REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Production

Raising goats either for backyard farming or for commercial scale is cheaper and

easier to manage than other livestock animals. By nature, goats are browsers and like

to eat many varieties of plants. Goat raising is good in the uplands where leguminous

forage and fodder crops including grasses abound. Goats are popular with small

holders because of their efficient conversion of feed into edible and high-quality meat,

milk and hide. They are not only a source of protein, but they also provide the much

needed income. In fact, goats provide livelihood to about 15 million of Filipinos (Faylon,

2009). They are also used as holistic tools for land vegetation management since they

can trim grasses through browsing thus minimizing the work for clearing the field. With

proper grazing management, goats can eliminate noxious weeds and restore native

grasses. In a study conducted by a government agency, it was found out that goats are

multi-purpose ruminants producing 58.4% milk, 35.6% meat and 4.3% hide, and 1.7%

fiber. These small ruminants can provide the answer to the improvement of nutritional

requirements of the predominantly rural farm families scattered all over the archipelago

(Agriculture Business Week, 2009). Despite the prospects of goat production, some

problems and constraints have been identified which automatically deprive goat

production of rapid expansion.

Socio – economic profile

Small ruminant (goat and sheep) farming plays a significant role in economic

development and improves the livelihood of raisers. The contribution of the small

ruminant industry to the agriculture productivity is becoming more substantial and

significant. Hence, a study was conducted by (Melissa, Alina Yusaff et al 2016) to

observe the socio-economic characteristics of farmers and production system of small

ruminants. In addition, the relationship between socio-economic characteristics and the

potential for small ruminant farming were determined. A total of six hundred (600)

ranchers randomly selected from the eleven states of Malaysia to examine the socio-

economic and farm profile of small ruminants. The survey was done by face to face

interview through questionnaire. Simple percentages and frequency distribution tables

were used to characterize and classify the data using the statistical package for social

sciences (SPSS Version 21). The results showed that the highest number of

respondents was involved between the ages of 40 to 50 years (23.5%), 92.8% were

male and 7.2 % female. The married (86.7%) respondents and holding two family

members were dominated in this industry. The majority of the ranchers were educated

with less than five years of experience (36%), while a few (1.2 %) were illiterate in this

farming. However, a significant (67.7%) of the respondents were keeping this industry

as a part time job. Mostly land size of farms was less than 5 acres and dominated by
owners’ farms (75.6%). Chi-square analysis showed positive significant relationship to

variables with the number of animals and experiences except, age, gender, material

status and part time job.

In addition, a study conducted by (M Manzi et al 2013) was commissioned to

assess the production systems and opportunities for genetic improvement of goats in

Rwanda. A total of 241 goat farms were visited and one respondent at each farm was

interviewed using a structured questionnaire. The generated data were analysed using

Generalised Linear Model procedures. In total, 241 respondents were interviewed and

of all, 33.2% were household heads, 44% were spouses and 15% were children

(daughters and sons). Others were hired managers (2.5%) and elderly dependants

/parents of the household heads. The female headed households were 9.1%.These

findings show that the majority of farmers in the study area are actually resident and not

absentee or cell-phone farmers. Majority of the respondents were female (55.2%),

plausibly because traditionally, small ruminant production is predominantly a women’s

activity. Jaitner et al (2001) reported that in the Gambia, 71% of goat owners were

found to be women. Women are more likely to own small ruminants probably because

of their determination to increase their economic autonomy and their bargaining power

within the household. Thus owning small ruminants contributes to their empowerment.

The operations undertaken by female members of the household include feeding,

watering, maintenance of cleanliness and manure collection. Construction of small

ruminant structures, breeding management, animal health issues and marketing

arrangements were men’s responsibilities.

 The majority of the heads of household were either primary school leavers

(52.8%) and or illiterate (38.2%), while a modest 7.5% attended secondary school. In a

way, these results indicate that most goat farming activities were being done by illiterate

farmers, which has serious bearings on production methods and management ability of

the farmers. High illiteracy rates tend to hinder adoption of suitable technology and do

not make it easy to communicate to such producers messages of technical nature. Adult

literacy training may need to be arranged for the studied community to enhance their

literacy skills. Alma L. Cosadio et al conducted an assessment of backyard goat raising

in Claveria, Misamis Oriental, Philippines. This study focused on current goat

management practices and socioeconomic aspects of the backyard goat raisers in

Claveria, Misamis Oriental. Survey results showed that 93% of the total respondents

were male and only 7% were female. Majority of them were farmers and were married

(82%). As to their educational attainment, 53% had finished secondary education; of

these about 12% were college graduate. Of the total respondents, 42% were above 45

years of age, only about 7% were below 25 years old at the time of the survey, and the

rest were between 25 to 45 years old. As to the economic and social indicators of the

respondents, 95% of the backyard goat raisers owned their houses and that their main

income was mostly through farming (83.7%). About 42% depended solely on farming

while the rest have other sources of income such as being entrepreneurs and masons

which comprised almost 33%. Most of the farmers were farm owners while only 14%

were tenant. Almost 47% of the respondents owned a one to two hectares of farm.
Production Practices

Goat is an important domestic animals in many parts of the world, have serve

mankind for ages. They provide substance in the form of food and clothing. These hardy

ruminants can exist in harsh environment in which other livestock species would perish.

Goats grow under extreme conditions from rugged mountain areas where winters are

bitter cold to desert regions where it is hot and dry and water and forage are sparse

Goats can be kept in extensive, semi-intensive or intensive production systems

depending on the availability of land. Under the extensive system goats are allowed to

browse (free range) freely. This system is suited for areas where browsing fields are not

a problem. To be effective for dairy goats the flock should have a stockman (herdsman)

and the males should be separated from the does to control random mating. Kids

should also be separated from the does to avoid suckling while in the field. The goats

should be supplemented with concentrate feeds and mineral salts. The goats should be

provided with housing (night sheds) with 1m2 for each goat (for instance 10m x 3m

housing will hold 30 goats) Good goat housing should be dry, well ventilated and

provide kids, does, and bucks a healthy comfortable condition. The housing should also

provide security from predators. The intensive system is suited for areas where

browsing fields are limited. It’s suited for a small size of flock and where land is limited.

It involves confinement of the goats. The goats are stall-fed (zero-grazed) exclusively
and mating is controlled. Does, bucks and kids are housed separately. The semi

intensive system combines the intensive and extensive systems. Goats are allowed to

browse but are also stall fed to complement browsing. In addition the goats should be

supplemented with concentrates and mineral salts. Water should be availed all the time.

Mating is controlled by separating the buck and does by housing the buck and does

separately. In most cases the bucks are completely stall-fed and females on heat are

brought to the buck for mating. This is important as it helps to control the off-flavour in

milk and inbreeding. Alma L. Cosadio et al conducted an assessment of backyard goat

raising in Claveria, Misamis Oriental, Philippines. This study focused on current goat

management practices and socioeconomic aspects of the backyard goat raisers in

Claveria, Misamis Oriental. Of the total farm area, 58% of the respondents had a

pasture area of only less than 1 hectare. The most abundant grasses grown were

Napier, Carabao, Setaria, Paragrass, Cogon and Guinea grasses, while among the

leguminous forages are Flemengia, Ipil-ipil, and Madre de Cacao were popularly grown.

Based on the survey, the farmers practiced continuous grazing in which the animals

were allowed to graze on the area as long as pasture grasses and legumes could

sustain the animals. Inventory of the animals indicated that 42% of the goat raisers had

no buck for use as breeder, 46.5% had 1 to 2 dry does, 60.5% did not have pregnant

does in the herd, 65% had neither lactating does, and about 40% of the goat raisers had

not even produced kids. Thirty percent (30%) of the respondents did not know what

breed of goats they have raised, while 21% raised native goats. Some of the farmers

(7%) had upgrades, while others (16%) raised crossbreds, and still others (26%) had

75% blood purebred Anglo/Toggenburg . Thirty-five (35) percent of the goat raisers had
shed type goat houses with elevated floorings. About 28% of them tethered their goats

and another 28% constructed only the shed type housing system just enough to protect

the animals from extreme weather conditions.

Suitable goat housing or shelter is very important for goat farming business.

Because goats also need house like other domestic animals for staying at night,

security, preventing them from adverse climate, cold, sunlight etc. Some people used to

keep their goats with other domestic animals such as cow, sheep etc. Even in some

areas, people used to keep their goats under trees. But if you want to establish a

profitable commercial goat farm, then you must have to build a suitable house for your

goats. According to (BusinessDiary,Oct.24,2014) adequate housing provides conditions

for good health and comfort of animals high reproduction and more efficient

management. Housing also minimizes, if not eliminates, theft problems. Good housing

is ideally cheap, yet it can protect the animals from strong winds, draft, heavy rains, wet

grounds and attacks by predatory animals. It must also be well ventilated, well-drained

and easy to clean. Also, To keep your goats safe, you need to provide them shelter.

How elaborate your goat shelter is depends on where you live, what structures are

available, how much you can afford, and how many goats you plan to have in the

shelter (Cheryl K. Smith,2013).

Selection is an appropriate strategy for goats kept in harsh environment where

management can be improved only a little, and cross-bred goats are unlikely to perform

well. In this case, strong emphasis must be placed on selection for performance,

characteristics and characteristics of survival which indicate good adaptation. Selection

is the deliberate differential reproduction of some individuals from others. It is either

natural or artificial. In the world of animal production and improvement we are only

concerned with artificial selection. A survey was conducted by (Mohammad

Tabaa,Raed Al-Atiyat,2009) in Jordan to investigate the breeding objectives and

selection criteria adopted by breeders representing different goat breeds and to

determine the factors that affect the breeders’ decisions. The importance of breeding

objectives to farmers in Jordan was to increase goat performance by adoption of both

objective and subjective selection criteria. However, results showed that many of the

goat breeders used subjective more than objective selection criteria. Different factors of

goat selection were reviewed to ensure that the selection criteria meet the breeding

objectives of the farmers. Furthermore, the factors that foster emphasis on doe/buck

selection criterion were discussed to achieve the breeding objectives. It is essential that

extension strategies to promote use of objective goat.

The secret of successful feeding is in devising a cheap and efficient ration. While

preparing a ration for goats, factors like bulk, palatability, availability, price and

digestibility should be considered along with the nutritive quality of the feed. Abundant

clean, fresh water, changed every morning and evening should be made available to

goats at all times. Goats are sensitive animals with peculiar feeding habits. By the

means of their mobile upper lips and very prehensile tongue, goats are able to graze on

very short grass and to browse on foliage not normally eaten by other domestic

livestock. Unlike sheep, goats relish eating aromatic plants in areas of scarce food

supply and hence can penetrate deep into deserts. They are fastidious about

cleanliness and like frequent change in the feed. Feeds given must be clean and fresh,

since goats eat nothing that is dirty or foul-smelling. They dislike wet, stale or trampled
fodder. For this reason, it is advisable to feed them in hay-racks or hang the feed in

bundles from a peg in the wall or from a branch of a tree. Double-sided portable hay-

racks are the most suitable and convenient for stall feeding. It is preferable to serve

them small quantities at a time; when served in large quantities at a time, they waste a

lot of it by trampling. Goats are very fond of leguminous fodders. They do not relish

fodder like sorghum/maize silage or straw. Goats do not relish hay prepared from forest

grasses, even if cut in early stages, but very much relish hay prepared from leguminous

crops. Some of the common green roughages liked by goats are : lucerne, berseem,

napier grass, green arhar, cowpea, soyabean, cabbage and cauliflower leaves, shaftal,

senji, methi, shrubs and weeds of different kinds; and leaves of trees such as babul,

neem, ber, tamarind and pipal. The common dry fodders liked by goats are straws of

arhar, urid, mung, gram, dry leaves of trees, and lucerne/berseem hays (which are the

main forage crops for milch goats). According to (Sandra G. Sulaiman,PHD,PAS,2011)

the single most significant variable cost in any livestock operation is feed cost. It

averages 45% of the variable cost of an operation including labor costs or is about 64%

of the variable cost of an operation excluding labor. Any management practice that can

reduce feed cost will significantly improve profit. Goats should have access to or be

provided with adequate food to maintain their well-being. They are more selective

feeders than either sheep or cattle and can choose from a wider range of plants

including browse from trees and shrubs. Goats are fastidious, and will not thrive or

produce on soiled, contaminated, tainted or poor quality feed and may reject good

quality food if superimposed on leftovers. Goats should not be deprived of food for

periods longer than 24 hours. The food available to goats should meet the requirements
of maintenance, growth, pregnancy, lactation and fibre production, and any extra

demands such as exercise or cold stress. Health and productivity of goats are

maximised when goats are fed forage diets of high digestibility which enable high levels

of energy intake and contain sufficient nitrogen and trace minerals. Such diets enable

goats to grow and lactate at high levels.

Cost and Return

Profit margins in agricultural enterprises tend to be small, but it is possible to

make a profit raising goats, particularly if costs are controlled and returns from

marketing are maximized. In the goat enterprise, “profit” is expressed in many different

ways: income above variable costs, income above fixed costs, profit per head, profit per

month, profit per acre, profit from milk production, return on assets (investment), etc.

The three most important factors affecting profitability of the goat enterprise are feed

cost, percent kid crop and market prices. Producers can control feed costs by

maximizing the use of pasture and browse, producing their own harvested feeds, mixing

their own rations, shopping around for feed ingredients, buying and storing feed in bulk,

minimizing feed wastage and weighing all feed inputs. The second largest cost
associated with raising goats is veterinary care. While goat producers need to work with

a veterinarian on herd health programs, they should learn how to perform most of their

own veterinary tasks, such as castrations, disbudding, vaccinations, deworming, foot

care, injections, etc. Producers should maintain an appropriate “medicine cabinet” so

that they may treat common conditions, instead of taking the goat to a vet or calling for

a farm visit. (Mac Mendell, 2006).

In addition, Ogunfiditimi (2002) and Meretiwon (2002) remarked that education is

vital to the success of agricultural production and enhance the effectiveness of

agricultural extension agent’s work. The mean year of experience in goat farming was

16.3 years. This shows that most of the farmers were not new in the enterprise. The

estimated costs and return to goat enterprise were 244,182 and 560,000, respectively.

Cost of foundation stock accounted for half (50.8%) of the total cost while revenue from

weaned kids had the highest share (61.4%) of total revenue. The total revenue on the

average was 560,000 while the gross margin and return to management were 324,668

and 315,818, respectively. The profit margin percentage was 56.4% while the ratio of

net returns to total expenses (return per Naira invested) was 1.3. That is, every

expended returned to the enterprise and the operating expense ratio of 42 indicates that

42% of gross revenue was used to cover operating expenses, which accounted for

about 96.3% of the total costs. The benefit cost ratio and labour efficiency ratios were

2.3 and 13.7, respectively, that is, output earnings per expenditure on labour was 13.7,

meaning that labour were well managed. These ratios are indicative of the profitability of

goat enterprise in the study area.

Efficiency

The term efficiency is often used synonymously with that of productivity, the most

common measure of which relates output of some single input (Lund and Hill, 2001).

The term efficiency refers to comparison between the real or observed values of input(s)

and output(s) with the optimal values of input(s) and output(s) used in a particular

production process (Lovell, 2003). Efficiency is achieved by minimizing the resource

required for producing a given output. Moreover, according to the minimal values, two

types of efficiency can be distinguished technical efficiency and allocate

efficiency. According to Njeru (2004), technical efficiency is the ability of a farm to

maximize output for a given set of resource input while allocated (factor prize) efficiency

reflects the ability of the farm to use inputs in optimal proportions given their respective

prices and production technology. The combined effect of technical and allocated

efficiency will give us economic efficiency.

Problems and Constraints

Goat production is a profitable business but it also faced problems and

constraints, the common problems involved In goat raisng were common diseases and

health problems, shortage of grasses, human theft, high mortality rate of the kids, dogs,

poor condition and etc. In addition, O. I. Baruwa (2013) conducted a study about the

empirical analysis of cost and returns to goat production under tropical conditions. The

study also states the major constraints encountered in goat production system in the

study area. The major limiting factors encountered are shortage of capital, high mortality

rate, poor foundation stock, and low profit in order of importance. More than half

(66.7%) of the respondents complained of financial problem. The availability of

institutional credit was relatively easy for large goat farming projects, but was a major

constraint for the small entrepreneurs with projects of less than 50 goats and had limited

capital for collateral security. High mortality and poor growth in kids was a major

constraint for 40% of the farmers; respondents complained of poor access to veterinary

doctor. Mortality and morbidity losses due to diseases in goats have been a major

constraint in the traditional flocks (Kumar, 2003). Difficulty in getting good quality

breeding animals was also a major (33.3%) constraint. The best animals (particularly

males) from the traditional flocks were sold for slaughtering to traders/ butchers. That

resulted in scarcity of good quality breeding animals. The absence of organized efforts

for breed improvement of goats has been compounding this problem. Since large goat
flocks of different breeds under commercial production are only few, the entrepreneurs

had to select the breeding animals from the available traditional flocks mostly through

middlemen. Therefore it takes a long time to establish a good flock. Another major

constraint was realization of low prices (25%) for the surplus live goats. The trade of live

goats, which is unorganized and is in the hands of a large number of middlemen,

traders and butchers, does not favour goat farmers. The live goats were sold not on the

basis of their body weight in the livestock markets; this resulted in under-estimation of

the value of live animals, hence low profit.