Boar economic value (years) 2

Weight at culling (kg) 200
Culling price (P/kg) 35
Boar house
Space requirement per boar (m2) 5
Collecting pen (m2) 9
Feed bodega (m2) 4
Total space needed (m2) 23
Lifespan (years) 20
Cost of housing/m2 (P) 4,000
Total cost of boar house (P) 92,000
Laboratory (m2) 12
Lifespan (years) 20
Cost/m2 (P) 7,000
Total cost (P) 84,000

A. Technical assumption (continued)
Particulars 200 to 400 sows
Land requirement (m2) 70
Cost (PhP/ m2) 200
Total cost of land (P) 14,000
Feed requirement
Daily feed intake (kg/boar/day) 2
Total feed needed (kg) 1,460
Price of feed/kg(P) 12
Total feed cost/year (P) 17,520
Labor requirement
No. of working hours/man/day 1
No. of workers 2
Wage rate per day (P)
AI laboratory technician 250
Farm worker/semen collector 180
Wage rate per hour (P)
AI laboratory technician 31.25
Farm worker/semen collector 22.50
Total labor cost (P) 13,915.63

B. List of laboratory equipment and tools.
2 Boars = 200 to 400 sows
Item Qty/Unit Unit Cost Total Cost
(P) (P)
Microscope (ordinary) 1 unit 15,000 15,000
Dryer/Sterilizer 1 unit 15,000 15,000
Distiller 1 set 10,000 10,000
Converted refrigerator 1 unit 12,000 12,000
Spermiodensimeter 1 unit 5,000 5,000
Dummy sow 1 unit 3,500 3,500
Water bath 1 unit 15,000 15,000
Airconditioning unit 1 unit 12,000 12,000
Others
Flask 2 pcs 700 1,400
Beaker 2 pcs 700 1,400
Thermometer
(spirit filled) 1 pc 600 600
Graduated cylinder 1 pc 500 500
Collecting cup
with strainer 2 pcs 160 320
Total 91,720

C. Cost of production per year.
Particulars 2 Boars
Variable Costs (P)
Feed cost 17,520.00
Labor cost 13,915.63
Biologics and medicines 876.00
Water and electricity 2,400.00
Extender 23,725.00
Squeeze bottles 21,900.00
Disposable catheters 31,025.00
Miscellaneous cost (5% of variable costs) 5,568.08
Subtotal 116,929.71
Fixed Costs (P)

Depreciation
Boar house 4,600.00
Laboratory 4,200.00
Airconditioning unit 1,200.00
AI equipment and tools 11,306.67
Cost of AI Boar 18,000.00
Subtotal 39,306.67
TOTAL COST 156,236.37


D. Summary
Particulars 2 Boars
A. Total investment (P)
Land 14,000.00
Boar house 92,000.00
Laboratory 84,000.00
Equipment and tools 91,720.00
AI boars 50,000.00
Operating expenses 116,929.71
Total 448,649.71
B. Cost per dose of extended semen (P)

Total production cost/year 156,236.37
Total doses/year 1,825.00
Cost per dose 85.61
C. Profitability analysis
Profit per dose 114.39

Profit per year (100% sold) 208,763.63
Profit per year (75% sold) 156,572.72
At 100% sold:
Return-on-investment (ROI) 46.53
Payback period 2.15
At 75% sold:
ROI 34.90
Payback Period 2.87

Appendix C
Recommended maximum limits of different feed ingredients in swine rations.
Maximum Class
Feed Ingredients Level (%) Ration Apparent Reason
Corn, Sorghum 80 All rations Low-quality proteins, highly deficient in lysine and methionine;
economic reasons
Rice Bran (First Class) 10 Prestarter and starter High fiber content
Pollard and Corn Bran 25 Grower/Finisher Relatively cheaper

50 Breeder rations
Copra Oil Meala 10 Prestarter and starter Bulky, causes low feed intake
15 Grower/Finisher Causes hard pork fat at higher level
30 Other rations Low palatability and causes constipation at higher level
Molasses 0 Prestarter Attracts flies in farrowing pen

5 Starter High level causes physiological scouring
12 Other rations Difficulty in mixing ration
Soybean Oil Meal 20 Finisher Produces soft and oily carcasses at higher level
30 Other rations Economic reasons
Ipil-ipil 0 Prestarter and starter High fiber content

5 Breeder Reproductive problems due to mimosine content
10 Finisher Slow growth rate
Skimmilk, Whey Powder 25 Prestarter and starter Economic reasons
Fish Meal 10 All rations Economic reasons

Meat and Bone 5 All rations Palatability
a
Argañosa, V.G. 1989.
95
96
Appendix D
Suggested maximum inclusion rates of feedstuffs for hogs.a

Ingredients Hog Starter Hog Grower Breeder Reasons for Limitation
Blood Meal 1 3 3 Low digestibility, unpalatable, low isoleucine
Corn 70 70 70 Cost
Corn Bran 5 15 30 Fiber, low energy
Brewer’s Grains 3 5 5 Low lysine, high fiber
Casssava Meal 10 20 20 Dustiness, cost, low protein
Copra Meal 5 20 10 Fiber, poor protein quality
Corn Germ Meal 5 12 15 Fiber, poor protein quality
Corn Gluten Feed 0 10 10 Fiber, poor protein quality
Fish Meal 5 8 10 Cost, Fishy flavor
Fat 5 5 5 Cost
Ipil-ipil 3 5 4 Toxicity, fiber, low energy
Meat and Bone 3 5 5 Cost and quality
Molasses 5 5 12 Mixing problem, low protein and energy

Peanut Meal 2 5 0 Protein quality and aflatoxin
Rice Bran 10 30 50 Fiber and low protein quality
Rice, Rough 30 50 50 Fiber and palatability
Skimmilk No limit No limit No limit Cost
Sorghum 70 70 50 Tannic acid
Soybean Meal 30 25 No limit Cost
Sweet Potato 30 40 50 Cost and low protein
Pollard 9 20 30 Cost and high fiber
Whey 10 - - Cost
a
Institute of Animal Science, UPLB, No date.
Appendix E
Nutrient composition of common feedstuff (as fed).a
Dry Crude Crude Methionine
Feeds Matter Protein Fiber Ca Available P Total P ME Lysine Methionine + Cystine
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (kcal/ka) (%) (%) (%)
Cassava Meal 88 2.8 4.0 0.30 0.01 0.05 3000 - - -
Copra Meal 88 18.0 12.0 0.17 0.20 0.55 3000 0.53 0.29 0.58
Corn, Yellow 87 8.5 3.0 0.02 0.10 0.29 3300 0.18 0.09 0.18
Corn Bran 88 9.4 13.0 0.04 0.31 1.03 2200 0.18 0.21 0.38
Corn Germ Meal 89 16.0 8.5 0.30 0.15 0.50 2640 0.90 0.60 1.00
Corn Gluten Feed 88 17.0 8.0 0.46 0.24 0.80 2330 0.48 0.40 0.80
Corn Gluten Meal 88 42.0 4.0 0.16 0.12 0.40 3060 0.96 1.00 1.60
Fish Meal, 50% 89 50.0 0.7 7.60 3.40 3.40 2160 3.40 0.65 1.30
Fish Meal, 55% 88 55.6 1.0 7.70 3.90 3.90 2450 3.74 1.66 2.56
Fish Meal, 60% 89 60.0 1.0 4.37 2.53 2.53 2310 4.08 1.70 2.60
Fat, Tallow 99 - - - - - 7900 - - -
Ipil-ipil Leaf Meal 90 22.0 15.0 1.98 0.07 0.27 1400 1.75 0.10 0.20
Meat and Bone Meal, 45% 88 45.0 2.2 11.00 5.80 5.80 1760 2.20 0.53 0.86
Meat and Bone Meal, 50% 89 50.0 2.4 11.10 5.20 5.20 1820 2.50 0.60 1.15
Molasses, Cane 75 3.0 - 0.75 10.02 0.06 2330 - - -
Oil, Vegetable 99 - - - - - 7980 - - -
Rice Bran, D1 88 13.5 6.5 0.06 0.43 1.43 3000 0.50 0.22 0.32
Rice Bran, D2 88 11.0 10.0 0.08 0.51 1.70 2800 0.70 0.25 0.35
Skimmilk, Dried 90 33.0 0.1 1.25 1.00 - 3400 2.30 0.98 1.40
Sorghum 88 9.0 2.1 0.03 0.08 0.28 3250 0.20 0.12 0.26
Soybean Meal 88 43.0 6.0 0.53 0.18 0.64 2800 2.84 0.65 1.32
Wheat Pollard 88 16.0 10.0 0.12 0.40 0.95 2400 0.62 0.16 0.32
Whey 90 13.0 1.3 0.97 0.76 0.76 3100 0.97 0.20 0.40
Limestone 98 - - 38.00 - - - - - -
Oyster Shell 98 - - 35.00 - - - - - -
Dicalcium Phosphate 98 - - 22.00 18.00 18.00 - - - -
Tricalcium Phosphate 98 - - 28.00 13.00 13.00 - - - -

a
Institute of Animal Science, UPLB, No date.
97
98
Appendix F
Typical nutrient composition of some feeds for swine (as fed).a
DE ME
Feeds DM (%) CP (%) EE (%) CF (%) Ash (%) NFE (%) (kcal/kg)) (kcal/kg) NE (%)
Cereals
Wheat 87.00 11.50 2.00 2.00 1.50 70.50 3400 3290 2430
Corn (Maize) 87.00 9.00 4.00 2.00 1.50 205.60 3480 3400 2550
Barley 87.00 10.00 2.00 5.00 2.50 67.50 3050 2960 2180
Rye 87.00 9.50 1.50 2.50 1.50 72.00 3230 3140 2300
Sorghum 87.00 9.50 3.00 2.50 1.50 70.50 3260-3490 3170-3400 2290-2450
Cereal By-Products
Wheat bran 98.00 15.50 4.00 10.00 5.50 53.00 2530 2420 1720
Corn distillers 90.00 27.00 8.00 8.50 4.50 42.00 2880 2710 2100
Corn gluten feed 90.00 20.00 3.00 8.50 5.00 53.50 2990 2850 1920
Corn germ meal 90.00 22.00 9.50 12.00 2.50 44.00 3060 2910 2000
Corn gluten meal 60 90.00 62.00 3.00 1.50 2.00 21.50 4500 4040 2400
Leguminous Seeds
Soybeans, full-fat extruded/toasted 90.00 37.00 18.50 5.50 5.00 24.00 4240 3970 2920
Oilseed Meals
Groundnut (peanut) oil meal 90.00 50.00 1.50 10.00 5.50 23.00 3550 3200 1810

Rapeseed meal 90.00 35.50 2.50 11.00 7.00 34.00 2940 2710 1700
Sunflower meal
30% 90.00 29.00 1.50 26.00 6.00 28.50 1980 1750 1100
34% 90.00 34.00 1.50 23.00 6.00 25.50 2060 1810 1140
Soybean meal
48% 90.00 46.00 1.50 5.00 6.00 31.50 3680 3320 2140
50% 90.00 49.00 1.50 3.50 6.00 30.00 3680 3320 2140
Animal By-Products
Fish meal
60% 92.00 59.00 9.00 - 21.00 3.00 3670 3270 2050
72% 92.00 72.00 9.00 - 11.00 0.00 4410 3830 2340
Hydrolized Feather Meal 90.00 84.00 2.50 - 3.00 0.50 - - -
Skimmilk 95.00 35.00 1.00 - 8.00 51.00 3970 3700 2450
a
Appendix G
Energy composition of selected fats, oils, and carbohydrates.a

Feed Name International Dry Matter Ether Linoleic DE ME
Description Feed Number (%) Extract (%) Acid (%) (kcal/kg) (kcal/kg)
Animal
Lard 4-04-790 100 100 18.3 7,860 7,750
Poultry fat 4-00-409 100 100 11.8 8,635 7,975
Tallow 4-08-127 100 100 3.1 8,200 7,895
Plant
Corn oil 4-07-882 100 100 58.0 7,620 7,350
Soybean oil 4-07-983 100 100 65.7 7,560 7,280
Corn starch 4-02-889 100 0 0.0 4,045 4,040
Glucose-monohydrate 4-02-125 100 0 0.0 3,735 3,620
Sucrose 4-04-701 100 0 0.0 3,850 3,670
a
Ewan, R.C. No date.
Feed-grade fats and oils usually contain water and other non-fat materials; energy concentration should be adjusted
accordingly.

99
100
Appendix H
Crude and true digestible protein and digestible essential amino acids in swine feeds (%, as fed).a
Feeds CP DP Lys Meth Cyst Threo Arg Hist Isol Leu Phenyl Val
Cereals
Wheat 11.50 10.10 0.26 0.16 0.24 0.27 0.48 0.23 0.37 0.68 0.46 0.44
Corn (Maize) 9.00 7.60 0.20 0.17 0.16 0.26 0.36 0.23 0.29 1.03 0.40 0.39
Barley 10.00 8.50 0.29 0.14 0.18 0.27 0.43 0.18 0.31 0.60 0.45 0.43
Sorghum (+ Tannins) 9.50 6.90 0.16 0.12 0.12 0.26 0.26 0.16 0.34 1.11 0.42 0.42
Sorghum (- Tannins) 9.50 7.70 0.18 0.13 0.17 0.26 0.30 0.19 0.37 1.19 0.45 0.45
Cereal By-Products
Wheat bran 15.50 12.20 0.47 0.19 0.26 0.38 0.94 0.34 0.43 0.78 0.51 0.60
Corn distillers 27.00 17.20 0.36 0.45 0.24 0.62 0.77 0.36 0.98 1.91 0.95 1.06
Corn gluten meal 20.00 14.70 0.45 0.31 0.24 0.53 0.69 0.51 0.55 - 0.68 0.81
Corn germ meal 22.00 - - - - - - - - - - -
Corn gluten meal 62.00 53.10 0.90 1.39 0.93 1.88 1.82 1.10 2.39 9.48 0.68 2.54
Leguminous Seeds Soybeans, full fat
Extruded 37.00 32.00 2.14 0.44 0.45 1.25 2.58 0.90 1.59 2.55 1.67 1.57
Toasted 37.00 26.00 1.90 0.39 0.44 1.19 2.32 0.83 1.37 2.26 1.48 1.41
Oil seed Meals

Groundnut (peanut)
oil meal 50.00 46.60 1.51 0.45 0.53 1.14 5.48 1.04 1.57 2.75 2.28 1.88
Rapeseed Meal 35.50 29.90 1.56 0.67 0.71 1.17 1.89 0.81 1.17 2.04 1.18 1.47
Sunflower meal 30% 29.00 23.60 0.81 0.56 0.38 0.85 2.04 0.58 1.03 1.48 1.08 1.22
Sunflower meal 34% 34.00 27.60 0.97 0.64 0.44 1.01 2.49 0.70 0.22 1.78 1.27 1.46
Soybean meal 48% 46.00 39.40 2.56 0.57 0.57 1.57 3.21 1.10 2.00 3.09 2.06 2.01
Soybean meal 50% 49.00 42.00 2.73 0.61 1.63 1.63 3.37 1.17 2.13 3.33 2.19 2.14
Animal By-Products
Fish meal 60% 59.00 52.20 4.15 1.39 0.46 2.22 3.23 1.19 2.41 3.94 2.00 2.62
Fish meal 73% 72.00 63.60 4.79 1.71 0.51 2.66 3.50 1.36 3.08 4.76 2.53 3.43
Hydrolyzed
feather meal 84.00 64.70 1.14 0.40 0.62 3.20 4.54 0.39 3.65 5.77 3.55 5.87
Skimmilk 35.00 30.80 2.80 0.79 0.27 1.38 1.15 0.94 1.69 3.28 1.64 2.04
a
Appendix I
Recommended nutrient levels for different classes of swine fed ad libitum.a

Class of Swine ME CP Ca Available P Lysine Meth+Cyst Fiber
Ration (Liveweight) (kcal/kg) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Booster Suckling pig (1–5 kg) 3200 24.00 1.00 1.20 0.80 <3
Prestarter Suckling pig (5–10 kg) 3,000–3,100 21.00–22.00 0.80–0.90 0.60 1.00 0.75 <3
Starter 10–20 kg 2,900–3,000 18.00 0.65–0.80 0.50 0.85 0.70 <4
Grower 20–35 kg 2,850–2,900 16.00 0.65–0.80 0.50 0.80 0.65 <6
35–60 kg 2,800–2,900 14.00 0.50–0.80 0.40 0.80 0.60 <6
Finisher 60–100 kg 2,800–2,850 14.00 0.50–0.80 0.40 0.65 0.50 <8
Breeder Pregnant and dry sows 2,600–2,800 14.00–16.00 0.75–0.80 0.50 0.45 0.45 <8
Lactating sows 2,600–2,850 15.00–16.00 0.80–0.90 0.50 0.65 0.50 <8
Boars 2,600 16.00 0.75 0.50 - - -
Replacement gilts 2,800 16.00 0.60 0.50 - - -
a
Argañosa, V.G., 1990.
PCARRD, 1987.

101
102
Appendix J
Essential amino acid requirements of swine fed ad libitum (90% dry matter).a
Swine Liveweight (kg)

Amino Acids (%) 1–5 5–10 10–20 20–50 50–110
Arginine 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.25 0.10
Histidine 0.36 0.31 0.25 0.22 0.18
Isoleucine 0.76 0.65 0.53 0.46 0.38
Leucine 1.00 0.85 0.70 0.60 0.50
Lysine 1.40 1.15 0.95 0.75 0.60
Methionine + Cystine 0.68 0.58 0.48 0.41 0.34

Phenylalanine + Tyrosine 1.10 0.94 0.77 0.66 0.55
Threonine 0.80 0.68 0.56 0.48 0.40
Tryptophan 0.20 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.10
Valine 0.80 0.68 0.56 0.48 0.40
a
United States National Research Council (USNRC), 1988.
Appendix K
Sources of minerals for swine.a
Calcium Mineral

Mineral Source Formula
(% Ca) (% P) Remarks
Calcium and
Phosphorus Ground limestone
(calcium carbonate) 39 0 Excellent, availability, usually cheapest
source of calcium
Dicalcium phosphate 20–24 18.5 Excellent availability
Monocalcium phosphate 15–18 21.0 Excellent availability
Monodicalcium phosphate 15–18 21.0 Excellent availability
Monoamonium Phosphate 0 24.0 Excellent availability
Sodium tripolyphosphate
or Monosodium Phosphate 0 25.0 Excellent availability
Phosphoric acid, Feed grade 0 23.7 Excellent availability
Deflourinated phosphate 31–34 18.0 Good to excellent availability
Steamed bone meal 26 12.5 Good to excellent availability
Low flouride rock

phosphate or Curacao 30–36 14.0 Fair availability
Soft rock phosphate 17–20 9.0 Poor availability, high fluorine content
Iron Ferrous sulfate FeSO4H2O 32.9% Fe Good availability

Ferrous fumarate FeC4H2O4 32.9% Fe Good availability
Ferrous carbonate FeCO3 48.2% Fe Availability varies depending on solubility
Ferric oxide Fe2O3 69.9% Fe Unavailable, used for red color

Copper Cupric chloride CuCl22H2O 37.3% Cu All are good sources of copper
Cupric oxide CuO 79.7% Cu
103
104
Sources of Minerals for swine.a (continued)
Calcium Mineral

Mineral Source Formula (% Ca) (% P) Remarks
Manganese Manganese carbonate MnCO3 47.8% Mn All are good sources of manganese.
Manganese oxide MnO 77.4% Mn
Manganese Sulfate MnSO455H2O 22.8% Mn
Zinc Zinc chloride ZnCl2 48.0% Zn All are good sources of zinc.
Zinc oxide ZnO 80.3% Zn
Zinc sulfate ZnSO47H2O 22.7% Zn
Iodine Calcium iodate Ca(IO4)2 65.1% I All are good sources of iodine.
Ethylenediamine dihydroiodide 80.0% I
Potassium iodide Kl 76.4% I
Cuprous iodide CuI 66.6% I

Selenium Sodium selenite Na2SeO3 45.7% Se Good availability
Sodium selenate Na2SeO3 41.8% Se Good availability
a
Iowa State University Extension, 1988.
b
The precentage of mineral listed for those compounds where a chemical formula is given is for the pure compound.
The percentage purity for technical and feed grade sources should, therefore, be multiplied by the listed percentage in this table to arrive at
the percentage of the element in the source being used.
Appendix L
Recommended true digestible amino acids and energy in swine rations.a

Piglets
Age (days) 21–42 42–70
Mean weight (kg) 5–10 10–25
Ave. daily gain (g/day) 250 500
Energy (kcal/kg)
digestible 3500 3500
metabolizable 3300 3300
net 2400 2400
True digestible amino acids (%)

Lysine 1.23 1.01
Methionine 0.40 0.33
Methionine + Cystine 0.69 0.56
Thronine 0.74 0.51
Fattening pigs
Restricted feeding
Mean weight (kg) 25–60 60–100
Energy (kcal/kg)
digestible 3,250 3,250
metabolizable 3,100 3,100
net 2,250 2,250
Lysine 0.79 0.66
Methionine 0.25 0.22
Methionine + Cystine 0.44 0.36
Threonine 0.48 0.40
Ad libitum Feeding
Sex Castrated Males Females
Mean weight (kg) 25–60 60–100 25–60 60–100
Energy (kcal/kg)
digestible 3,150 3,150
metabolizable 3,050 3,050
net 2,200 2,200
Lysine 0.66 0.57 0.75 0.62
Methionine 0.22 0.19 0.25 0.20
Methionine + Cystine 0.36 0.32 0.43 0.35
Threonine 0.40 0.34 0.45 0.37
a
Rhone Poulenc Nutirition Guide, 1990.

106
Appendix M
Vitamin requirements of swine fed ad libitum (90% dry matter).a
Vitaminsb 1–5 5–10 10–20 20–50 50–110
Vitamin A (IU) 2,200 2,200 1,750 1,300 1,300
Vitamin D (IU) 220 220 200 150 150
Vitamin E (IU) 16 16 11 11 11
Vitamin K (Menadione) (mg) 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
Biotin (mg) 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Choline (g) 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.30
Folacin (gm) 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30
Niacin, available (mg) 20.00 15.00 12.50 10.00 7.00
Pantothenic acid (mg) 12.00 10.00 9.00 8.00 7.00

Riboflavin 4.00 3.50 3.00 2.50 2.00
Thiamin (mg) 1.50 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Vitamin B6 (mg) 2.00 1.50 1.50 1.00 1.00
Vitamin B12 (ug) 20.00 17.50 15.00 10.00 5.00
a United States National Research Council (USNRC), 1988.
b Amount/kg diet.
Appendix N
Mineral requirements of swine fed ad libitum (90% dry matter).a

Mineral Elementsb 1–5 5–10 10–20 20–50 50–110
Calcium (%) 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50
Phosphorus, total (%) 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.50 0.40
Phosphorus, available (%) 0.55 0.40 0.32 0.23 0.15
Sodium (%) 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
Chlorine (%) 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08
Magnesium (%) 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04
Potassium (%) 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.23 0.17
Copper (mg) 6.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00
Iodine (mg) 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14
Iron (mg) 100.00 100.00 80.00 60.00 40.00
Manganese (mg) 4.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 2.00
Selenium (mg) 0.30 0.30 0.25 0.15 0.10
Zinc (mg) 100.00 100.00 80.00 60.00 50.00
a
United States National Research Council (USNRC), 1988.
b
Percent or amount/kg diet. These requirements are based on the following types of pigs and diets: 1–5 kg pigs, a diet that includes 25–75% milk
products; 5–10 kg pigs, a corn soybean meal diet that includes 5–25% milk products; 10–110 kg pigs, a corn-soybean meal diet. Corn contains 8%
protein; soybean meal contain 44% protein.

107
108
Appendix O
Recommended nutrient allowances for swine.a
Young Pigs Grower-Finisher Pigs
Sows, Gilts, and Boars Prestater Starter Grower
Pregestation, Breeding, and Gestation Lactation nursing creep replacement Finisher
Nutrients (1.4 kg/day) (1.9 kg/day) (2.3 kg/day) to 5.5 kg to 18 kg (18-55 kg) (55-110 kg)
Protein, Amino Acids
Proteinb % 13.00 12.00 11.00 13.00 20–24 18–20 15–17 13–15
Lysineb % 0.60 0.45 0.35 0.60 1.40 1.15 0.75–0.85
0.60–0.70
Threonine % 0.40 0.30 0.24 0.45 0.80 0.70 0.50 0.40
Tryptophan % 0.13 0.10 0.08 0.12 0.20 0.18 0.13 0.11
Major Minerals
Calcium % 1.00 0.75 0.60 0.75 0.90 0.80 0.60 0.55
Phosphorus % 0.75 0.60 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.65 0.50 0.45
Salt % 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.50 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Vitamins, Addedc

A IU/kg 5,500 4,400 3,300 4,400 4,400 4,400 2,200 1,100
D IU/kg 550 440 330 440 440 440 220 110
E IU/kg 29 22 18 22 22 22 11 5.5
B12 mcg/kg 22 16.5 13 16.5 22 22 11 55
Riboflavin mg/kg 6.6 4.4 3.3 4.4 4.4 4.4 3.3 1.8
Pantothenic acid
mg/kg 17.6 13.2 11.0 13.2 17.6 17.6 8.8 4.4
Niacin mg/kg 15.4 11.0 8.8 11.0 22.0 22.0 11.0 5.5
Biotind mg/kg 0.29 0.22 0.18 0.22 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Appendix O
Recommended nutrient allowances for swine.a (continued)
Young Pigs Grower-Finisher Pigs
Sows, Gilts, and Boars Prestater Starter Grower
Pregestation, Breeding, and Gestation Lactation nursing creep replacement Fininsher
Nutrients (1.4 kg/day) (1.9 kg/day) (2.3 kg/day) to 5.5 kg to 18 kg (18–55 kg) (55–110 kg)
Trace Minerals Addedd

Iron ppm 100 80 60 80 100 100 50 25
Copper ppm 7 5 4 5 48 5 4 2
Manganese ppm 13 10 8 10 4 4 2 1
Zinc ppm 65 50 40 56 100 1100 50 25
Iodine ppm 0.20 0.14 0.11 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.07 0.04
Selenium ppm 0.20 0.15 0.12 0.15 0.30 0.30 0.15 0.08
Feed Additivese g/t 0–300 0–300 0–300 100–300 100–300 100–300 0–100 0–50
a
Iowa State University. 1988.
The nutrient allowances are suggested for maximum performance, not as minimum requirements. They are based on research work with natural feedstuffs found to give satisfactory
results. Vitamin and trace mineral level should be added to the diet in addition to those occurring in natural feedstuffs.
b
Sow protein recommendations are based on corn-soybean meat diets. Other feedstuffs may require more protein to meet the amino acid requirement.Protein and lysine ranges
for growing and finishing pigs allow for least cost formulation per unit of gain.
c
Vitamin and trace mineral recommendations for finishing pigs are 50% of grower values.
d
Biotin additions are not needed in corn-soybean meal-based diets.
e
The feed additives may be antibiotics, arsenicals, or other chemotherepeutics, or combination levels and combinations used and stage of production for which they are used must
comply with F DA regulations. High levels for sows may be beneficial just before and after breeding and at farrowing. They are not recommended during the entire gestation-
lactation period, unless specific diseases are present. The feed additive and the level used during growing-finishing phases should be primarily for growth promotion and
improvement of feed efficiency.

109
Appendix P
Daily feed intake and expected weight of pigs at varying ages.a
Age of Pig Daily Feed Intake Expected Weight
(month) (kg) (kg)
1 0.20 6.5
2 0.50 18
3 0.85 35
4 1.30 55
5 1.80 75
6 2.30 90
7+ 2.80 100
a
Argañosa, V.G., 1989.

Appendix Q
A Design for Breeding Barn
(50-Pig Capacity)
1.50 21.00 1.50
.80 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 1.10
1.50
2.10 .65 1.20
3.50
H A L L W A Y Feed trough
1.20
8.20
3.50
1.50
Open canal
Roof line
FLOOR PLAN

Note: All measurements expressed in meter (m), unless otherwise indicated.
111
Appendix Q (continued)
Front elevation
2.50
6.80
3.40
.90
Rear elevation

Open canal Drain slot

Line of
Left side elevation open canal
.90.90 2.50 2.50
6.80
Right side elevation

(Cross section)
8.30
1.20 3.50
1.30
1.00
.90
Bar
Drain slot (see feed trough
Open canal detail)

Details of Breeding Pen
.90 .80 .80

.10
Pipe
Pipe
.30
Bar
1.00
Bar
.70
.15 Feed trough
Open canal
BLOWUP DETAIL
Details of Concrete Feeding Trough

.10
.05
Round Bar
.40
Open
.25
canal
.10
.05
.40

Appendix R
A Design for Farrowing House
(50-Pig Capacity)
1.50 15.00 1.50

Open canal .80 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 1.10
1.50
3.00
H A L L W A Y
7.20
1.20
3.00
Slope
1.50
Open canal
(see enlarged plan) Roof line
FLOOR PLAN

115
Appendix R (continued)
A Design for Farrowing House
2.50
6.80
2.50
.90
.90
Line of open canal
Front elevation Rear elevation
Left side elevation Line of

open
canal
2.50
6.80
3.50
.90
1.70
.80
.8


Appendix R (continued)
Farrowing Crate Detail

2.20
.50 .40 .20 1.10
.20 .20 .20 .20 .30
Round bar
.25 .20 .20 .10

.35
.20
1.60
1.40
.65
.20
.20
G.I. pipe
Side elevation
G.I. pipe
.25 .20
.27 .32
.20 .20
1.20
1.60
.20
.10
.65 .10
.28
.20 .20 .20
Round bar
Round bar Steel door

118
Appendix S
A Design for Nursery Barn
(50-Pig Capacity)
1.50 15.00 1.50

.80 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 1.10
Roof line
1.50
1.20 2.10
.95
3.00
2.10
H A L L W A Y
7.20
1.20

2.10
3.00
.95
1.50
(see enlarged plan)
Open canal
FLOOR PLAN
Appendix S (continued)
A Design for Nursery Barn
2.5
6.8
2.3
1.2 .8
Line of open canal
2.50
6.80
3.50 .80
Open canal
(see enlarged plan)
Left side elevation
Open
canal
1.2 .8
2.00
Line of
open canal

Appendix S (continued)
Details of Nursery Pen

3.00
0.5 .1 0.4 .1 0.4 .1 0.4 .1 0.4 .1 0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2 1.20
0.2
.10 .60
0.2
0.2
.25 Finish floor line
Finish ground line
BLOWUP DETAIL
2.10
0.55 1.00 0.55
0.40
Round bar
0.70
G.I. pipe
0.30
Open canal
0.25

Appendix T
A Design for Growing Barn
(50-Pig Capacity)
1.50 15.00 1.50
.80 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 1.10
.55
3.00
H A L L W A Y
7.20
1.20
3.00
.55
Open canal
(see enlarged plan) Plain cement finish
FLOOR PLAN Roof line

121
Appendix T (continued)
A Design for Growing Barn
2.50 Window
6.80 louver
.80 1.2 2.30
Line of
open canal
Left side elevation

2.50
6.80
Open canal
3.50
.80
Line of
open canal

Appendix T (continued)
Details of Growing Pen
.80 3.00
.60 2.40
.35 .30.30.30.30
.40
Concrete feed trough
Round bar
3.00
Plain cement
finish
Open canal

124
Appendix U
A Design for Finishing Barn
(50-Pig Capacity)
1.50 15.00 1.50
Roof line
.30 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 1.10
Open canal
1.50
0.55
Slope
3.00
H A L L W A Y
7.20
1.20

Slope
3.00
0.55
1.50
(see enlarge plan) Plain cement finish
FLOOR PLAN

Appendix U (continued)
A Design for Finishing Barn
1.20
.80 Open canal
Line of open canal
Open
canal
(see enlarged detail)
Left side elevation

2.50
Open canal
6.80
3.50
.80


Appendix U (continued)
Details of Finishing Pen
0.80 3.00
0.60 0.60 2.40
.40
Slope Feed trough
G.I. pipe
3.00
Plain
cement
finish
Slope
.30
Open canal
.10
Hollow
blocks

Appendix V
Selected locally developed technologies related to swine waste management.a
Technology/Source Description
1. Machinery for the production of organic This includes the breaker, which pulverizes the composted swine and chicken manure and
fertilizer/University of the Philippines Los mushroom spawn; the horizontal mixer, which thoroughly agitates and mixes sticky materials
Baños/PCARRD and the briquetter and pelletizer as molders.
2. Biogas system/Isabela State A 2-m3 concrete type biogas system that uses fermentation process to produce biogas (methane)
University (ISU)/Affiliated Non- energy for cooking, lighting, and running stationary engines such as irrigation pumps,
conventional Energy Center – refrigerator, etc.
Department of Energy (ANEC–DOE)
3. Rapid composting technology/Department This technology refers to the use of the compost fungus activator (CFA), Trichoderma harzianum,
of Agriculture (DA)/Bureau of Plant for enhancing the process of decomposition of agricultural wastes by reducing the composting
Industry (BPI)/UPLB/PCARRD period from 5 to 6 months to just 3–4 weeks.
4. Tubular polyethylene digester (TPED)/ Low-cost/affordable, easy-to-install digester for animal waste made of locally available
Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI), DA materials; the TPED model is used for very small scale swine production with about 5
finishers and 1–2 sow level.
5. Wastewater treatment system/BEST Inc. This system involves separating the solids from waste water with the use of filters, separators,
and presses. This separates the gas from the slurry with the use of a reactor/digester. The
system provides aeration to remaining water before releasing to a lagoon.
6. Biogas system/Cavite State University This is a more integrated system composed of inlet tank, fermentation tank, solid liquid
(CaVSU) separator, upload anaerobic sludge blanket, and outlet tank. This system segregates, recycles,
and reuses waste water from pigpen for biogas, fertilizers, feed materials, and irrigation water,
as well as for cleaning pigpens and facilities.
7. Portagas/Bureau of Soils and Water This system uses the plant residues like rice straw, corn stover, sugarcane bagasse to produce
Management (BSWM) biogas and organic fertilizers. This is composed of several portable digesters connected to each

other by a pipe leading to a gas holder.
a
S&T Anchor Program on Cleaner Production Technologies for Integrated Swine Waste Management, 2002.
127
128
Appendix W
a
Key legislations affecting swine production.
Reference No. Description
Philippine Article 2, Section 15 and 16 States obligations to protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and
Constitution 1986 healthful ecology
RA 39131 Created the National Water and Air Pollution To maintain reasonable standards of purity for water and air of this country with
Commission utilization for domestic, agriculture, industrial, and other legitimate purpose
PD 984 Created the National Pollution Control Commission Has the powers to impose an ex parte Cease and Desist Orders on two grounds: when
there is immediate threat to life, public health, safety or welfare, or to animal or plant
life; or when waste or discharge exceeds the allowable standards set.
RA 4850 Created the Laguna Lake Development Authority

(LLDA)
RA 7160 LGUs share with the national government the responsibility in the management
Local Government Code and maintenance of ecological balance within territorial jurisdiction. To enforce
pollution control laws and other laws on the protection of the environment subject to
supervision, control, and review of the DENR

PD 813
This law incorporated in the charter of LLDA the idea of
environmental and ecological management of the total
lake basin, including land and atmosphere
PD 1151 Mandates the adoption of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) system as the
Philippine Environmental Policy mechanism by which the “exigencies of socioeconomic undertakings can be reconciled
with the requirements of environmental quality”
PD 1152 Comprehensive program of environmental protection and management

Philippine Environmental Code
EO 192
Reorganization of the DENR
DAO 96-37 Administration of the EIA system
a
IEMP, 1995.
Appendix X
Water quality criteria.a
Parameter Unit Class AA Class A Class B Class C Class D
Color PCU 15 50 (b) (b) (b)
O
Temperature (max. rise) C 3 3 3 3 -
pH (range) 6.5–8.5 6.5–8.5 6.5–8.5 6.5–8.5 6.0–9.0
Dissolved Oxygen (min) mg/L 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 3.0
Five-day BOD mg/L 1 5 5 7 (10) 10 (15)
TSS mg/L 25 50 (c) (d) (e)
TDS mg/L 500 1000 1000 1000 -
Nitrate as Nitrogen mg/L 1.0 10 10 10 -
Phosphate as Phosphorus mg/L nil 0.1 0.2 0.4 -
a
Modified from DENR Administrative Order No.34.
b
No abnormal discoloration from unnatural causes.
c
Not more than 30% increase.
d
Not more than 30 mg/L increase.
e
Not more than 60 mg/L increase.

129
130
Appendix Y
Effluent standards.a
Category II
(Class A, B & SB) Inland Water Class C
Parameter Unit OEI NPI OEI NPI
Color PCU 150 100 200 150
O
Temperature (max. rise) C 3 3 3 3
pH (range) 6.0–9.0 6.0–9.0 6.0–9.0 6.0–9.0
COD mg/L 100 60 150 100

Five day BOD mg/L 50 30 80 50
TSS mg/L 70 50 90 70
TDS mg/L 1200 1000 - -
a
Modified from DENR Administrative Order No.35.

OEI (Old or Existing Industry), NPI (New Proposed Idustry).
Appendix Z
Swine management perpetual multipurpose calendar.

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1 1 32 61 91 121 152 182 213 244 274 305 335
2 2 33 62 92 122 153 183 214 245 275 306 336
3 3 34 63 93 123 154 184 215 246 276 307 337
4 4 35 64 94 124 155 185 216 247 277 308 338
5 5 36 65 95 125 156 186 217 248 278 309 339
6 6 37 66 96 126 157 187 218 249 279 310 340
7 7 38 67 97 127 158 188 219 250 280 311 341
8 8 39 68 98 128 159 189 220 251 281 312 342
9 9 40 69 99 129 160 190 221 252 282 313 343
10 10 41 70 100 130 161 191 222 253 283 314 344
11 11 42 71 101 131 162 192 223 254 284 315 345
12 12 43 72 102 132 163 193 224 255 285 316 346
Days of the month
13 13 44 73 103 133 164 194 225 256 286 317 347

14 14 45 74 104 134 165 195 226 257 287 318 348
15 15 46 75 105 135 166 196 227 258 288 319 349
16 16 47 76 106 136 167 197 228 259 289 320 350
17 17 48 77 107 137 168 198 229 260 290 321 351
18 18 49 78 108 138 169 199 230 261 291 322 352
19 19 50 79 109 139 170 200 231 262 292 323 353
20 20 51 80 110 140 171 201 232 263 293 324 354
21 21 52 81 111 141 172 202 233 264 294 325 355
22 22 53 82 112 142 173 203 234 265 295 326 356
23 23 54 83 113 143 174 204 235 266 296 327 357
24 24 55 84 114 144 175 205 236 267 297 328 358
25 25 56 85 115 145 176 206 237 268 298 329 359
26 26 57 86 116 146 177 207 238 269 299 330 360
27 27 58 87 117 147 178 208 239 270 300 331 361
28 28 59 88 118 148 179 209 240 271 301 332 362
29 29 60 89 119 149 180 210 241 272 302 333 363
30 30 90 120 150 181 211 242 273 303 334 364
31 31 151 212 243 304 365
In the management of a swine farm, the number of days from one event to the next is almost
always counted. Much time and effort can be saved and mistakes minimized in counting days if a
multi-purpose calendar similar to the one presented is available.
For example, a sow was bred on June 12. Looking at the calendar, June 12 is the 163rd day of the
year. The first question to ask is, “when do you start observing the sow to come in heat again if no
conception takes place?” Add 17 to 163, which is 180 or on the 29th of June. Therefore, start observing
the sow for heat recurrence from this date until the 4th of July. This is based on the estrous cycle,
ranging from 17 to 24 days.
If the sow conceives on that breeding date (June 12), When do you expect the sow to farrow?
Add 114, the average gestation period of swine, to 163 to get 277. The sow is expected to farrow on
the 277th day of the year or October 4 according to the calendar.
The multi-purpose calendar can also be used to compute date of weaning, the average interval
between farrowing, the age of the animals at market weight, at breeding, and for many other purposes.

Disclaimer
Trade names, manufacturers, and distributors are mentioned solely
for the purpose of providing specific information and do not endorse
products named nor imply criticism of similar ones not mentioned.
Mention of a trade name, manufacturer, and distributor does not
constitute guarantee or warranty of the product. The recommended
practices or technologies are based on research and best information
The Cover
Technology unfolding-reaching out,
touching the people's way of life and their
way of doing things, offering techniques
that improve commodity production.
Each recommendation is a bid to make the
venture more productive and profitable for
the crop, livestock, or tree farmer.

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About PCARRD

MAILING ADDRESS PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE,

TELEPHONES Los Baños – (63) (049) 536-0014 to 536-0015/

To Our Valued Reader:

This second revision of the publication, The Philippines Recommends

We hope this volume would be a good reference material for

Very truly yours,

PCARRD Philippines Recommends Series No. 13-B

PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE,

ANIMAL HEALTH DIVISION

Los Baños, Laguna

The Pork Production Committee 2004. The Philippines

The swine industry is one of the most important among the

Pfizer Animal Health is pleased to collaborate with

RONALD A. VERGEL DE DIOS

The Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural

 The technical committee members for drafting this second

preparation of this volume. Without them, the publication

The Philippine Swine Industry 1

Selection, Breeds, and Breeding 10

Nutrition and Feeding 35

Herd Health Management 64

Marketing and Economics 82

1 The Philippine Native Pig with its Litter 14

1 Per Capita Consumption of Different Animal Meat

Mr. Menandro O. Maleon

Dr. Valentino G. Argañosa Ms. Nimfa M. Brebante

Dr. Elpidio M. Agbisit, Jr. Dr. Edwin C. Villar

Mr. Ruel S. Pagcaliwagan

Pork is a very important livestock commodity of the

Table 1. Per capita consumption of different animal meat products in the

The local swine industry tops all other local livestock

philippines recommends for pork production 1

The total swine population in the country is kept in both

2 philippines recommends for pork production

philippines recommends for pork production 3

Supply and Utilization

The total volume of pork available in the country is derived

4 philippines recommends for pork production

Live Hog Production

From 1993 to 2002, volume of production increased

Competitiveness of Pork Production in the Philippines

As per the General Agreement on Tariff and Trade (GATT)

philippines recommends for pork production 5

The swine industry has undergone changes in response to

 Preference for lean meat with less fat – Recently,

 Preference for pork with minimal antibiotic residues –

 Preference for fresh and fresh-chilled pork – In most

6 philippines recommends for pork production

 Emergence of small enterprises type of swine

Projected Demands and New Initiatives of the Industry

Data on pork consumption indicate a consistent increase in

philippines recommends for pork production 7

Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT)

To better understand the potentials and limitations of the

 Relatively large, stable, and continuously increasing

technologies on swine production, feed milling, and

 Generally low purchasing power of pork consumers

8 philippines recommends for pork production

major swine-producing regions of the country

 Growing domestic market, increasing demand to meet

production efficiency (Appendix A)