VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES
(ABOVE NEMA) AC MOTORS FOR VARIABLE FREQUENCY APPLICATION
Stephen T. Evon - Senior Electrical Engineer
Bryan Oakes - Manager Mechanical Engineering
Abstract - Since AC motors are increasingly used in
applications traditionally served by DC motors, a comparison
of some characteristics of AC and DC motors seems
appropriate. Aspects of motor design and application will be
reviewed, including typical construction, torque production,
equivalent circuits, power and torque density ratings, speed
and load ranges.
Understanding the effects of variable frequency on the
motor's characteristics will help in the selection process of a
motor and control unit matched to the application.
Depending on the type of inverter, the input voltage and
current waveform supplied to the motor will cause some
degree of distortion from a pure sine wave. This distortion
can be mathematically expressed in terms of harmonics.
Harmonic currents create no useful torque at the motor shaft,
just additional heating in the motor.
The motor application must also be considered. Different
load types have different effects on the motor. Constant
torque, variable torque, and constant horsepower are the
three different load requirements typically considered, and
affect motor heating in different ways. While all three will
be discussed, the primary focus of this paper is on the
"constant torque" applications with PWM inverters, as
applied to process machines such as Paper Machines and
Winders.
Variable speed motor enclosure configurations - There are
two basic types of AC motors, Induction and Synchronous.
The focus in this paper is the AC induction motor. There
are two general categories of enclosures, Open and
Enclosed. Some variations of these two types are listed
below:
Open Enclosures - generally unrestricted air flow,
provides for primary heat dissipation via external air
circulation through the machine.
Open - external air circulation directly through windings.
Guarded - with mesh to keep objects over % inch out.
ODP - Open Drip Proof - protected from drops falling at
up to 15" from the vertical.
DPG - Drip Proof Guarded - ODP plus Guarded.
SPG - Splash Proof - protected from drops falling at up to
100" from the vertical.
DPG or SPG -FV / -SV - DPG or SPG Force Ventilated
(Blower Cooled) I Separately Ventilated.
0-7803-5526-1/99/$10.0001999 IEEE
94
Rockwell Automation, Greenville, SC
Rockwell Automation, Kings Mountain, NC
WPI - Weather Protected NEMA Type I - open motor
constructed to minimize the entrance of rain, snow, and
airborne particles, guarded to keep objects over 34 inch out.
WPII - Weather Protected NEMA Type TI - Weather
Proof outdoor duty - open hooded motor with both intake
passages making three turns equal to or greater than 90".
The intake and discharge ventilating passages are arranged
so that high-velocity air and air-borne particles blown into
the machine by storms or high winds can not enter the
internal ventilating passages.
Totally Enclosed - restricted air flow - no flee exchange
of air between air inside the motor and outside ambient air
TENV - Totally Enclosed Non-Ventilated - no fan, cooled
by convection and radiation only.
TEFC - Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled, Totally enclosed
with an external air circulation powered by a shaft-
mounted fan.
TETC - Totally Enclosed Tube Cooled - Totally enclosed
with internal and external shaft-mounted fans for air
movement through an air to air tube-type heat exchanger.
TEWAC - Totally Enclosed Water to Air Cooled -
Totally enclosed with internal shaft-mounted fans for air
movement through an air to water heat exchanger and
external water flowing through the heat exchanger.
TETC-BC - Totally Enclosed Tube Cooled, Blower
Cooled - TETC with internal and external air circulations
powered by separately powered blowers.
TEWAC-BC - Totally Enclosed Water to Air Cooled,
Blower Cooled - TEWAC with internal air circulation
powered by separately powered blower, external water
flowing through the heat exchanger.
TEFC-XP - Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled, Explosion
Proof - a more restrictive version of TEFC, with
restrictions on potential flame paths andlor skin
temperature, depending upon environmental requirements
- in the US, categories are Class I for gases, Class I1 for
dusts.
TEAO-BC - Totally Enclosed Air Over Blower Cooled
(with mounted blower) - basically TEFC, except with
separately powered mounted blower circulating air over
the outside of the motor. Often available in either in-line
or piggy-back blower configurations.
TESV / TEPV - Totally Enclosed Se:parately Ventilated / was usually tied to the speed. The following table shows
TE Pipe Ventilated - TEA0 with forced air from separate the relationship between the speed of an AC induction
supply circulating air through the inside of the m'otor. motor versus poles.

For variable speed motors, TEFC motors are often used in I 1 Synchronous Frequency (Hz) 1
NEMA frame sizes, and depending upon size, can yield Poles 1 50 60
from 2:l up to 1O:l Constant Torque Speed ranges with
proper fan selection. TENV (in smaller horsepower or 4 1 1500 1
intermittent duty) motors are used for wider speed range, 6 1 1000 I 1200
since these motors do not depend upon an integral fan for
cooling. For widest speed ranges, separately ventilated or
8 1 750 I
10 I 600 I 720
900
blower-cooled motors are used, since they can be cooled at
12 I 500 1
low speeds or at rest as well as at higher speeds. Due 14 I 429 I 5 14
partially to the expense of separate ventilation systems, Figure 1
blower-cooled AC motors have become more favored over
time. The equation of speed of an AC induction motor is as
follows:
Design Considerationsfor an AC Variable Speed Motor RPM (N) = 120 x f / P, where
DC motors have always been designed for specidied speed F = applied frequency in Hertz
ranges. DC motors are manufactured with a predetermined P = number of magnetic poles
number of poles. DC motor designers have always had the
ability to choose the optimal number of poleis in a DC When AC motors are designed to operate on variable
motor. Specifications never requested an %pole DC frequency power the designer usually will choose an
motor, but rather a DC motor with a specified speed range. optimal number of poles. The number of poles in a
The variable speed DC product line was optimized for variable speed AC induction motor may be different than
many different speed ranges utilizing a set inumber of those most user are accustom to. By using a set number of
poles. The following equation shows how speed is poles for a given frame size regardless of the ispeed range
proportional to number of poles in a DC motor . the manufacturing and tooling cost can be reduced, and the
performance of the motor can be optimized. For example,
DC Motor pole equation: a motor with a 900-RPM base speed could be a 4-pole
motor operated at 30 Hz.
N = (Eg x a x k) / (@ x z x P), where
The AC motor designer takes into consideration the
N = speed in RPM following when choosing the number of poles in a variable
E, = motor counter EMF speed AC motor.
a = number of armature parallel circuits,
k = constant related to units Motor Optimization:
CP = flux per pole Maximize torque density.
z = number of armature concluctors 0 Maximize power factor and efficiency.
P = number of magnetic poles 0 Maximize speed range.
Maximize overload.
Maximize reliability.
This leads to the following rough polt: selections vs torque: Minimize current.
0 2 pole - up to 60 lb-ft 0 Minimize temperature rise.
4 pole - from 50 through 8,000 11)-ft Minimize noise.
6 pole - from 2,000 through 13,000lb-ft Minimize cost.
8 pole - from 10,000 through 90,000 lb-ft Minimize vibration.

As a general rule is the optimal number of poles for a

AC Motor Selection - Basic AC Motor Equations
Historically AC induction motors were used for fixed
speed applications. When ordered, the number of poles
variable speed AC induction motor turns out to be:
0 4 poles up to approximately 1000 lb-ft
6 pole from approximately 1,000to 10,000lb-ft
8 pole above 10,000lb-ft.

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Variable Speed - Motor Operation and Speed Range
AC Induction motors can operate in a “Constant Flux” or
“Field Weakened” mode. The Constant flux mode is often
referred to as the Constant Torque range and the Field
Weakened mode as the Constant Power range. The
following equation shows the relationship between torque
and power:
Torque = Horsepower x 5252
RPM
The equation shows that if torque is held constant as speed
increases power must also increases. If power is held
constant than torque decreases proportional to speed.
Figure 2 shows the relationship between torque, power and
speed.
To better understand the operation of a variable speed
motor several terms should be defined.
Base speed - the speed point at which the motor changes
from constant torque to constant power operation. This is
normally the point at which the motor transitions from
constant volts per hertz to constant volts.
constant torque range voltage increase proportional to
frequency, flux is held constant.
Flux cc Volts/Hertz
If flux is held constant, constant torque per amp can be
achieved.
Torque cc Flux x Amps
Therefore, constant torque range is defined by:
1. Base Speed is maximum speed and is constrained
by the limitation on increasing voltage
proportionalto frequency for constant flux.
2. Minimum speed is limited by:
0 Heat transfer if motor cooling is dependent
on motor speed
Maintaining constant flux.
Constant volts per hertz is usually viewed as the ratio of
terminal voltage, V1.,/Hz. It is actually the ratio of E,,,/Hz,
where E, is the magnetizing voltage. The motor
equivalent circuit in figure 3 shows Em.

Constant torque range - the speed range that the rated

continuous torque is constant. Usually this is the operation
range below base speed where the motor flux is constant.

Constant power range - the speed range that the rated

continuous power is held constant. Usually a limited
speed range above base speed. 1
Figure 3
Overload torque - the amount of torque above rated
torque the motor can produce for a defined period of time. Therefore, to maintain a constant flux at a particular speed
Figure 2
the terminal voltage has to vary. The increased voltage is
Torque called voltage boost. The voltage boost is necessary to
Power
achieve constant amps
h a t a n t Power
Conatant
Field Weakening ’
Power / P
U) Torque
0 aJ
/‘
/-
i
Speed

Constant Torque Range

The majority of variable speed motors for process

applications such as paper machines operate in a constant Frequency
torque mode. Constant torque operation is base speed and Figure 4
below. It is possible to maintain a condition of constant
torque below base speed if flux is constant. Since in the

96
To maintain constant flux the terminal voltage would have
to follow the pattern in figure 4. The percent difference at
higher frequencies between loads is small. However, at
low frequencies only several volts may result in a large
percentage change.
,., Motor Losses
When proper voltage boost is not applied the torque/amp TEFC Thermal Capacity, /’ I

relationship becomes non-linear. Without voltage boost

the motor will not be able to maintain a constant volts/amp
ratio and may not be able to generate rated torque. Figure
5 shows the per unit relationship between of torque and
current with and without boost.
1
I I
l--.L-
Speed

L o w Frequency Figure 7
Per U n i t T o r q u e per A m p
Constant Power Range

AC induction motors are designed to operate in the linear

region of the magnetic steel. When operated in this region
the torque per amp ratio is linear. If the motor operates in
the saturated region of the steel then the torque per amp
ratio is non-linear. When operated outside the linear
range, very little flux or torque is produced as current is
0 0.5 1 1.5 increased. Figure 8 shows the linear and saturated are of
P E R UNIT C U R R E N T the steel saturation curve.
Figure 5

Motor losses in a constant torque application decrease with

speed. Motor thermal capacity also decreases with speed
when shaft mounted fans are used. The motor thermal
capacity decreases more rapidly than the motor losses as
seen in figure 6. Therefore, it is often preferable to force
vent a motor used on a constant torque application.

TEAO-BC Therrflal Capacity fi

I- - -- -
Figure 8

-I.-..-..-..- e-- The following equation shows the relationship between

current and field intensity (H):
A
Motor Loss’- I
I

i=HxVN

The curve in figure 8 shows that once the mlotor reaches

the saturation region of the curve it takes a large increase
in field intensity (H) to produce a small increase in flux
density. An increase in motor flux increases the torque
producing capability of the motor. Since: current is
Figure 6
proportional to field intensity (H) current increases at a
much greater rate in the saturated region o f the steel
Constant Torque applications using self-ventilated or shaft
saturation curve. Therefore, since drives are rated in
mounted fan cooled motors may require oversizt:d motors
current it is undesirable to operate in the saturated region
to compensate for the decrease in motor coolling at low
of the curve. This is then the reason motor designer limits
speeds. Figure 7 shows an example of how oveir sizing can
the motors constant volts per hertz range to base speed.
increase the speed range of a TEFC motor.

97
Typically in the constant power range volts are held
constant. The following equation shows that flux in the
constant power range decreases as frequency increases.
Flux K Volts / Hertz
By plotting the speed power curves it can be seen that the
power decreases inversely proportionately to the change in
speed or frequency, see figure 10. It is then clear that
eventually the motor will not be able to maintain constant
power.

The maximum torque decreases, since flux decreases:

Torque K Flux oc Amps Torque, Current Curves
1500 HP. TEFC

Constant power can then be supplied for a limited speed

range:

Power K Torque x Speed

Current in the constant power region remains constant:

Power cf Volts x Amps

The constant power speed range is limited. A review of

the motor speed torque curves for a set of frequencies and
volts show the reason for the speed limitation, see figure 9.
Figure 9 Torque vs. Speed
Since the maximum power is inversely related to the
change in speed, the rated power in the constant power
range eventually approaches breakdown. As the motor

A breakdown torque approaches rated torque the current is

no longer proportional to torque. The curve in figure 11
shows how this relationship. Therefore, the motor
designer always wants to keep breakdown torque greater
than rated torque by at least 30%.

SPEED
8 Overload Torque
I ‘\\
Overload Amps
1

cn”
The maximum torque of an AC induction motor is
proportionate to the square of the flux level. Since the flux
level in the constant power range is decreasing inversely Q
e -.A&.-.

Volts *,‘
proportionately to the speed, the breakdown torque 6
3
decreases as the square of the speed.
P
t-“ ,- -
; Rated Amps

Speed
Figure 12

Figure 12 shows that as breakdown torque approaches

SPEED rated torque that current no longer remains constant.
Figure 10 Power vs. Speed Eventually the motor will no longer produce rated power
in the constant power region.

98
Maximum Speed Limitations in Field Weakened Range:
Torque or Power Limited: Motor will not carry rated
power due to the inverse relationship between power
and speed in the constant power region.
Rotor Stresses: Maximum speed may be limited by
material fatigue stress limits in the rotor bars,
laminations or end rings.
Fans: Shaft mounted fans can limit motor speed due
to noise, fatigue stresses or fan losses.
Bearing Limit: Safe running speed for the bearings
limits the maximum speed of the motor.
Critical Speed: A proper separation, 15-20%, between
a motor shaft critical speed and the motor running
speed must be maintained. Motors can operate with
the first critical speed below maximum field
weakened speed if 1520% of the speed range on both
sides of the critical is blocked out in the running
mode.
Maximum Safe Speed: This is the maximum safe
speed the motor can run. This speed is not to be
exceeded for any time or load condition.
Wide Constant Power Speed Ranges
Many applications such as winders require wide: constant
power speed ranges. Typical applications with wide
constant power speed ranges may require a maximum
speed of 3 to 5 times base speed. Wide consstantpower
0 180 360 540 720
MOTOR SHAFT SPEED IN RPM
99
speed ranges may cause the motor size to significantly
increase if constant current is required throughout the
speed range.
Several ways to achieve wide constant power range are:
1. Increase breakdown torque at application base speed,
usually requires increased motor size.
2. Increase available torque at maximum speed by
shifting motor base speed point. Shifting the motor
base speed point, end of the constant vodt per hertz
range, can reduce the size of the motor required for
wide constant power ranges.
A motor with a "shifted" base speed means that the
application base speed and the motor base speed are no
longer the same speed. In other words the spe:ed at which
the motor changes from constant volt/Hz to constant volts
is no longer the same speed at which the application
changes for constant torque to constant power. Figure 13
shows a motor curve with the shifted base speed. Note
that since the constant volts per hertz is shifted into the
constant power range that current increase as speed drops
from the motor base speed until it reaches apphcation base
speed. The following equation shows the reason for the
current increase.
Power =Volts x Amps
900 1080 1260 1440 1620 1800
The advantages of shifting motor base speed:
1. Reduced motor size and cost, sometimes one to
two frame sizes.
2. Reduced motor inertia.
3. Increased overload capability.
The disadvantages of shifting motor base speed:
1. Increased motor current may increase drive size.
Overloads
Overloads are frequently required for variable speed
operation. Overloads are defined as momentary loads,
usually 1 minute or less, some percentage above rated
torque. Infrequent overloads below 200% of rated torque
in the constant torque range usually are standard on
variable speed large AC motors.
The following overload conditions may require design
changes including oversizing of the motor:
1. Frequently applied overloads.
2. Overloads 200% and greater in the constant
torque range.
3. Overloads in the constant power range which are
not tapered to 100% of rated torque at maximum
speed.
Since motor breakdown torque decreases proportionately
to the square of speed increase in the constant power
range, overloads at maximum speed are difficult to
produce.
Applications which require overloads in the constant
power range that are not tapered to rated torque at
maximum speed have the following effect on motor
design:
1. Require higher breakdown torque at base speed,
shifting of motor base speed or further shifting of
motor base speed.
2. May further oversize motor.
3. May increase rated current of motor.
4. May negatively impact thermal rating at base
speed.
Mechanical Design Considerations for an AC Variable
Speed Motor
AC variable speed motors are becoming increasing popular
due to advances in inverter technology that has reduced
100
cost and improved performance and reliability in AC
drives. Concerns to be addressed in the design for variable
frequency drives are the same as those for constant speed
motors with the added concern of the varying speed range.
The main areas of concern are rotating assembly stresses,
lateral critical speeds, structural resonance and bearing
limitations. This paper will provide an overview of each of
these key mechanical concerns when designing ac motors
for variable frequency drives.
Rotating Assembly Design
The primary components placing stresses on the rotating
assembly are centrifugal forces and forces due to thermal
expansion. Centrifugal force is proportional to the product
of the mass times the square of the speed.
Centrifugal Force Equation:
F = ma2,where
m = mass
r = radius
w = speed in rpm
In many variable frequency motor designs, a six-pole
design may be required to operate at a speed of 1800 rpm
instead of a four pole, in part due to better power factors,
efficiencies, and in some cases larger torque requirements.
With the six-pole motor design, the rotating assembly is
larger in diameter than a four-pole design, resulting in
higher centrifugal forces on the rotating assembly at the
maximum operating speed. The excess radial expansion
places the end ring in circumferential or hoop stress, and
the bar extension in shear with a bending moment (Fig 14).
Heat generated in the rotor by secondary 1% losses, iron
losses, and friction and windage losses results in thermal
expansion of the rotor bars and end rings. During startup
current flows through the rotor bars, and the bars expand
axially as the heat flows towards the end rings, which act
as heat sinks. At this time the rotor cage is subjected to
extremely high thermal stresses and dynamic loads. The
stress levels at the bar extension, brazed end ring to bar
joint, and shrink rings are all analyzed based on all
projected operating conditions.
Figure 14 shows the effects of centrifugal forces and
thermal expansion on a fabricated bar rotor.

--
Figure 14. Fabricated Bar Rotor Design
In a cast rotor design (Fig. 15) the rotating assemibly is one
integral unit with the cast aluminum end rings. The fact
that the aluminum cage is cast directly into the laminated
core allows the material to maintain intimate contact with
the core slot. This provides high thermal transfer of the
heat generated in the rotor bar to the rotor iron. The heat
sink effect of the rotor iron absorbs, the heat produced in
the bars faster than the bar rotor. The rotor fans, cast
integrally with the bars and end rings, provide rapid heat
dissipation to the air at the ends of the rotor. Due to the
integral cast design, the aluminum rotor does riot have the
same stress characteristics as a fabricated r o t a (Fig. 15).
The cast rotor typically will withstand higher operating
speeds than bar rotors.
Figure 15. Cast Rotor ]Design
Modifications to Minimize Stress
Varying certain rotor cage design parameters c m minimize
the stresses due to centrifugal force and thermal expansion.
Modifying the bar extension length reduces the
compression and tensile stresses in the lower and upper
edges of the bar.
I01
Modifying the slot shape and height (Fig. 16) can
redistribute the stresses and extend the rotor life. A larger
slot cross sectional area Drovides more shear area.
Figure 16. Copper Bar Shapes
Modifying the short circuit end ring shape or incorporating
shrink rings can minimize the radial expansion of the end
ring. Alloy changes are also possible to obtain higher
endurance limits.
Soft starting the motor is very beneficial to the rotating
assembly design. Since an adjustable speed drive provides
a smooth controlled acceleration, there is less stress on the
mechanical components. Soft starts allow the motor to be
started repeatedly, without the stresses of high slip and
high inrush that occur on across-the-line starts. This can
significantly improve the life of the rotor cage.
Laminations
The rotor laminations are subjected to high stresses
induced by centrifugal forces on the rotor cage (Fig. 17).
The centrifugal forces act directly on the rotor bars forcing
them against the bridge. This force places tlhe bridge in
bending and in shear at the outside edges of the slot.
-
I
Bridge I hickness
-, -Overhang
I Ceniriiuqal &e
Figure 17. Centrifugal Force on the Lamination Slot
High stresses can also cause yielding or the fracturing of
the laminations between the slots, bridge bending, etc.,
(Fig 18a and 18b).
Minimizing the stress levels prevents possible vibration
problems by a loss of the interference fit, which can create
uneven thermal expansion, imbalance, and lower critical
speeds. When lamination stresses exceed stress limits,
mechanical engineers will work with electrical engineers
to minimize the stresses. Minimizing stresses may involve
a new slot design, changing the number of bars, modifying
the bridge thickness, etc.
I The speeds at which the bearing reaches this temperature
Figures 18.a. and 18.b. Lamination Stresses
Rotor Fan Design
The rotor fans must withstand the stresses due to
centrifugal forces. A review of the fan design involves an
analysis of the fan stresses on the blades and backplate to
resist overstressing due to bending and shear from
overspeeding. Optimizing the fan design may require a
material change, fan construction (cast vs. fabricated),
blade shape and direction. Fan blade resonant frequencies
must also be considered along with the normal airflow
design criteria. In many variable frequency drive motors
auxiliary blower motors are utilized to provide the
102
necessary airflow to keep the motor within temperature
rise limitations.
Shaft Design
Motors applied to VFDs with low base speeds will produce
higher torque levels than standard ac motors. The shaft
extension is typically the smallest diameter on the motor
shaft, making it the limiting factor in transmitting torque.
Transient forces such as shock forces result in repetitive
vibrations. At the instant of starting from rest, a motor may
develop a momentary torque 2 to 3 times greater than at
full power and speed. Include transients into the equation
with the normal bending and shear forces and the overall
stresses on the shaft can exceed acceptable levels. Options
for handling high torque applications include increasing
the shaft extension diameter or changing the shaft material.
The bearing type and size limits the shaft extension size.
For example, a motor specifying ball bearings must have a
shaft extension small enough for the bearing to be
installed. Torque pulsations generated by the ASD are
another concern. The pulsating torque generates a varying
stress in the shaft extension, which necessitates a lower
stress riser in the keyway. This is accomplished by
increasing the keyway radius or eliminating the keyway
completely.
Anti-Friction Bearing Design
Anti-friction bearing speed limitations are based on
conditions under which the bearings are of standard
design, with no external heating, and operating under
normal load conditions. The limiting speed is the
maximum speed the bearings can operate without failing
or generating excess heat. The maximum allowable speed
of a bearing is generally limited by operating temperature.
depends on the frictional heat generated, externally applied
heat, and the amount of heat that can be dissipated from
the bearing. Other factors determining bearing limitations
include the load, lubrication, internal clearance, cooling
conditions, and cage design.
Bearing Size /Speed
Higher operating speeds result in higher bearing
temperatures. The bearing maximum operating speed may
have to be decreased to keep the bearing operating
temperature within acceptable levels. Limitations on
rolling element-bearing speeds are tolerance grade,
lubrication, cage design, and sealing. Manufacturers offer
a guide for maximum safe operating speeds. The speed
value (DN) for inner ring rotation is the product of bearing
bore in mm and shaft speed in rpm.
For a 6217 bearing:
Bore size is 85 mm
Single row - Conrad type I Pressed steel cage
Speed 4000 rpm I Grease Lubrication
DN Value = (85)(4000) = 340,000
contact surfaces results in a reduction of the: fatigue life.
Fatigue life is reduced due to direct metallic contact
between the bearing rings, rolling elements, and cage.
Operating at overspeed conditions or higher operating
temperatures reduces the number of operating hours for the
relubrication schedule (Fig. 19).

According to bearing manufacturers the maximum safe

speed of a bearing should not exceed a DN value of
300,000 and when speeds are 70% of the listed limiting
speed, it is necessary to select a grease or oil which has
good high speed characteristics.

At an overspeed condition a bearing begins to suffer from

any number of problems: excess friction and heat, cage
stress, element and race stresses, fatigue, distortion, etc.
The additional heat from the motor will lower the
maximum speed, particularly on totally enclosed motors.
Oil mist lubrication may be required in high-speed
applications. Special bearing fans 01'blower motors will be
required for very slow speeds and possibly at lhigh speeds.
This may limit the wider speed range applications.

Temperature
Bearing temperature is generally the limiting factor in
establishing limitations on the bearing operating speed.
The motor enclosure also contributes to the bearing speed
limitation, since more of the heat transmits through the
shaft on enclosed motors than open mot'ors. Higher
ambient requirements and high altitude requireiments also
place more restrictions on the be,aring speed. For high
temperature environments, bearing manufacturers offer
higher heat stabilized bearings with larger internal
clearances. High temperature environments can be dealt
with in the design stage, by optimiziing the motor design to
minimize the heat being generated within th,e motor by
adding blower motors, air scoops, special fans, or
increasing the frame size.
Lubrication
The operating temperature of the motor also1 (affects the
bearing lubrication. An increase in bearing temperature
results in the viscosity of the lubricant being reduced and
lubricant film formation is made more difficult, leading to
higher friction and further temperature rise. Motor heat
transfers through the shaft into the bearing, which also
leads to a reduced speed rating. A reduced film thickness
affects dynamics and stiffness, potentially leading to
excess vibration. A reduced film tlhickness at the rolling
Figure 19. Grease Replacement and Bearing Speed
Options include:
1. High temperature greases that operate at higher
temperatures without generating additional heat.
2. Oil mist lubrication provides a continuous fresh
supply of cool oil vapor to the bearing.
Cage Design /Internal Clearance
The internal clearance of a bearing is the total clearance
between the rings and rolling elements. The radial and
axial internal clearance of a bearing affects the temperature
and fatigue life. The clearances between the rings and balls
absorb the effects of press fitting. They also compensate
for thermal expansion of the bearing, shaft, and housing.
Excessive heat results in thermal expansion of the shaft,
housing, or bearing, or any combination of these. Thermal
expansion reduces the clearance between tlhe shaft and
bearing, further increasing operating temperature. When a
large bearing temperature rise is expected, a bearing with a
greater internal clearance may be required to prevent
losing the entire operating clearance, which can lead to
bearing failure.

103
Shaft axial thermal growth is taken into consideration by
having one bearing locked and having the other bearing
free to float (Fig. 20). As the shaft expands axially, one
bearing is free to move in the housing. The housing design
allows for some expansion. Heat transmitting through the
shaft to the bearing reduces the free clearance in the
bearing housing. Excessive heating will cause both
bearings to lock, placing a thrust load on the bearings and
leading to failure.
Figure 20. Anti-Friction Bearing Layout
Load
Limiting speed is directly affected by the magnitude of the
applied load (Fig. 21). Heavy loads result in a decreased
speed capability as well as bearing life. Applying heavier
loads to a bearing increases friction in the bearing.
Increased friction prevents the bearing from being operated
at higher speeds, as the rolling element bearing speed
ratings would indicate unless higher temperatures are
permitted.
Figure 21. Speed Corrections for Load
104
Lightly loaded bearings are also a problem. Bearings
lightly loaded are subject to skidding, which generates heat
and wear. This is primarily a concern on high torque
applications requiring large shaft extensions and large
bearings. Larger bearings require additional loading for
proper operation.
Sleeve Bearings
Like anti-friction bearings, sleeve bearings also have
limitations on speed, size, lubrication and temperature.
Sleeve bearings when maintained properly will have an
infinite life, as long as no oil breakdown occurs. In sleeve
bearing operation an oil film develops as speed increases,
the oil film lifts the shaft within the bearing clearance (Fig.
22).
There is some initial contact between the shaft and bearing
at startup, so frequent stops and starts will reduce bearing
life
Ar*k OILLEVEL
I
OILFILM
I
Figure 22. Sleeve Bearing Oil Wedge Formation
Sleeve Bearing Load Capability
An increase in load decreases the oil film thickness and
increases heat generation. The shearing action of a thinner
oil film increases the temperature and lowers the oil
viscosity. Lowering the viscosity affects the temperature
and the dynamics of the rotating system.
The main drawback of sleeve bearings is an inability to
carry heavy loads at low speeds. When speeds are too low
or loads are too high, the oil film does not form correctly.
The oil film breaks down because the pressure of the oil
film cannot prevent bearing to shaft contact. Contact
results in bearing wear that directly corresponds to bearing
life.
Sleeve Bearing Speed Limitations Bearing Clearance

The minimum speed for sleeve bearings is based on the
load, speed, and bearing design. 'When there is not
sufficient oil flow into the bearing to maintain proper oil
film thickness, the bearing and shaft surfaces contact,
leading to premature bearing failure. The maximum
permissible speed is a function of lubrication, temperature,
alignment, shaft surface finish, hardness and oil ring
delivery rates. The sleeve bearing liner is capable of
handling temperatures up to 100°C, temperatures above
this level exceeds the yield point of the bearing liner
material.
Oil Ring Design
Another factor to consider is the oil ring design. The oil
ring hangs over the shaft journal, with the lower half
dropping into the oil reservoir. As the shaft rotates, the
ring rotates and lifts oil to the top of the bearing. At high
speeds, the oil ring design is less effective because
centrifugal force and air currents generated by the spinning
shaft throws oil from the rings meaning less oil lubricates
the bearing (Fig. 23). At low speeds the oil ring will not
sufficiently lubricate the bearing leading to bearing failure.
Changing the oil ring size, shape, material, cor adding
grooves can increase the oil flow in the bearing.
In sleeve bearings the clearance between the journal and
shaft depends on the bearing bore diameter, surface finish,
and thermal growth. The typical rule for clearance is for
every inch of shaft diameter add one mil of clearance
between the shaft and bearing. When a clearance is too
large, the load-carrying capability is reduced and affects
the bearing stiffness as well. The bearing clearance
changes as the bearing liner temperature changes. As the
temperature increases the clearance for the oil film is
reduced. When the clearance is dramatically reduced, the
bearing overheats, resulting in a loss of clearance and then
failure occurs. As the oil film gets thinner two additional
properties of the system change. The bearing stiffness and
damping characteristics change. These changes will affect
the overall operation of the motor concerning system
resonance.
Resonant Frequencies
Structural, lateral, and torsional natural frequencies are a
real concern for motors that operate on variable frequency
drives. A natural frequency is a frequency at which the
greatest amplification of vibration occurs. A resonance
occurs when a natural frequency is excited by a forcing
function, such as imbalance. A lateral critical speed is the
natural resonant frequency of the rotor and support
systems. A torsional critical speed is a shaft natural
frequency involving a continuous twisting motion of the
shaft.

Structural Resonance
Linear Magnitude
I l l
0 0035

0 0030

0 0025

0 0020

P 00015

00010

0 0005

0 DODO
Figure 23. Oil Ring Delivery Rate -0 0005

-000l0
0 40 80 120 180 200 240 280 320 380 400
Flood lubrication, hydrostatic bearings, or anti-friction H7

bearings are options to use when speed or load ]..imitations

Figure 24. Structural Resonance
are a problem.
A structural resonance is the excitation of a static natural
frequency of a structure (Fig. 24). This can be thought of
as a tuning fork: The note or pitch the tuning fork

105
resonates at is its natural frequency. The excitation is the
energy imparted when the fork is struck. The fork then
continues in free vibration. If the fork were to be
continually struck at a rate that coincides with its natural
frequency, the tune would be constant. All structures have
natural frequencies. A structure is the combination of
components in the system. This is not a problem unless
there is an excitation force that coincides with one or more
of the natural frequencies. If this happens, the vibrations
become amplified, usually to damaging levels.
The mass of the rotor and the stiffness of the shaft and
support system determine the natural frequency. The
support system includes the foundation, bearings and oil
film (Fig. 26). The oil film usually has the dominant effect
on support stiffness. The rotor can be represented as a
mass supported by springs at each end.
The natural frequency of the can then be determined from
the following equation:

Forcing functions, which are to be avoided, include:

Running Speed and Twice Running Speed NaturalFrequency =

0 Line Frequency and Twice Line Frequency

0 Driven Equipment Frequencies
0 Drives Harmonic Frequencies

The motor and support structures have static natural

frequencies, which may be excited by rotational or
harmonic forces generated within the operating speed
range. Like lateral resonance, structural resonance should
be at least 15% removed from any forcing frequency.
Special considerations may include base niodifications,
motor frame changes and oversized motors.

Lateral Rotor Critical Speed

The lateral critical speed is the rotational natural frequency
of the rotor I shaft assembly. All rotating assemblies have a
lateral critical speed (Fig. 25). This is not a problem unless
the critical speed coincides with an excitation force.

Figure 26. Undamped Critical Speed Map

Motor design variables that affect stiffness:

1. Bearing Oil Film

2. Bearing Housing
I 3. Bearing Span
Figure 25. Bode Plot
4. Rotor to Shaft Interference Fit
Forcing functions, which are to be avoided, include the
Motor design variables that affect mass:
following:
1. Rotor Core Length
2. Bearingspan
0 Running speed and 2x running speed
Line Frequency and 2x Line Frequency A rotor system has several natural frequencies which are
0 Driven Equipment Frequencies referred to as the first critical, second critical, etc. In most
Drives Harmonic Frequencies applications only the first two critical speeds are of

106
concern. A motor should not be operated within minimum
of 2 15% of a critical speed to avoid amplification of the Torsional Critical Speed
motor vibration. Operating at a speed that approaches a
critical speed will cause damaging vibration levels, which
The torsional critical speed is the shaft natural frequency in
may result in bearing failure. Special consideration may
a continuous oscillatory angular (twisting) motion. The
include base designs with minimum stiffness, a lockout of
normal torsional excitation frequencies are lx mechanical
certain speed ranges, using anti-friction bearings or
and electrical and multiples of 6x running speed (Fig. 29).
reducing maximum speeds
Strong torsional vibration forces can impose severe cyclic
stresses on a drivetrain, resulting in fatigue failure. When
The location of a critical speed determines if the motor has
operating on a variable speed drive, the system’s torsional
a rigid shaft or one that is flexible. A motor operating
critical speed must be kept away from the excitation
below the first lateral critical speed is called a rigid shaft
forcing frequencies throughout the entire speed range.
design (Fig. 27). A motor with a flexible shaft operates
above the first lateral critical speed (Fig. 28). When a
Special considerations may include changing coupling
motor goes through a critical speed, it changes mode
mass and stiffness, special shaft diameters, or wing a cast
shape.
aluminum rotor. A complete drive train system analysis
must be performed to assure a torsional resonance will not
1-3-

h
1- r. ... .+

1
- --
’Y
I <
be excited.

._.,....................... .................................
I ~~\
1 :
...................... +. ?

s
i-
-c

1
1 1
I
I
I
I
,
1
I
I
1
I

1 I ,

1- - 2-
SPEED 1_-*
s-
--
I-

igures 27. Bode Plot Showing a Rigid Shaft Design

An example of this may be where a customer orders an

EA9500 frame motor with an operating speed range of
1800 rpm to 3600 rpm. Assuming a critical speed location
of 2700 rpm, operation within the speed range 2300 rpm - Figure 29 Tormn.11 Map
3100-rpm would not be recommended due to the location
of the critical speed.

Figure 28. Bode Plot Showing a Flexible Shaft

107
References

1. SKF, General Bearing Catalog, Cat. No. 4000 US,

1991
2. Howard E. Jordan, Energy Efficient Electric
Motors and Their Applications, Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company, New York, N.Y., 1983
3. NSK, Bearing Design and Selection, Cat. No.
A2116,1988
4. Phil Hayes, Barry Wood, Dennis G. Horn,
“Mechanical Design of Induction Motors Applied
on Adjustable Speed Drives”, in IEEE Petroleum
and Chemical Industrv Conference
5. Richard C. Elwell, E.R. Booser, “Lubricating
Journal Bearings with Oil Rings”, in Machine
Design, December 1989
6. Mark Corbo, Stan Malanoski “Tuning Out
Torsional Vibration”, in Machine Design,
February, 1997
7. Michael J. Melfi, “Optimum Pole Configuration of
AC Induction Motors used on Adjustable
Frequency Power Supplies”, IEEE Petroleum &
Chemical Industry Conference, 1995, pp. 237-242.
8. Machinery Diagnostics Reference Book, Bently
Nevada, 1992

108