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Concrete industrial ground floors
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ICE design and practice guide
Concrete industrial
ground floors
Second edition
Frank R. Neal CEng BSc MSc DIC MIStructE FICE

Frank Neal Engineers
Published by Thomas Telford Publishing, Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay,
London E14 4JD
URL: http://www.thomastelford.com
Distributors for Thomas Telford books are

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First published 1996

Second edition 2002
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 0 7277 3137 8
# Institution of Civil Engineers, 1996, 2002
All rights, including translation, reserved. Except as permitted by the Copyright,

Designs and Patents Act 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Publishing
Director, Thomas Telford Publishing, Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay, London
E14 4JD.
This book is published on the understanding that the authors are solely responsible for
the statements made and opinions expressed in it and that its publication does not
necessarily imply that such statements and/or opinions are or reflect the views or
opinions of the publishers. While every effort has been made to ensure that the
statements made and the opinions expressed in this publication provide a safe and
accurate guide, no liability or responsibility can be accepted in this respect by the
authors or publishers.
Produced by Gray Publishing, Tunbridge Wells, Kent

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Hobbs the Printers, Hampshire
Contents
Acknowledgements vii
1. Introduction 1
2. Recent history 3
3. Selecting a design solution: the design criteria and options 6
Structural design options 6
4. Design criteria consideration 8
Ground conditions 8
Performance requirements 9
Loadings 15
Robustness 17
Flatness and levelness 17
5. Selecting a construction methodology 21
Methodology 21
Options of methodology 22
Summary 23
6. The design principles of high-quality concrete floor
construction 24
The large-pour weldmesh models 25
The traditional model: stress regimes and structural model 27
The large-pour steel fibre hybrid model 27
The steel fibre jointless model 28
Steel fibre pile-supported model: jointless 29
7. Robustness of floors 31
Shortcomings 31
Defects 32
Conclusion 38
8. Desktop analysis 40
Examples 41
9. Planning and managing the project 46
Preparation 46
Execution 47
Post-execution 48
The conduct and interpretation of flatness surveys 48
Interpretation of flatness survey results 50
10. Materials and construction details 51
Subbase 51
Slip membrane 52
Concrete quality and admixtures 52
Joints 53
Monolithic finishes 55
Weldmesh reinforcement 56
Fibres 57
Pre-stressing 58
Appendix 59
Internal stress: Westergaard’s equation 59
Edge stress: Kelley’s equation 59
Corner stress: Pickett’s equation 60
Meyerhof formulae for the collapse load of concrete
ground supported slabs 60
Base plates and contact areas 60
Concrete flexural stress 61
Load transfer 61
References 62
vi
Acknowledgements
This guide has been prepared by Frank Neal of Frank Neal Engineers, under the
instruction of the Institution of Civil Engineers. The writing of the first edition of this
work was supported by the Association of Concrete Industrial Flooring Contractors
(ACIFC), whose members have supplied photographs used in the guide. Further
photographs for this second edition were supplied by Bob Bynt of Snowden Floors. The
author expresses his thanks to the British Cement Association for permission to
include drafts from their publications.
vii
1. Introduction
It is some six years since the first publication of this Design and Practice Guide, and in
the intervening period there have been a number of market developments. Clients,
end-users and operators are still as demanding and, if anything, now have even higher
expectations of floor quality. There is strong pressure for urban regeneration with the
development of more ‘brownfield’ sites, requiring the need for solutions offering
the same operational exigencies with more complex support conditions. There is also
more use of the ‘design and build’ route, with flooring contractors providing pack-
age solutions to projects. This latter development has been fuelled to a large extent by
the promotional efforts of a number of suppliers of steel fibres. The diversity of design
approaches used by these fibre suppliers, and the lack of an industry standard, has
created a fraught environment for engineers responsible to their clients for a satis-
factory solution yet often foisted with the ‘cheapest’ market option based on a strange
or unfamiliar design concept.
Clients’ increased expectations from floors was mainly created by the transition to
‘large pour’ floors, manually laid, during the late 1980s and mid-1990s. The undoubted
high quality and consistency of these ground-bearing floors was in large part due to
their construction logistics, which conformed rigidly to a tried and tested formula of
measures.
The new materials (steel fibres, steel permanent forms, etc.), their alternative design
packages and the demands of brownfield and difficult sites has created a new gener-
ation of floors. This expansion of market products has been a qualified benefit to industry.
Failure to publicize the fact that many of these new approaches and details, while
solving certain issues, are not necessarily compatible with some of the client’s expect-
ations and operational requirements has led to disappointment, dispute and criticism.
This update of the 1996 guide takes an engineer’s critical look at the design solutions
and details available in the marketplace, and evaluates their suitability for a range of
applications. Every project is different; there are certainly aspects of floors where
similarities existand these can be identified and classified to ensure that all parties
have a common understandingand benchmark data with which to work and com-
municate. Earlier publications have promoted such concepts as ‘Load Classes’ and
‘Flatness Properties’ to ensure that client operational concerns are readily addressed by
the design and construction team. This update also introduces a new concept of
‘Robustness’ to guide the engineer through the market options, which may or may not
be appropriate to meet the particular working and wearing demands on the operational
floor of any industrial project.
This guide is not an encyclopaedia, nor is it intended to transform the reader into an
expert on the subject. It is recognized that areas of considerable expertise exist in, for
example, mix design and power trowelling, and this guide is compiled to enable the
reader to acquire a working knowledge of the subject and be able to co-ordinate the
expertise of such specialities for the benefit of the project.
It is all too easy, under the pressure of marketing of specialist products, systems and
accessories, for the engineer to lose sight of the objectives that are critical to the evo-
lution of a suitable design for a particular development. It is perhaps useful, therefore,
to restate this objective:
To construct in an incomplete building a load-bearing medium having a smooth,
durable surface (free of random cracks) suitable for a working life of, say, 20 years.
This objective emphasizes the fact that there are a number of diverse factors that must
be considered for this particular building element. The consideration, weighting and
interfacing of these factors are critical issues. To this end, the guide is structured in the
following way.
Section 2 provides a recent history of the industry, which will help to explain the
preconceptions and reservations that exist with many end-users and need to be
overcome by the modern engineer.
Section 3 describes, in broad terms, the range of design criteria and construction
options available.
Section 4 provides an in-depth understanding of the five design criteria.
Section 5 provides a basis for selecting the appropriate construction methodology.
Section 6 gives a detailed description of the design principles of the common types
of floor construction.
Section 7 considers the new concept of ‘Robustness’. This is a critical issue,
particularly in floors where failure is often a matter of use and abuse. Accordingly,
the detailing of the floor is important. This section thus identifies the shortcomings
and defects that are commonly experienced and describes how they can be avoided
or eliminated by careful and detailed design.
Section 8 describes the desktop analysis process for a variety of floor designs.
Section 9 considers the influence of project management issues.
Section 10 provides useful information on the materials employed in floor
construction.
2. Recent history
The ‘concrete ground slab’ has existed as a basic constituent of commercial building for
some time, but it is only comparatively recently that its dual role as a load-distributing
medium and a heavy-duty close tolerance working surface has concentrated attention
on its critical contribution to the success of modern commercial facilities. To fully
appreciate the logic and philosophy behind the design and construction principles now
applied, it is useful to examine its recent history.
In its earliest existence, the concrete floor was a relatively inexpensive way of provid-
ing a heavy-duty working platform inside a workshop, factory, covered yard or storage
building. Laid in small bays, of typically 20 ft by 15 ft, between forms to accommodate
the limited supply rate of the available mixers, adjacent bays were either dowelled or
linked with formed joggle joints. Finishing by power floating and trowelling gave a
surface quality adequate for the user requirements of the time.
As the advent of ready-mixed plants allowed greater volumes of concrete to be laid

in one shift, and delivered and directly discharged into place, long-bay construction
was developed. The shortcomings of the plastic material, when laid ‘wet’ and allowed
to cure with only hessian protection, underlined the need to provide mesh
reinforcement and to sawcut the slab at regular intervals if the surface was to be
relatively free of drying shrinkage cracks. To accord with available mesh sheets, long
bays were 15 ft or 4.5 m wide with typical lengths of 60–80 ft. Long-bay construction
Wearing surface
Mesh reinforcement
Slip membrane/methane barrier
Subbase
Subgrade
Figure 1 Typical slab

construction.
incorporated the linking arrangementi.e. dowels or jogglesof the earlier small-bay

method, but gradually the joggle joint disappeared. This, then, was the standard form
of construction from the 1960s through to the early 1980s. The application of
techniques such as pre-stressing, and the use of long vibrating beams to produce wider
bay widths, extended this long-bay principle.
Just as computer technology has brought about fundamental changes in business and
everyday life, similar technological developments have affected the performance now
demanded from concrete ground floors. The user demands intensified, as industrial
racking structures that were served by very narrow aisle (VNA), hard-wheeled trucks
introduced high-point loading and a requirement for a particularly flat surface if speed
of movement was to be achieved. This issue of flatness attracted some detailed investi-
gation in the late 1970s and led to the production of so-called ‘Superflat’ floors, with
finely adjustable side forms and narrow bays to achieve the tolerances specified. The
issue of flatness was revisited in the UK in 1982 by the Concrete Society, and a
practical user-oriented regime of tolerances was developed with the materials-handling
and storage industry.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the concept of ‘large pour’ was introduced to the
UK. This involves the laying of ‘self-levelling’ or ‘flowing’ concrete using super-
plasticizer additives with no side forms, and surface levels monitored by laser. Sizes of
pours are only controlled by the volume of concrete that can be supplied, placed and
finished in one day’s operation. Since slab thicknesses may vary from 150 to 350 mm,
the area of pours may be anything from 1500 to 4000 m2. These slabs contained a light
reinforcement and were often finished with a ‘surface shake’ of mineral aggregates to
provide a more durable and attractive wearing surface.
The large-bay concept was subsequently translated into a mechanized process whereby,
with Laserscreed (Figures 2–4) the concrete was laid and levelled with a minimal
concrete gang. Just as with the manual large-bay pour, these floors are also sawcut into
appropriate squares or rectangles.
Figure 2 Laserscreed
working alongside the direct
discharging ready-mixed
concrete.
Recent history
Figure 3 The Laserscreed

head distributes, consolidates
and pulls off the surface to a
fine tolerance.
Figure 4 Laserscreed and

topping machine acting in
tandem.
In the last decade there has been considerable promotion of the steel fibre reinforced
floor. Initially these were projected as similar to the mesh reinforced floor with the
mesh replaced by steel fibres, but these floors are increasingly being promoted as
jointless, without sawcut joints and frequently as slabs spanning over a grid of piles for
sites with weak superficial subgrades.
3. Selecting a design
solution: the design criteria
and options
Having regard to the basic functions of an industrial ground floor slabi.e. a load-
distributing medium and a working, wearing surfacetwo fundamental sets of criteria
determine the selection of an appropriate design solution:
ground conditions;
performance requirements.
These criteria are very closely interrelated: for example, a particular design, say,
ground-bearing large pour, may be appropriate where the applied loading is light, but
unsuitable if the equivalent distributed loading causes excessive settlement in the
subgrade, thus requiring perhaps a pile-supported design.
Therefore, while the ground-bearing large-pour solution is no doubt the most common,
it would be unwise to regard this as the optimum solution for every development.
There are a range of construction options, any one of which may be appropriate
according to the specific project conditions of ground and operation served. These are
briefly described below.
Structural design Pile-supported base slab with separate non-bonded wearing slab. This solution is typically
options used in cold stores where the two slabs are separated by insulation. It would be a viable
solution where loads are very heavy, and a close tolerance, heavy-duty trafficked floor
is required. The base slab could be a rebar reinforced flat slab, or of beam and slab
construction.
Pile-supported large pour. This solution would achieve the benefits of large-pour
construction i.e. speed, smoothness and consistency of surface in a single operation.
The flat-slab method lends itself to steel fibre reinforcement since this eliminates the
placing of rebar or mesh. However, any such continuous or jointless systemi.e.
without shrinkage stress release jointsruns the risk of cracks appearing in the top
surface under restrained shrinkage and load stresses. Furthermore, since movement
joints are necessary at 50–60-m centres to accommodate drying shrinkage and thermal
movements, these are likely to open quite widely. An alternative is to use ground
Selecting a design solution: the design criteria and options
beams spanning between piles with a weldmesh reinforced and spanning large pour.
This method can be detailed with close-centred stress relief joints.
Ground bearing. If the subgrade is adequate or can be improved by vibro or other

consolidation techniques then large-pour weldmesh or steel fibre reinforced material
can be used.
There are further variants to the basic ground-bearing method, including:

post-tensioned;
long bay or wide bay.
All these solutions have their particular attributes and disadvantages according to
the demands of the basic project criteria of ground conditions and performance
requirements. It is the engineer’s task, hopefully aided by this guidance note, to select
the best combination of design and construction method that will, at optimum cost,
fulfil the client’s needs.
4. Design criteria
consideration
Ground conditions It is beyond the scope of this publication to provide advice to the engineer on the
consideration of the geotechnical constraints of building. There are, nevertheless, a
number of issues that are particular to industrial ground slabs, and to this effect a brief
discussion on these matters is given below.
The majority of industrial ground slabs are ground bearing. Where the subgrade is
weak or inconsistent, ground treatment may be considered to improve its
propertiese.g. vibrocompaction, stone columns, pre-loading (surcharge), dynamic
compaction, etc. However, in certain circumstances this will not be practical and a
pile-supported design will be necessary.
Site investigation information is necessary to enable these strategic decisions to be

made and to generate parameters that will facilitate the structural design of the slab.
The investigation should be organized in such a manner that useful data of the upper
as well as the lower strata of the formation are provided. Settlement of a subgrade
under imposed loading, and variation in its moisture content due to ‘hard surfacing’ of
the site, may cause serious problems. Soils that are likely to consolidate can readily be
identified from plasticity index laboratory tests.
For the structural design of the slab some measure of the elastic response of the
subgrade is essential. For this purpose the standard design approaches employ the
modulus of subgrade reaction, K. While this is commonly converted to an equivalent
CBR value, CBR tests are not recommended as suitable guides in the determination of
K values. In-situ CBR tests have been found to give widely varying results, and
laboratory CBR tests on soil samples tend to be unrepresentative of the actual site
conditions. As most slab designs are not particularly sensitive to variations in K, an
accurate value is not essential. An adequate estimate of K can be achieved from site
descriptions for sands and gravels and from plasticity indices for clay materials. For a
more accurate figure, if needed, or control of a prepared subgrade, site plate bearing
tests are to be recommended. The results from plate tests can be readily related to K
values (see reference [1]).
While such estimates of the modulus of subgrade reaction are suitable for evaluating
the levels of flexural stress in the concrete slab, the use of such figures to provide
realistic estimates of the deformation of a slab/subgrade under an applied loading will
Design criteria consideration
yield unreliable results. For a more realistic analysis of such performance, finite (or
boundary) element techniques requiring increased computational support will more
closely model the ground as a continuum and thus assist in identifying the ground–slab
interaction behaviour.
For weak sites that can be improved by ground treatment, the specialist contractor will
need to know the superimposed loading envisaged to enable the centres of pressure
points in the ground treatment system to be determined. Stone columns provide a grid
which effectively reinforces the weak surface materials, and while they do give ‘hard
spots’ in the subgrade, the application of a compacted blanket of some 500 mm
thickness of well-graded granular material is found to develop a bridging effect which
allows the structural design of the slab to follow the normal ground-bearing approach.
Plate-bearing tests may be used to obtain a K value for this design or, conservatively, a
lower bound of 13 MN/m3 may confidently be used.
Performance There are three elements to this issue of ‘performance requirements’, namely:
requirements
operationalthe particular demands of the operation served;
loadings;
robustness.
It will have been seen from the ‘Recent history’ section that the developments and
demands of the logistics industry forced attention to detail on the concrete ground slab
industry. For the modern ground slab such issues as type of use, the corresponding
nature and extent of loadings, and acceptable surface tolerances, are critical to the
design, specification and construction-monitoring responsibilities of the engineer.
Accordingly a working understanding of the operations of a modern industrial facility
is essential to provide a flooring solution that is ‘fit for its prescribed purpose’.
Clearly the use to which industry puts its building stock is very varied. The ground
floor slab is the basic platform for sustaining the operations, equipment and plant, and
serves the activities of the housed business. While many activities require limited
headroom and involve comparatively lightweight trucks and unit loads, the available
headroom may be utilized to accommodate raised floors for duplicating the operation
or providing offices. Raised floors are common elements in the equipping of industrial
facilities and the ground slab needs to be designed for the loads imposed by their base
plates. Like all other equipment the form of these raised floors can be changed during
the life of a building to reflect the needs of its user.
Many buildings are used to provide storage and distribution facilities. The
development of storage systems and the mechanical devices to service them have
provided industry with a broad range of solutions to its materials-handling and storage
demands. The basic method of storing goods is directly on the floor, in layers, but such
block-stacking is only suitable for certain products and to a limited height. Pallets and
pallet-racking facilitate the use of available headroom and provide the means of access
to all stored product, but its efficiency in terms of exploiting the volume of a building is
largely determined by the operating constraints of the trucks used to load and unload
the rack. The basic workhorse of industrial facilities is the counterbalance truck
(Figure 5), which commonly has large rubber tyres and is capable of both unloading a
vehicle in a yard and placing pallets into a rack. To perform this latter task, the
counterbalance truck, which carries the load in front of its body and wheelbase, needs
to address the rack from the front. This involves turning at right angles within the
Figure 5 Counterbalance
trucksthe basic workhouse
of industrial facilities.
aisle which, given the length of the truck and load, requires wide aisles. Furthermore,
by manoeuvring in this way, the rubber tyres soon give a marked and dirty surface to
the floor.
Reach trucks, which carry the load within the wheelbase and project their forks
beyond the front wheels when loading into the rack, are thus shorter in overall length
and require slightly narrower aisles. They are widely used for loading and unloading
racks and for moving goods generally within the building. The aisle widths for these
trucks should enable them to pass side by side. Reach trucks (Figure 6), used only for
internal operations, have hard polyurethane wheels, as do most other wheeled goods-
moving equipment. These wheels are small, very durable and do not leave marks, but
they do subject the surface to high bearing and impact stresses and rapidly exploit
every potential weakness in the concrete floor surface, whether it be one easily
delaminated or a surface crack which, under repeated trafficking, deteriorates into a
crevice of significant width and depth. Likewise, where the concrete surface compos-
ition is weak, such stresses will cause surface wear and dusting.
For greater maximization of storage volume, a reduction in aisle space is essential. The
VNA (very narrow aisle) truck represents the optimum in terms of a floor-running
truck which occupies the minimum of aisle spacethe aisle width being only
marginally wider than the widest part of the truck. The VNA truck (Figure 7) has a
mast, which can rotate the unit load through 90 in either direction within the aisle,
thus eliminating the need for the truck to turn to address the rack face.
VNA trucks have relatively small diameter wheels of hard composition material, with
the load wheels on either side of the vehicle and the drive wheel (single or double) in
the middle of the track. Working within a confined aisle these vehicles are kept on line
either by a wire guidance system cut into the floor on the aisle centreline or by steel
10
Figure 6 Reach trucks carry

the load within the wheelbase.
angle guide rails bolted to the floor on each side of the aisle. The significance of these
guide rails can be critical to the storage design of the slab. One truck may serve several
rows of back-to-back or double entry racking, by changing aisles, and lead-ins to the
guide rails assist the truck in this manoeuvre.
With some truck designs the driver’s cab rises with the load to facilitate control over
loading and allow picking of cases of goods from the upper levels. Given that only one
truck can operate in any one aisle, speed of goods handling is critical to the operating
11
speed of the facility, and to this effect the load is raised and lowered while the truck is
travelling in the aisle.
The unique operational characteristics of the VNA truck introduce a new dimension
into the requirements for floor slabs. Counterbalance and reach trucks, and the other
basic powered and hand-pulled pallet trucks and trolleys, require simply a smooth,
durable floor surface. The VNA truck with its minimal rack clearances, narrow wheel
track width, heavy mast with a high centre of gravity and elevating load and driver,
demands additionally a floor that will not cause the truck to lean excessively or, worse,
to sway violently in transit within the aisle. With no springing or damping mechanism
in their suspension, these trucks are very sensitive to variations in their running
surface. Any sway motion will not only risk collision with the racks endangering the
driver, racks and goods but will also induce the driver to reduce speed to avoid such
incidents. This lowering of operating speed will reduce the rate of handling goods and
the all-important throughput of the building.
For the safe and optimum operating speed of VNA trucks to be sustained, a floor must
provide a surface that is free of discontinuities, i.e. steps, cracks, etc., and meet an
acceptable standard of flatness, i.e. changes in slope both down the aisle and across it.
These criteria become more critical with the operating height of masted trucks since
any variations in the floor profile are amplified not only by the ratio of the mast
height to wheel track width, but also by the further dynamic sway magnification of
this static lean.
VNA trucks, by their close tolerance working conditions, have thus created a
completely enhanced set of provisions in terms of concrete ground slab performance.
The tightly defined passage of the wheels concentrates the damaging effects to the
wheel paths, magnifying the potential surface-damaging effects. Whereas the operating
margins and the wheel arrangements of other materials-handling equipment is com-
patible with generally good levels of surface quality, VNA trucks therefore demand an
Figure 7 VNA trucksthe

optimum in minimizing aisle
width and the most
demanding in the terms of
aisle flatness.
12
especially high quality of surface integrity and profile, particularly in issues such as
small wavelength changes in level down and across these dedicated aisles.
As a logistics solution, VNA trucks are generally accepted as practical up to a total

stored height of 12–13 m. Above this height other forms of goods-handling systems
become more viable. Thus top-guided trucks (Figure 8), whose masts are restrained by
the racking and which are therefore less susceptible to undulations in the concrete
surface, are now used for installations above 12 m. On higher stored heights, fixed path
crane type machines, supported on steel rails, remove the need for close tolerance
surface levels. With these systems, installations up to 30 m are now achievable, and the
Figure 8 Top-guided trucks

used in installations above
12 m are less susceptible to
undulations in the concrete
surface.
13
Figure 9 Defined
movementdedicated aisles
in VNA installations.
so-called ‘cladrack’ structures are designed such that the envelope of the building is
attached to the racking structure, removing the need for a separate building
framework. Clearly with the heavy loads involved and the absence of the need for a
high-quality running surface, the ground slab is either a non-structural infill to the
principal load-supporting structure or a major structural raft element working to
orthodox reinforced concrete principles.
To complete the picture, many of the repetitive goods movement tasks are now being
converted to robotic operation. AGVs (automatic guided vehicles) are developments
14
Figure 10 Free movement

areasfor areas of floor
where trucks may travel in
any direction.
of existing technology and have similar demands in terms of floor surfaces to the pallet
transporters and other equipment they are rapidly replacing.
The demands of these different systems has created a need for two types of floor
flatness definitionone for the defined movement applicable to dedicated aisles of
VNA installations, and one for the free movement necessary in areas where trucks
and other mechanized devices may travel in any direction without the constraint of
marginal clearances to high storage structures (Figures 9 and 10). Flatness and level-
ness have now become a significant factor in floor design and are discussed in greater
detail below.
From the previous section it will have been seen that while the basic criterianamely,
that of the load-distributing/heavy-duty wearing systemshave not changed, the
performance values now associated with these criteria have been enhanced dramat-
ically. The operating speeds of plant have increased, together with their loadings.
Accordingly, the basic requirement of the floor that it should be a flat, durable-
wearing/load-distributing surface have also been expanded. Specific limited bands of
variation in surface tolerances are now critical and cracks, surface crazing, dusting,
joint degradation are all to be eliminated if the efficiency, and therefore capital value of
the building, is to be maintained. It is this attention to detail which is essential in any
engineer’s consideration of a floor construction fit for a particular application.
Loadings The property sector has long followed the practice of quoting safe loadings on ground
floor slabs as uniformly distributed loads (UDL) in units of lb/ft2 or kN/m2. In fact,
loadings are rarely uniformly distributed and this is nowhere more evident than in
industrial ground floor slabs where loads on the floor result from plant and equipment
such as trucks, racks, etc. The floor slab is specifically designed to transmit these local
point loads safely to the subgrade or supporting structure, and so it is critical that the
specified design loading provides some means of identifying the value and array of such
15
loads. This often presents a dilemma since, for many projects, especially at an early
design stage, reliable detail of critical point loads is not available. Nevertheless such
information is essential if an appropriate and underwritten floor design is to be
effected.
In the course of the desktop research that was undertaken in the preparation of the
British Cement Association publication ITN 11 (reference [1]), it was demonstrated
that a range of equipment common in a specific category of usage, i.e. light industrial
or heavy industrial, constituted point loadings which generated comparable stress
levels in floors of a particular design. For example, the stresses generated by a forklift
truck of 3 tonnes capacity were similar to those of the 6-tonne racking end frame in
the storage facility that it was serving. By developing this approach, it was possible to
describe a range of such uses which created a Loading Category.
This approach has been adopted by the Building Research Establishment and
promoted for use by industry in their Information Paper IP 19/87 ‘Classes of imposed
loads for warehouses’ (reference [3]). Thus, for the more general run of building it is
now possible to describe the usage by Loading Category, enabling the designer, owner
and user to address their particular interests confidently. These loading classes are
detailed in Figure 11.
Any ground-bearing concrete slab is entirely dependent on its supporting subgrade.

While the slab may be designed to accommodate the flexural stresses generated by the
array of point loads, it can only perform if the subgrade can safely sustain the applied
loading distributed to it by the slab. If the subgrade settles either due to compaction or
consolidation under sustained loading, or for any other reason, then the slab will follow
the modified profile causing increased local flexural stresses and further deviations in
the slab running surface.
In considering whether a subgrade is suitable for a particular project, some measure of

the value of the effective surcharge on the floor is essential. While the property sector
has for many years used a notional figure for defining the ‘working UDL’ on floors of
industrial premises, these should be treated cautiously by the engineer. A good esti-
mate for the effective surcharge that modern slabs can be expected to experience can
be evaluated according to the guidelines of BS 6399 (reference [2]), where in Table 1
Figure 11 The load class

system (reference [3]).
16
it recommends 2.4 kN/m2 per metre of stored height for warehouses. This is a
convenient rule of thumb and can be confirmed if a racking arrangement is available.
It should be stressed that this figure should be used only for the consideration of the
subgrade capability and not as a means of specifying the slab working parameters.
Robustness Robustness as a concept is not new to structural engineering; however, it has not been
used before specifically for concrete industrial ground floor slabs. The concept is
particularly apposite to this application since, as a dual role medium, there are clearly a
range of ‘wear and abuse’ criteria which can seriously jeopardize the ability to perform
satisfactorily in the long term.
The consideration of robustness is concerned with the matching of the design and
detailing of a component such that it is compatible with the severity of the conditions
of lifetime use. To date, this issue has largely centred on one particular aspect of use of
concrete ground slabs, i.e. abrasion resistance. In modern floors finished with heavy
duty multiple power trowels and resin-based curing membranes, failure by simple
abrading of the surface no longer represents a significant problem. In fact the recom-
mendations of previous publications to address the issue of abrasion have led to the use
of high cement contents which have jeopardized the product in a number of other
respects, i.e. excessive shrinkage strains, etc.
The wear, abuse and damage that occur in industrial floors take a variety of forms
depending, largely, on the operational use. Some examples are:
(a) opening formed joints can be degraded by small-wheeled pallet trucks;
(b) steel fibres in the floor surface can be pulled out by dragging pallets;
(c) surface cracks can be aggravated by the trafficking in of dirt and swarf.
These issues are common criticisms of many modern facilities, so it is important to
recognize that certain constructional features are not compatible with particular end-
uses and to design and detail accordingly.
For an industrial floor to perform its intended duties satisfactorily during its design
life, all the issues described above must be compatible with the use. It must therefore
have an appropriate surface profile, it must be capable of supporting the applied loads,
and its detailing must be sufficiently robust. It is on this last point that floors are, in
the experience of the author, most commonly criticized; and it is from this perspective,
i.e. reasons for perceived failings, that this issue of robustness is addressed. By examining
and understanding the causes of such failings, measures for their elimination or
avoidance can be incorporated into the design consideration (see Section 7).
Flatness and The emphasis that modern industrial equipment has placed on the serviceability aspect
levelness of concrete ground floors has brought about a number of additional parameters to
describe and monitor these currently critical aspects of floor surface characteristics.
Before the concrete ground slab industry became concerned with the specific oper-
ational requirements of fast-moving, elevating trucks in confined working aisles, a
typical common level specification for the concrete surface might have read,
overall floor to be within 10 mm of specified level, to have no steps and no surface
variation greater than 3 mm under a 3 m straight edge.
17
The first element of this specification is simply one of levelness, i.e. the total permitted
variation of any point on the floor from a datum plane. The second element was a first
attempt at defining flatness, also sometimes referred to as surface regularity; it is a
measure of the variation in absolute level over specific gauge lengths of a floor’s
surface. While being somewhat ambiguous and difficult to monitor in practice, the
quoted deviation from a notional 3-m straight edge actually represents quite a close
tolerance surface. In practice, however, this latter part of the specification was found to
be largely adequate for the trucks then in everyday use. The major shortcoming of such
a specification for floors designed to accommodate VNA traffic is that it does not
quantify the distance between adjacent high and low spots on a floor, whereas in fact it
is the rapid change of slope, even with only small actual differences in level,
which cause such trucks to pitch and roll and thus impede their safe operating
movements.
Flatness has become an issue of particular importance in concrete ground slabs and
appropriately has received considerable research attention. In the USA the Face
Corporation pioneered a system for analysing those aspects of floor profile that were
critical in practice and developed the F number system, used widely in the USA and
occasionally in the UK. The Concrete Society Working Party examined the subject in
collaboration with the British Industrial Truck Association in the early 1980s, and as a
direct result of undertaking an extensive survey of a number of satisfactory industrial
facilities, produced in the Society’s Technical Report 34 (reference [5]), a proposal for
four ‘properties’ appropriate to a range of four ‘categories’. These categories described
four different bands of usage, basically the upper three designated Superflat, 1 and 2,
appropriate to the specific needs of VNA warehouses, and Category 3, the less
demanding narrow- and wide-aisle application.
The survey concluded that two essentially different types of operation called for
individually described flatness specification treatment. Accordingly these were
identified as defined movement, representing the needs of equipment working in the
constrained aisles of VNA facilities, and free movement appropriate to the general
circulation areas and transfer aisles where limitations on movement lines were not
prescribed. For the ‘defined movement’ properties the survey concluded that
comparatively small changes in level of the order of 2–3 mm caused significant
operational problems if such change in level occurred within a short distance in the
down-aisle direction, and that the problem was compounded if the level change was
immediately reversed. Accordingly, Properties I and II of the TR 34, Table 7.1, address
the tolerable limits for variations over 300 and 600 mm in the down-aisle sense, and
Property III similarly defines changes in level across the wheel track of the VNA
vehicle (Figure 12).
The narrow- and wide-aisle operations of Category 3 do not embody ‘defined

movement’ so there are no Properties I to III for Category 3, only Property IV. In all
categories the Property IV definition of the requirements for ‘free movement’ are not
dissimilar to those of the earlier straight-edge concept and equate to a simple survey of
levels on a 3 m grid. It should be noted, in passing, that this straight-edge concept is
still in use and is in fact incorporated into the recommendations of BS 8204: In-situ
floorings: Part 2. Code of practice for concrete wearing surfaces (reference [4]) in its
Classification of Surface Regularity. Three classes, SR1 to SR3, are defined in this
document with, respectively, 3, 5 and 10 mm departures from the 3-m straight edge
with corresponding maximum permissible departures from level over the total floor
surface of plus or minus 10, 15 and 20 mm. The BS 8204 Code of Practice is occa-
sionally used for the surface specification of the more general-purpose industrial floor.
18
Figure 12 Flatness criteria of

TR 34.
While a standard or precise level and staff are adequate for the surveying of Property
IV, the recording of the small differences at 300-mm centres down-aisle and the
corresponding levels at 1.5 m across the aisle call for a more sophisticated device.
Electronically coupled precise measurement devices are now used by specialist sur-
veying companies to generate survey data on the suitability of floors for particular
categories of usage.
This system has been employed widely in the UK and found to be very effective. While
perhaps not as comprehensive a system as that of the F number, the Concrete Society
approach is more readily understood. When first introduced there was a tendency for
specifiers to equate ‘best quality’ with Superflat, not recognizing that such close
tolerances could only be achieved with very narrow long-bay construction, and then
only in prescribed aisles. This situation is now improving and specifiers are recognizing
the need to select the most appropriate category, based on the sort of analysis
described under ‘Construction logistics’ in Section 9.
Since first published in 1988, the system has been revisited both in the 1994 edition of
TR 34 and in the supplement published in 1997. The 1994 revision saw the separation
of the ‘defined traffic’ and ‘free movement’ criteria and introduced the concept of
Property II into the ‘free movement’ figures. The 1997 supplement amended the pass
percentage bands and their corresponding limits for the three ‘free movement’ criteria.
These revisions have not been universally accepted. Firstly, short wavelength vari-
ations are not critical in ‘free movement’ areas, since loads are not transported at
height through the tightly confined canyons of VNA facilities and therefore surveying
of random lines in such areas is an unnecessary expense. Secondly, the additional
complicated pass criteria are not consistent with a realistic attitude essential in the
assessment of such data.
19
With flatness being a critical factor, the issue of surveys to monitor performance in this
department becomes important. The two areas for flatness, i.e. Defined traffic movement
and Random traffic movement require different approaches to the survey issue. The
conduct and interpretation of flatness surveys is discussed in Section 9.
20
5. Selecting a construction
methodology
From the foregoing sections it will have been apparent that the subject of concrete
ground floors is now very broad. Different user requirements and site conditions
demand different design and constructional approaches to the provision of a concrete
ground slab which is both cost-effective and successfully satisfies the operational
requirements of its user. A useful starting point in selecting an appropriate construc-
tion methodology is that of the operation to be sustained.
Methodology Is the slab to support a crane-serviced installation or a mixed floor supported truck
operation?
Many modern distribution centres comprise a mixture of high-bay and low-bay
facilities. The high bay, often up to 30 m, contains a crane-type operation. Cranes run
on rails which can be levelled by shimming and grouting. The racking installations that
they service are also shimmed, and since there are no critical floor-running trucks in
the aisles there is no special requirement for close tolerance flatness and heavy-duty
wearing properties from the surface, only a need for the floor to be reasonably level at
the facility. The principal issue in achieving a cost-effective solution is therefore one of
structural design, i.e. selecting the design solution that will most efficiently transmit
the large applied point loads to the supporting formation.
Most low-bay facilities and the general run of industrial buildings contain a mixture of
block stack, wide- and narrow-aisle racking, raised storage floors, etc., and these are
served by a range of floor-running trucks. While such vehicles demand high standards
of quality in terms of surface integrity, joint durability and profile, the described fixed
equipment does not dictate rigorous standards of surface flatness. It is only where, as
in VNA operations, the trucks are constrained to move along defined aisles between
high containing storage structures that close tolerance flatness provisions become
important. The higher the VNA installation, the closer are the tolerance requirements
in terms of flatness. This is demonstrated in the widely used Table 7.1 of the Concrete
Society Report TR 34, where Category 3 tolerances are suitable for buildings up to 6 m,
but so-called Superflat tolerances are required for free-ranging VNA operations in
buildings with over 12 m clear headroom.
21
Is the slab to be ground bearing or is a suspended solution necessary?

This decision will depend on the nature of the site and the subgrade material. The
gross superimposed loading from the equipment and goods contained in modern
industrial buildings can be very high, e.g. 30 kN/m2 for a 12-m high building, compared
with institutional office loadings of 5 kN/m2. Sites with poor ground, soft clays and fills
can be treated by ground improvement techniques to achieve a stable formation which
will not consolidate under loading, and thus facilitate a ground-bearing design. An
increasing proportion of sites are being developed where this condition cannot be
fulfilled and a pile-supported arrangement is employed.
Various designs for pile-supported ground slabs exist, such as flat slabs (with or without
drops or pile caps) through to ground beams with simple spanning slabs. Clearly these
are essentially reinforced concrete designs and, as such, any hogging moments in the
slab will generate cracks in the wearing surface. These cracks may not be a problem if
a crane operation, or one not requiring a durable wearing surface, is to be provided.
For the more common industrial building, where cracks are to be avoided, any design
involving hogging moments and top reinforcement is potentially flawed. In these types
of facility the integrity of the wearing surface can be maintained if, for example, a beam
and slab solution is provided. Indeed, with a series of parallel pile beams with their tops
flush to the slab’s underside, a conventional large-pour or long-bay ground slab can be
cast with bottom mesh reinforcement. With sawcuts over the centre of the pile beams
in one direction, the same principles of drying shrinkage and crack control can be
applied to give the same performance as a ground-supported slab.
Do the operational requirements dictate a close tolerance floor for a dedicated equip-
ment installation or is it to be flexible for a future re-equipping?
These are decisions that can determine not only the most appropriate method of
construction but also whether dedicated equipment layouts may be exploited to render
economies in the structural design.
Options of Flatness, joint integrity and surface quality have been identified as being major critical
methodology issues in the consideration of concrete ground floors. The standards of achievement
that can be readily realized are dependent on two factors:
the method of construction;
the degree of site control.
In long-bay, narrow-bay and wide-bay construction, the down-bay flatness is

influenced by the method of compaction and surface finishing of the concrete. The
build-up/removal of concrete surcharge in front of an advancing vibrating screed can
generate a down-aisle surface variation of a comparatively short wavelength. This
variation can be eliminated by use of a highway straight edge, effectively a long flat-
tening trowel, applied in a direction transverse to the bay. The cross-bay tolerances can
be well controlled under the advancing vibrating screed, and in the middle areas of
bays good tolerance and cross-aisle properties can be achieved. Close tolerances at the
edges of bays, and particularly across joints, are not readily achieved with these
essentially long-bay construction methods. Local vibration, finishing and the effects of
bay curling due to lack of continuity tend to generate peaks or high points along these
formed joints. However, it is the control on mid-bay tolerances that renders long
narrow-bay construction particularly suitable where formed joints in dedicated layouts
can be positioned under racks and therefore out of trafficked areas. On the other hand,
22
Selecting a construction methodology
where such formed joints are exposed in ‘free movement’ areas, their potential weak-
ness, lack of flatness and tendency to degenerate can be critical.
In large-pour construction, the use of plasticized and superplasticized concrete and the
non-directional method of surface finishing provides a consistent degree of flatness in
all directions. The elimination of formed joints removes the incidence of varying
flatness criteria which is prevalent particularly at right angles to these joints. While
the surface level of such floors is monitored during construction by constant reference
to a laser plane, experience shows that very gradual variations of level, i.e. changes
over comparatively large distances, are more likely in large-bay construction. With this
method of construction large areas of floor can be laid in one operation. Areas of up to
4000 m2 per day are achievable if the building and concrete supply arrangements are
suitable. This production rate can reduce construction programme periods signifi-
cantly. The constraints of having to prepare a large area for this rapid operation pro-
vides an additional discipline on the contractor.
Summary The following guidelines will assist in selecting an appropriate construction technique
to achieve the required performance criteria.
Narrow-bay construction with fine adjustable forms and the finishing described above
can achieve Superflat tolerances. Long-bay construction using bay widths of 4–5 m,
and with highway straight-edge treatment at finishing prior to trowelling, can usually
achieve Category 1 ‘defined movement’ tolerances. These methods are best suited to
providing dedicated VNA applications, where the vulnerable formed joints can be
accommodated beneath the racks. When used in random traffic areas, the degradation
that occurs under trafficking of long-bay formed joints can become a major problem.
Large-pour and wide-bay construction can achieve Category 2 ‘defined movement’

flatness figures. While, with additional supervision and attention to control, closer
tolerances on the ‘defined traffic movement’ properties can no doubt be achieved with
these methods, there is a strong possibility that certain areas will fall outside these
provisions and require local remedial treatment.
As has been described above, particular construction methods are appropriate to

achieving satisfactory solutions to the range of end-user needs. It is essential that,
particularly with respect to flatness, the appropriate methodology is selected in order to
achieve the required operating standards. While it is possible to modify the profile of
floors by the use of grinding, this should not be seen as ‘alternative methodology’ but
rather as a ‘last resort’ solution to be used in the rare exceptional situation. Grinding
can only remove the peaks from relative high spots on the floorit will not fill hollows.
Also, in removing areas of the surface it will leave the floor with a non-uniform
appearance and areas of different wearing characteristics. For these reasons alone it is
recommended that great care be exercised in selecting the particular construction
method to ensure:
(a) that the opportunities for attaining specified flatness standards during construction
are maximized; and
(b) that the integrity of the surface is not impaired by subsequent reworking to
achieve the specified flatness parameters.
23
6. The design principles
of high-quality concrete
floor construction
In this section the fundamental design principles of each of the construction methods
are described.
Concrete floors form a critical part of every modern industrial building. They invariably
interface with the other elements of the building both physically and in planning the
construction. Accordingly, the material characteristics which dictate their perform-
ance must be identified and understood if they are to be detailed and constructed to
perform effectively in their operational life.
In order to predict the behaviour of materials and structures in service, engineers

synthesize mathematical models, which closely replicate their performance character-
istics following established principles and laboratory test results. With these techniques
the load-carrying capacity of a structural solution can be checked and, if necessary,
modified.
The use of concrete as a load-distributing/wearing surface is fundamentally different

from the application with which engineers are usually familiar. As a structural element,
most common applications of concrete exploit its compressive strength with steel
reinforcement to accommodate the tensile stresses of the structure. While most con-
crete ground slabs contain reinforcement in the form of mesh or, recently, fibres, the
contributions of both elements to its structural integrity are unusual.
The importance of a durable and, therefore, implicitly crack-free working surface is

the prime factor that dictates the form of approach suitable for the structural design
of concrete industrial floor slabs. Concrete, when cast in large flat areas, is subject to
the stresses and strains that accompany drying shrinkage and subsequent changes in
ambient conditions, and consideration of these issues in the total design varies in
accordance with the construction method.
Cracks will occur when the tensile strength of the concrete is exceeded. The value of
this tensile strength, particularly during its early life, is a time-dependent function that
increases with age. In order to be able to exploit the tensile or flexural capacity of the
concrete to sustain applied load stresses, it is essential that the floor be constructed and
24
The design principles of high-quality concrete floor construction
detailed to accommodate the effects of the stresses generated during the curing process.
Clearly, any residual stresses that may exist in the slab would reduce its capacity to
sustain the additional tensile stresses due to flexural response to applied loads.
The various design and construction methods described above employ different
approaches when accommodating the restrained shrinkage phenomenon and evaluat-
ing, through appropriate structural models, the stresses generated by applied load
systems. This leads to two basic floor groupings: stress relieved and jointless.
Different structural materials and their applications demand different structural models.
Plain timber flexural members are regarded as sections performing to a triangular
‘permissible’ stress block pattern. Steel is considered likewise, but can be considered
also with rectangular stress blocks corresponding to the ‘yield’ condition. Concrete,
in its commonest structural formi.e. reinforced concreteis now considered as
behaving to a rectangular compression stress block with no tensile strength capability,
this element being provided by the steel reinforcement.
These structural models correspond to different limit states. The three principal limit
states with which engineers are familiar are those of deflection, cracking and collapse. For
industrial concrete ground slabs, the critical limit state is commonly that of cracking.
Steel fibres, as will be seen, exploit the potential of additional load-carrying capacity
beyond the formation of the first crack, and to achieve this, steel fibre design addresses
the ‘collapse’ condition.
The large-pour This was clearly not the earliest form of construction of industrial concrete floor slabs.
weldmesh models However, the large areas and volumes of concrete which became a practical propos-
ition focused attention particularly on the mechanics of restrained shrinkage.
The fundamental concept of the large-pour weldmesh method is that all restrained
shrinkage effects are dissipated and have no effect on the structural performance of the
floor. It is a stress-relieved solution.
When cast in comparatively small bays with little external restraint other than that
from the subgrade, concrete responds to the migration of excess mixing water by
shrinking. If such shrinkage is resisted, i.e. the ends of the bay are fixed rigidly, then
tensile stresses develop in the immature concrete. Concrete is a material which creeps,
i.e. under sustained loading the strain increases with time, and in this situation it will
attempt to dissipate the tensile stress by relaxation. If the rate of migration of excess
moisture from the material is too rapid, the build-up of tensile stresses will be such as
to reach levels approaching the concrete’s current tensile capacity and a crack will
appear midway between end restraints. If, however, the rate of migration is carefully
controlled, then the creep relaxation of this stress will enable the slab to maintain its
integrity such as to ultimately absorb all potential drying shrinkage and provide a
stress-free entity with little change in length.
The mesh reinforcement provides a continuous matrix for the maturing concrete and
assists in distributing the tensile forces generated during the process.
The drying shrinkage stresses generated are a function not only of the rate of migration
of moisture but also the length of the bay, and its plan shape. Sawcutting the long-bay
or large-pour slab into smaller segments allows these smaller bays to contain the
mechanism described above within these individual panels. The end restraint is
25
provided across these sawn joints by the continuous mesh reinforcement and the
subgrade frictional resistance. Sizing of the mesh and the distance between sawn joints
is an issue on which the industry has gained considerable experience (this is described
in further detail under ‘Sawn joints’). Thus it is found that lightweight meshes A142 or
A193 (according to the thickness of the slab) will provide sufficient restraint both to
foster the creep process and to ensure that the sawn joints remain sufficiently tight to
maintain aggregate interlock and thus shear transfer between adjacent panels. However,
if comparatively heavyweight meshes are used, the restraint provided across joints can
be excessive and cause the slab to crack at mid-panel.
Using this property of concrete and the detailing methods described, slab panels of
lengths of 60 m or more can be cast either long bay or large pour. The effects of drying
shrinkage will be seen only on the end bays, where no restraint exists on one end of the
final panel. Movement at contraction joints in long-bay and large-pour weldmesh
floors amounts to some 25% of the unrestrained drying shrinkage, i.e. 20 mm for 90 m
between contraction joints.
Thus, the basic rules for this type of floor demand, in parallel, strict compliance with
the following conditions:
weathertight construction enclosure;
suitable lightweight continuous weldmesh near the slab bottom;
sawcuts to one-third of the slab depth at 6 m maximum centres;
suitable pour aspect ratio, less than 1 : 1.5;
effective slip membrane on a flat substantial subbase;
contraction joints at 90 m maximum centres;
elimination of pinch points, compressible surrounds to all intrusions;
effective curing membrane.
As described above, the detailing of weldmesh/sawcut floors is such that restrained

shrinkage stresses play no part in the consideration of total flexural stresses. The only
stresses to be considered are those generated by the applied loads. The ‘Loadings’ section
(p. 15) describes the types of loads for which industrial ground slabs are commonly
designed, i.e. an array of point loads. Because of the method of detailing, such loads can
fall in three locationsthat is, within the body of a bay remote from a discontinuity, at
an edge or adjacent to a discontinuity, or at a corner. The discontinuity here is a sawcut
joint or a formed joint, both of which can transmit shear but not bending moment.
The traditional methods of evaluating the flexural stresses generated by applied loads
in such positions are known generically as the Westergaard Approach, after the
American researcher who developed the empirical formulae and undertook the field
trials for their use in aircraft runway design. (See Appendix for the Westergaard
formulae and load placements.) These formulae, further developed by Pickett and
Kelley, predict the stresses at the three load positions having regard to the slab
construction (thickness, grade of concrete, etc.) and the subgrade mechanical char-
acteristics in the form of a modulus of subgrade reaction. These formulae are
particularly useful since, by superposition of load cases, an array of adjacent point loads
(as in a racking situation) can be thoroughly investigated and the combined stresses
checked against the factored 90-day flexural strength of the concrete. A load factor of
1.5 is common throughout ground slab design.
The corner and edge Westergaard formulae allow for lack of a subgrade support due to
curl and warp. These phenomena occur as a result of the top of the slab shrinking with
26
respect to the bottom, but this condition can be avoided by careful detailing of joints
and their positions in weldmesh slabs, and with such provisions the Meyerhof formula
for corner loading can be confidently used to predict the failure load. (See Appendix
for the Meyerhof formulae.) This is consistent with laboratory results, which show little
or no benefit from the use of steel fibres in the corner loading condition.
It can be argued that the presence of the weldmesh provides post-cracking strength for
weldmesh large-pour floors such that the Meyerhof formulae may be used for edge and
internal loading. The author does not endorse this proposal for a number of reasons:
(a) The weldmesh is comparatively lightweight and its position in the lower part of the
slab, while on chairs, is not sufficiently precise to be reliable when needed in the
post-cracking mode.
(b) Adjacent loads can have a significant effect at the edge and internal positions. The
Meyerhof or yield line approach is not compatible with superposition principles
and, therefore, is limited when dealing with the compound bending effects of a
number of adjacent loads.
The traditional The long-strip method of floor construction is still used where especially close
model: stress tolerance is required, particularly in variations across the track of high-rise narrow-aisle
regimes and trucks. In the length of the pour the ‘creep relaxation’ method of a light mesh in the
structural model slab lower half is used. In the width, it is common practice to debond side dowel bars
on every fourth joint to accommodate drying shrinkage in this direction. Accordingly,
the design philosophy is somewhat hybrid but in principle is based on dissipated
shrinkage restraint stress principles.
In the early models for design of long-bay floors, the simplistic approach of providing
‘anti-crack’ steel equivalent in strength to the maximum subgrade restraint under its
self-weight was recommended (see reference [8]). This model failed to recognize the
inherent strength of the maturing concrete and was incompatible with the design
analysis of TR 550 and ITN 11, which used the concrete tensile strength to sustain
loading-induced flexural stresses. This method is still used to proportion the weldmesh
in long-bay floors and it can still be seen placed near the slab surface, to act as ‘anti-
crack’. In this position it risks being severed at intervals by the transverse sawcuts.
The design formulae used for long bay are those of Westergaard et al. (see Appendix).
The large-pour The prime objective of introducing steel fibres into concrete floor slabs is to provide
steel fibre hybrid the plain concrete with a distributed reinforcing medium giving the material a residual
model strength after the formation of a crack. The fibres can be introduced into the mix along
with workability agents, and the resultant concrete can be machine laid rapidly,
without the separate operation of laying weldmesh. So it is perceived as having all the
virtues of plain concrete, with the added advantages of the one-placing operation and
the additional flexural capacity provided by the post-cracking strength.
Using these advantages, the steel fibre reinforced solution is often promoted as a
cheaper option to the weldmesh floor. Accordingly, as a direct competitor it is provided
with sawcuts on a regular grid, with the inference that these shrinkage stress relief joints
act in the same way as their counterparts in the weldmesh model. The steel fibre content
in such floors is generally at the lower end of the common range of 20–40 kg/m3. Given
the random orientation of the fibres, their short length and, therefore, limited bond
27
capacity across any sawcut-induced crack, it is readily apparent that the tie force that
maintains aggregate interlock and therefore shear transfer at these joints is limited.
The simplistic design of these ‘hybrid’ floors excludes any consideration of shrinkage
restraint stresses, inferring that these are dissipated in the same way as the weldmesh
reinforced model. The veracity of this inference is dubious, and the opening of sawcut
joints and the loss of load transfer are real and potential problems with such floors. The
situation can be redressed by inclusion of mesh strips at the sawcut joints. This will
reinstate the necessary tie for creep relaxation and aggregate interlock, but detracts
from the cost and logistic advantages of the steel fibres.
The use of steel fibres in industrial floor slabs demands an alternative structural model.
The inclusion of steel fibres in principle extends the effective range of the concrete
beyond that of its tensile strength. The ‘model’ most commonly used in simple ground-
bearing slabs is a hybrid where, by the use of a yield line collapse method of structural
analysis, the first section that yields acts thereafter as a plastic hinge with a reduced
moment capacity. The ultimate applied load is that which causes yield to occur at
another critical section, thus causing local structural collapse. Of course, such an
extended model only applies if additional redundancies exist in the system; it does not
pertain in a simple cantilever or in a corner slab point load situation.
The structural model used for this application is entirely derived from laboratory tests.
The formulae used to predict the applied collapse load are commonly those derived by
Meyerhof. Since these formulae relate to a yield line approach they are presented in a
form in which the collapse load is expressed as a function of the sum of the positive
and negative moment capacities of the section, i.e. the sum of the pre-cracking
moment capacity and the post-cracking moment capacity.
The pre-cracking moment capacity (M0) is simply the concrete section modulus
multiplied by the flexural strength of the plain concrete. The post-cracking moment
capacity is expressed as a percentage Re,3 of M0. The value of Re,3 is determined from
laboratory tests on beam samples following a Japanese standard test procedure.
Therefore, the Meyerhof formula for the edge load condition is expressed as
Pðcollapse loadÞ ¼ 3:5ð1 þ 3a=lÞ M0 ð1 þ Re;3 =100Þ:
It is often inferred that the Re,3 factor is the enhancing effect of the steel fibres on the
plain concrete moment capacity, but this is not so.
The steel fibre This is a far more attractive, honest and therefore reliable model to that described
jointless model above. Using fibre dosages at the top end of the 20–40 kg/m3 range this concept
eliminates the intermediate sawcut joints, and by a combination of mix design, curing
and detailing provides a surface intended to be free of discontinuities between joints
at 40–50-m centres. The model acknowledges that the high steel fibre content
provides, from an early age, a matrix whereby shrinkage restraint stresses can be
absorbed within the reinforced material. These restraint stresses are estimated using
the same formula as used in the traditional method except, in this situation, the stress
is evaluated as being absorbed within the tensile capacity of the concrete. Typically the
shrinkage restraint stress is evaluated on the basis of the subgrade restraint, equivalent
to the self-weight of the slab and no surcharge. Clearly the tensile strength capacity is
time dependent and therefore the calculation is not exact, but only a first estimate.
Accordingly, it is not a guarantee that drying shrinkage cracks will not occur.
28
To minimize the risk of cracking, specialist contractors in jointless floors use well-
graded aggregates, workability agents and minimum water contents to reduce the
potential shrinkage. Also to reduce the build-up of subgrade friction, attention is
concentrated on achieving a flat, hard subbase and two layers of polythene are fre-
quently used to form a slip membrane.
Such attention to reducing subgrade restraint also implies that shrinkage strain is not
restricted. It is therefore to be expected that the contraction joints between adjacent
pours will open to a greater extent than in the weldmesh floor. In these floors, move-
ment at contraction joints amounts to some 70% of the calculated drying shrinkage,
i.e. 25 mm for floors of length 50 m between contraction joints. These wider opening
joints are vulnerable to traffic and are usually detailed with steel permanent joints.
Discussion on these reinforced joints is included in Section 7.
Applied load stresses are evaluated by the Meyerhof formulae. In these jointless floors
there are fewer locations than in the sawcut floor, where edge or corner loading can
occur. Of course there are edges and corners in these floors, notably at day joints, but
the steel fibre suppliers who provide ‘in-house’ designs for these floors, choose to ignore
these more onerous possibilities and regularly design for internal loads, remote from
edges or corners.
The total stress condition is a combination of shrinkage restraint stress and applied load
stress. There is an anomaly in this approach since the Meyerhof formulae relate to a
collapse or yield line condition and therefore simple superposition of shrinkage restraint
stresses with failure condition stresses is invalid. Furthermore, the Meyerhof formulae
give the sum of two moments (as described above) and so the shrinkage restraint stress
element should be included twice in the calculation. The design philosophy is not
therefore entirely consistent and must be regarded as ‘a first approximation’.
Steel fibre These types of floor are becoming more popular since they apparently provide a design
pile-supported solution for poor sites whereby the speed and surface excellence benefits of the
model: jointless machine laid (Laserscreed) product can be exploited. The structural model is essen-
tially therefore that of a flat slab supported by piles on a regular grid.
There is no standard approach to the design of steel fibre reinforced jointless slabs.
Suppliers of such fibres have undertaken their own research on various methods and it
is therefore the norm for such designs to be included in a ‘design and construct’
package. In such circumstances the engineer is only expected to act in a reasonably
competent and enquiring capacity to ensure that this design conforms to a satisfactory
standard of engineering research and study. The following guidelines are therefore
suggested as avenues, which should be seen to be addressed in any competent design.
The common design concept for such floors is that of steel fibre jointless derivatives:
As there is no stress relief within bays, the floor is subject to a combination of applied
load and shrinkage restraint stresses. Shrinkage restraint stresses are derived from a
consideration of subgrade friction/slab self-weight.
Empirical charts, based on elastic analysis, can be used to predict beam strip/column
strip moments under uniformly distributed loading. Finite element techniques are
usually required to predict the effect of multiple point loads from industrial plant and
equipment. Some designs simply use these moments and compare the sum (of applied
load and shrinkage restraint stresses) with that of the factored flexural strength of the
29
concrete at the point of maximum moment. This method effectively only acknow-
ledges the benefit of the steel fibres in providing an early age strength to absorb curing
phase shrinkage stresses, and some European standards use an interaction formula to
combine these two stress modes.
Other proprietary designs include additional bar reinforcement in beam strips to

combine with the post-cracking strength of the fibre-reinforced concrete. The flexural
capacity derives from a combination of pre-cracking strengths and post-cracking
strengths of the concrete and the additional reinforcement. For consistency, therefore,
analysis of applied load stresses should be in accordance with a yield line or collapse
state analysis.
This latter approach introduces the inconsistency of combining elastic (restraint) and
post-yield (applied load) philosophies. The shortcomings of this are described above
and in Section 7.
Finally, it should be recognized that with these pile-supported floors, as with any
jointless floor, some cracking is at least likely. These cracks may be minimal but the
risk is always that some of their number will open sufficient to attract damage. Any
‘design and construct’ package for such floors should include an undertaking by the
contractor that any crack which opens beyond a certain width, say 0.8 mm, during the
first three years of service life, will be repaired.
30
7. Robustness of floors
There are two aspects to robustness in a concrete floor. These can be described as
shortcomings and defects, neither of which is desirable in a successful floor. Designers
of floors should be familiar with the range of potential shortcomings and defects in
various design and construction solutions to ensure that they are avoided. This section
therefore describes the range of such currently common features.
Shortcomings are inherent characteristics of a particular design or construction detail

from which subsequent failure is predictable. Defects, on the other hand, are potential
failures which are avoidable.
Shortcomings Some typical shortcomings are discussed below.
Weakness at formed Formed joints are a necessary part of any concrete floor. However, being at the bay or
joints pour edge they do not benefit from the same consistency of compaction and finish as
the main body of the pour. Since the forms are stripped at an early age, they are very
susceptible to damage incurred during and immediately after this operation. This
damage is seen in the form of the arrises being broken during the form stripping process
and of thin trowel-over lips replacing these damaged sections in the subsequent
adjacent bay pour.
When the adjacent pour is placed, the ongoing shrinkage within the abutting bays is
only resisted by the bond of the concrete to the interconnecting dowel bars. Since the
build up of bond strength in immature slabs is limited, the joint will be permitted to
open, albeit slightly. The fragility of the reconstituted arrises and the tendency of the
joints to open causes the formed joints to degenerate even under light trafficking.
Formed dowelled longitudinal joints are a frequent feature of traditional long-bay

floors, and this described failing has contributed to the popularity of other construction
methods. It is only where a formed dowelled joint is heavily reinforced, and where such
bond stresses are correspondingly reduced, that lateral movement, opening of the joint,
can be effectively contained.
To overcome the relative fragility of concrete immediately adjacent to formed joints a

number of proprietary permanent in-built forms have been marketed. These comprise
pre-cast concrete rails or mating ‘joggle’ jointed steel plates which are clearly intended
31
to protect and reinforce the comparatively weak concrete; however, they are also
capable of inviting such damage. These steel or concrete forms are built into a material
that is not stable; it is shrinking and all the movement associated with the relatively
large expanse of concrete is taking place at the point of their incorporation. There is
thus a conflict both in terms of shrinkage along the length of the form and at right
angles to it. In the length of the form this can cause a diagonal crack to occur across
the corners of a large pour.
The mating plates of the steel forms are frequently secured together with small plastic
screws during casting. While the tensile capacity of these screws is low, it is still greater
than the tensile capacity of the adjacent concrete. This can cause the concrete close to
the forms to be micro-cracked and can later lead to break up of the concrete behind the
steel face under traffic.
These joints, and particular the steel plates, combine to constitute a relatively hard
spot in the floor surface. Given that some opening of these plates is a part of their
function, any trucks tend to strike the plate, and rise and fall with impact on the
concrete just behind the reinforced edge. The micro-cracked concrete in this area can
soon break down under such repeated local impact loading.
Square dowels with side foam compression packs are frequently used to eliminate the
lateral shrinkage restraint build up at the corners where pre-cast rails are used. As with
any horizontal surface built into concrete, there is the risk that pockets of air can be
trapped on the flat underside of these dowels and their side compression packs, and
this can diminish the bond of the bar into the concrete and allow the bar to wobble
vertically.
Steel fibres in the The process of laying, consolidating and trowelling a floor brings to the surface a
floor surface relatively thin layer of fine aggregate and cement which can be compressed and
polished to provide a hard-wearing surface. Invariably, however, steel fibres in the
concrete will find their way into this surface and sometimes will be projecting from it.
The latter is a potential hazard and even the former can be snagged on moving plant
or equipment, and are therefore unacceptable, particularly in a floor that is subject to
heavy traffic. Pulling out of these fibres is sometimes attempted but this destroys the
appearance and durability of the surface. The only effective solution is to apply a dry
shake topping to the floor. This will produce a surface, approximately 3 mm thick,
which will hopefully conceal most of the offending fibres.
Defects Defects can be eliminated if care is taken in the design and construction process. Some
typical defects are discussed below.
Opening of sawcut Sawcut joints (Figure 13) are a simple, effective and subtle means of dissipating
joints; flash parallel restraint stresses while providing load transfer. For effective load transfer, and to avoid
cracking damage to the joint arrises and the underlying subbase, it is imperative that all these
joints do not open more than 1 mm. This is readily achievable if the guidelines for this
type of floor are followed.
Excessive or uneven opening of sawcut joints is usually caused by inappropriate pour

planning. If the pour aspect ratio is excessive, i.e. larger than 1.5 : 1, the pour will
endeavour to shrink to a square format and will thus cause some joints to open more
32
Robustness of floors
Figure 13 Sawn joints stand

up well to constant trafficking.
than their contained neighbours. This is particularly evident where a large narrow pour
is planned to facilitate transverse straight edging in an attempt to achieve close
‘defined traffic’ tolerances.
Such joint opening can also occur if the spacing is large, i.e. in excess of 6 m, or
unequal, or if inadequate provision has been made to reduce the volume of free water
in the mix.
33
Flash parallel cracking can occur alongside a sawcut and is usually the result of poor
sawcut planning. The largest tensile stress in a large pour is towards its centre.
Therefore sawcutting should not begin at the middle of a pour but should be worked
progressively inward from the extremities. Flash cracking is an immediate response to
the production of a stress-relieving ‘nick’ in the slab at the start of sawcutting.
Delamination Delamination is the process whereby areas of the slab surface separate from the base
concrete. This can occur with self-finished slabs or those with dry shake toppings. It is
usually caused by the entrapment of rising moisture just below the surface layer.
Delamination can also occur where the slab is drying out too fast locally, i.e. near a
doorway or under a rooflight, or where the slab surface is prematurely sealed by
highway straight edginga process that is commonly used to smooth out the peaks
and troughs in a floor surface to achieve a close lateral flatness tolerance. The drawing
of a metal blade across the surface effectively closes the paths for moisture to migrate,
and it becomes trapped. This trapped water results in a weak plane with no bond and,
under traffic, it will break up.
Measures such as ensuring a weathertight enclosure, reducing bleed water and

minimizing early closing of surface voids can all assist to eliminate this problem.
Random surface Sometimes known as map-cracking, this appears as an irregular pattern of fine lines in
cracking the surface of the floor (Figure 14). These cracks are usually only superficial and do not
penetrate the body of the floor, but tend to become more pronounced if the floor is
subject to frequent wet cleaning, whereby any surface debris finds its way into them.
They are probably caused by excess bleed water, or rapid drying of the top surface.
Such cracks rarely cause any long-term problem as they are fine and generally do not
deteriorate. However, they do represent a local weakness that will be exploited should
there be a high local shrinkage stress, and in that event any one of these could develop
into a more serious crack. The most effective way of eliminating their occurrence is in
very good control of the weathertight enclosure and the free water content of the mix.
Column surrounds Structural and service intrusions are a potential source of restraint to the lateral
and service intrusions movement of the slab. These intrusions should be kept to a minimum and should be
provided with a surround of compressible material to cushion any restraint. So, for
example, the most effective column surround is that of simply wrapping the structural
post with 20 mm of closed cell polyethylene. The steel can be protected below floor
level with a bituminous paint treatment. Only on very large posts will any crack
controlling trimmer bars be required. Diagonal column boxes and circular pre-formed
concrete surrounds form a large intrusion into the floor, leading to large areas of lesser
quality concrete infill.
Large intrusions, i.e. manhole covers, often cause high stresses at their corners, but
these can be anticipated and relieved by diagonal sawcuts into the surrounding grid.
Double angles Double angles, commonly 80 mm by 80 mm steel angles, are the most effective form of
providing long-term protection to contraction joint arrises. These angles are fixed to
the shutter and tanged into the concrete. Air release holes are provided to ensure that
no air is trapped beneath the angle thus impairing its bearing. It is imperative that
these angles are fixed rigidly and maintained with their top plates horizontal. Any
34
Figure 14 Surface crazing.
settlement during casting producing a non-horizontal top plate will attract damage to
the adjacent concrete during subsequent trafficking.
Random cracking at The loading dock and marshalling area of an industrial building is the location for
loading docks maximum traffic movement. It is therefore imperative that special attention is given to
detailing both the edge details and potential crack lines in this vicinity. The square
35
plan corner of the dock will generate tensile stresses, and sawcuts linking the corner to
the regular sawcut grid or anti-crack bars (pairs of 12-mm deformed bars at 45 to the
corner) should be provided at that point.
Thresholds Fire escape doors and vehicle loading doors often require a tongue of concrete to
extend beyond the general line of the edge of the floor. If these tongues are contained
within masonry returns then there will be restraint to any horizontal movement of the
floor in a direction parallel to the slab edge and this will risk local cracking of an area of
floor. In these situations compressible filler material (10-mm open cell polyethylene)
should be provided to the masonry face to eliminate such restraint.
Portal ties Any restraint to the maturing concrete runs the risk of causing tensile stresses in the
concrete and subsequent cracking. Before it was widely recognized that the integrity of
the floor is critical to many industrial operations, it was popular among engineers to
regard the floor as a potential tie between portal stanchion bases. Horizontal forces and
sometimes moment forces were absorbed by this means to arrive at cost-effective
solutions to the steel framework. The tie force was transmitted to the slab by ‘hairpins’,
large-diameter deformed bars threaded through holes in the stanchions and bonded
into the slab when constructed. These bars constitute a considerable restraint on the
natural contraction of the concrete away from the building edges. The detail should
not be used.
Cold joints The large-pour Laserscreed method has greatly reduced the construction time for
floors in modern facilities. The logistics of such construction entails the working
laterally of the laserscreed on a wet face of concrete. This face, being the width of the
pour, can be up to 50 m and if the supply of concrete is interrupted or there is a local
problem, the return to any point on the face can be delayed such that the placed
concrete has set and will not bond with the newly deposited material. This forms a
‘cold joint’, often seen initially as a relatively high spot in the power-trowelled surface
or later as a random crack. It is important, therefore, that pours are planned not only
with a mind to the aspect ratio and the volumes handled, but with consideration to the
probable cycle time, especially in warm weather.
Curling and warping Curling and warpingdistortions in the surface profile of the floor
are brought about
by the differential shrinkage that exists between the top surface and the lower part of
the concrete slab. Curling is the phenomenon whereby, typically, sides or ends of pours
are lifted, and warping is the same mechanism raising the corner of a bay. Once again
the limiting of these occurrences lies in the control of ambient conditions. Excessive
changes in temperature and humidity can cause acceleration in moisture migration,
and these, especially during the early months of the slab, should be avoided. These
problems can also appear if de-humidifiers are introduced into the building to dry it out
for occupation or fitting out. These effects are more likely to be experienced in single
bays, at the edges of floors where there is no continuity from adjacent bays, and in
thinner slab constructions where (a) the drying out and thus the moisture migration is
more pronounced and (b) there is less bulk weight to keep the edges and corners flat.
Thus the situation is not uncommon in overlays and, for example, thin topping slabs
in cold stores. For these thin slabs, therefore, closer centred sawn joints are recom-
mended to reduce the build-up of surface shrinkage tension.
36
Reflective cracking Reflective cracking can have two meanings. In weldmesh floors with their sawcuts, it is
essential that these sawcuts are continuous throughout the floor. If, for example, a
sawcut in one pour is not continued into its neighbour, then there is the risk that
movement across the sawcut at the joint will create tension in the abutting slab and
will generate a corresponding crack in it. The other form of reflective crack is found in
overlay slabs where, if there is not adequate slip potential between the lower and upper
slabs, movement at joints in the base slab will create tensions and corresponding cracks
in the overlay.
Aisle cracking and With the use of thinner slab constructions in particularly heavily loaded racked
squaring installations, there is a greater risk that slabs will crack down the centre of the aisle.
The consideration of load-applied stresses in such facilities is frequently concentrated
on the effects of the discrete point loads from the rack system. In any such building on
clay or part clay subgrades, there is the potential for some plastic consolidation of the
substrate and a redistribution in subbase pressures. This can result in high bending
stresses in the unloaded aisles which, when compounded with residual tensile restraint
stresses, can cause mid-aisle cracking. As the next stage in this process, comple-
mentary cracks at the same centres will be generated in the length of the aisle. To
eliminate this problem it is important to check for the block stack effects of uniformly
distributed loading and to incorporate adequate contraction joints into the design.
Surface blemishes These can take the form of trowel marks, grinning aggregate or blotching (colour
variation).
Trowel marks generally indicate that the power trowels have been used too soon.
Grinning aggregate, where the base concrete stones appear just below or indeed in
the surface, is usually an indication that there is insufficient fines material in the
mix to enable formation of an adequate thickness of wearing surface. This can occur
with natural aggregates in some parts of the UK.
Blotching of the surface can occur when the concrete is cured under plastic sheet-
ing. It can also be a sign of inconsistent application of a spray-on curing membrane.
Weak surfaces, With such a high priority placed on the quality and durability of the wearing surface, it
bleeding, crazing, is not surprising that blemishes in this surface are of critical concern to the operators.
dusting and spalling
Bleeding is a phenomenon whereby excess water from the concrete rises in the first few
hours after casting and accumulates in ponds on the slab surface. The normal process
of evaporation to the atmosphere usually disposes of this rising water, but where there
is excess bleed, ponding results. Since this water cannot readily be removed, natural
evaporation time is extended which delays the subsequent floating and trowelling
operations.
Excess bleeding is more likely to occur with mixes that have a high water content, and
in this regard plasticizers or water-reducing agents can relieve the incidence. Also, it
occurs with aggregates with a small proportion of fine material, as this reduction in the
surface area allows the free water to migrate more readily. This issue should be con-
sidered at mix design stage and the blending of aggregates considered as an option if
the natural sand does not contain sufficient fines. The addition of polypropylene fibres
to the mix has been shown to be beneficial in compensating for this lack of ultra-fine
material in the aggregates.
37
Figure 15 Crack in the

wearing surface will rapidly
degenerate under constant
trafficking.
With rapid evaporation from the top surface in the first 4 to 6 hours, there is a danger
of plastic shrinkage cracking occurring in this surface. The reworking of the concrete in
the first floating carried out when the surface has just started to stiffen, reconstitutes
the top few millimetres, creating the basis of a mortar crust. This process still leaves the
surface with an open texture encouraging continuing free moisture migration. This
mortar layer is subsequently worked, compressed and polished in the later trowelling
process to generate a hard-wearing surface.
If over-consolidated during the initial floating, too many fines may be brought to the
surface. If the surface is trowelled off too early, this can lead to an excess of fines,
particularly cement, in the surface, causing subsequent dusting. Furthermore, the seal-
ing of the surface will trap moisture immediately below the trowelled crust, and in due
course under trafficking this will delaminate and break up.
The top wearing surface is sensitive most particularly during these early hours, and
during the subsequent few weeks, when the slab is curing and maturing, any rapid
changes in atmospheric conditions on the surfacei.e. temperature change, drying
wind, etc.can impose a differential behaviour between the surface and the base
concrete and cause the surface to craze (Figure 15).
Conclusion This brief summary of the potential problem areas in power-trowelled concrete surfaces
serves to highlight the essential prerequisites to producing a satisfactory product
a well-designed mix, an experienced finishing foreman, a controlled environment and
an effective curing regime.
It will have been seen from the above that specific features of the design and con-
struction options described in Section 3, while solving certain operational or ground
38
conditions, possess shortcomings which detract from their suitability for certain
applications. The most critical criteria here is whether the shortcoming is sufficiently
serious to render the design solution incapable of sustaining the operation during its
design life, and this raises the question of robustness.
The robustness concept identifies Use Categories and, in the appropriate sections, this
guide provides complementary advice on the suitability of a range of design and con-
struction methods and details.
Robustness categories and suggested typical applications are:

Very severe Steel handling plant
Manufacturing with swarf, grease and heavy traffic
Distribution of commercial goods
Severe Food distribution
General manufacturing
Moderate Retail unitsself-finished
Light manufacturing
Light Retail units with applied finishes, carpet, vinyl, etc.
Construction The following is a suggested grading of the robustness degree likely to be achieved
methods through each of the described construction methods.
Very severe: Large pour mesh reinforced, sawcut (dust filled), all constructed to
formula conditions, double angles to contraction joints, day joints off grid.
Severe: Large pour, mesh reinforced with sealed joints.
Moderate: Steel fibre reinforced with topping, jointless or otherwise, steel reinforced
joints.
Light: Steel fibre, no topping.
39
8. Desktop analysis
In order to ensure that a projected floor solution will perform satisfactorily in use, the
designer will carry out a desktop analysis. For the majority of structural elements in
buildings, this appraisal will follow a pattern of analysing the structure and applying the
guidelines of a British Standard Code of Practice. Since no Code of Practice exists for
this specialist element, the appraisal reverts to a more basic format, where, after the
appropriate analysis, the various in-service stresses and strains of the material are
assessed against recognized standard relationships or the results of pertinent laboratory
test data.
The basis for the structural analysis varies according to whether the floor is ground
bearing, suspended, plain concrete, fibre or bar reinforced. The applied loadings are also
variable, being UDL (or block stack), arrays of point loads (racks, trucks, etc.) or line
load (e.g. walls). Thus there is no single analytical route to concrete ground slab design.
Common to all such analyses, however, is the following general approach:

identify the appropriate limit state to be checked;
choose an analytical model which best replicates the structural behaviour of the
design;
choose a material behaviour model which facilitates correlation with material test
data or standard stress relationships.
There are three limit states of design, i.e. deflection, cracking and collapse. In everyday
design, one or two of these tend to be obviously critical.
The analytical model may be any of the following:

for ground bearing designsa beam or plate on elastic foundations;
for a suspended designa yield line, continuous beam or flat slab model.
The material behaviour model can also take several forms:

For plain concrete a simple linear elastic stress–strain relationship with a
maximum tensile strength.
For steel fibre reinforced slabsa quasi-plastic stress–strain relationship with a
reduced ‘equivalent’ post-cracking strength.
For steel fibre reinforced slabsa model based on a triangular or rectangular
compression stress block and a rectangular stress block representing the tensile
40
Desktop analysis
contribution of the fibres. This model can be extended to include the additional
tensile contribution of bar reinforcement.
For the more complex designs jointless and pile supportedthe design is supplied by
and based on research undertaken by the steel fibre supplier and therefore, it is
not possible to give any further precise guidance here. However, to illustrate the
methodology described in this text, two basic ground-bearing designs are given to
illustrate the two approaches:
stress relieved, plain concrete;
jointless, steel fibre reinforced.
Examples The loading regime is a back-to-back pallet-racking installation having leg loads of
5 tonnes (equivalent to a Heavy Load Class). The subbase, K, is taken as 54 MN/m3.
1. Trial solution: Check 1: Corner condition at collapse

190-mm thick C40 Limit state: Collapse, corner loading condition
concrete ‘stress Analytical model: Yield line plate on elastic subbase (Meyerhof )
relieved’ Material behaviour: Linear elastic with maximum tensile strength.
From the Meyerhof equation:

Pðcollapse loadÞ ¼ 2:0ð1 þ 4a=lÞ M0
For the critical corner condition, the back-to-back base plates are taken as a nominal
100 mm square, and at 100 mm clear of the joints:
a ¼ [(200 500)/]0.5
l ¼ 761 mm
M0 ¼ fct(h2/6) 103 1.10
fct ¼ 0.393( fcu)0.667 the standard tension/compression strength relationship, and
the 1.10 factor representing the design loading applied after 90 days concrete
maturing.
Thus,
P ¼ 2:0½1 þ ð4 178:4=761Þ
M0 ¼ 3:87M0
and
M0 ¼ 4:60 1:1 1902 103 =6 ¼ 30:4 kN m
P ¼ 117.65 kN, and allowing for a load factor of 1.5 and a load transfer factor of 0.7 for
the corner condition, the maximum working corner load is
117:65=ð1:5 0:7Þ ¼ 112:0 kN ð11:4 tonnesÞ:
Check 2: Edge loading

Limit state: Cracking at edge-loading condition
Analytical model: Elastic plate on elastic subbase (Westergaard)
Material behaviour: Linear elastic with maximum tensile strength.
There are two conditions to be checked, as shown in the baseplate sketches:

with the back-to-back legs parallel with the joint;
with these legs at right angles to the joint.
41
Figure 16 Additional stress

due to an adjacent load.
For the edge condition r ¼ [(200 100)/]0.5 ¼ 112.8 mm

For the internal condition r ¼ [(100 100)/]0.5 ¼ 56.4 mm
Basic edge stress 621.8 kN/m2/tonne (from the Kelley equation)
Basic internal stress 438.8 kN/m2/tonne (from the Westergaard equation)
(a) With the back-to-back legs parallel with the joint

Effect of adjacent loads (Figures 16 and 17):
Load 2 at 300 mm: 300/761 ¼ 0.4l, add 13%
Load 3 at 900 mm: 900/761 ¼ 1.2l, subtract 10%
Load 4 at 1200 mm: 1200/761 ¼ 1.6l, subtract 11%
Other internal loads are at 2800 mm (3.7l) and have no effect. Therefore, the
maximum working stress, allowing for load transfer is:
5 1:5 0:85 0:92 621:8 ¼ 3647 kN=m2 < 5056
(b) With these legs at right angles to the joint

Effect of adjacent loads:
Load 2 at 450 mm from edge: 450/761 ¼ 0.6l, add 25% from internal load
curve
Load 3 at 1350 mm: 1350/761 ¼ 1.8l, add 3%
Load 4 at 2800 mm: 3.7l, subtract 3% for adjacent edge loads (2).
So maximum working stress, allowing for load transfer, is:
5 1:5 0:85 ð621:8 0:94 þ 438:8 0:28Þ ¼ 4509 kN=m2 < 5056
Commentary. It will be noted that the effect of adjacent loads is significant in these
particular calculations. This slab will be reinforced with an A142 weldmesh throughout
(50 mm bottom cover) and sawcut on a 6 m grid with contraction joints at 90 m
maximum centres.
42
Desktop analysis
Figure 17 Positions of maximum stress for different combinations of loading.
43
2. Trial solution: Check 1: Internal loading condition

150-mm thick C40 Limit state: Collapse, internal loading condition
concrete steel fibre Analytical model: Yield line plate on elastic subbase (Meyerhof )
reinforced ‘jointless’ Material behaviour: Quasi-plastic with reduced equivalent post-cracking moment
solution capacity Re,3 ¼ 50% (from fibre suppliers data).
From the Meyerhof equation:

Pðcollapse loadÞ ¼ 6:0ð1 þ 2a=lÞ M0
where M0 ¼ Mn þ Mp, in which Mp is the cracking moment of the concrete and Mn is
the post-cracking moment capacity of the steel fibre reinforced section.
Mp ¼ fct ðh2 =6Þ 103
Mn ¼ Re;3 fct ðh2 =6Þ 103
fct ¼ 0:393ð fcu Þ0:667
With nominal 100 mm square base plates, and taking the combined back-to-back
base-plate area of 400 100 mm,
a ¼ 112:8 mm; l ¼ 640 mm
So
P ¼ 6:0ð1 þ ð2 112:8=640ÞÞ M0 ¼ 8:11M0
With a jointless design, the effects of restraint stresses have to be quantified. This is
usually evaluated by considering the friction on the subbase/subgrade created by the
self-weight of the slab, so the formula used is
¼ s w=h 2
where ¼ coefficient of subgrade friction, taken as 0.7 for a plastic subgrade
membrane
s ¼ length of the cast bay, here 50 m
w ¼ self-weight of the concrete and
h ¼ depth of the section.
So in this case this restraint stress is

0:7 50 0:15 24=150 2 ¼ 0:42 N=mm2 :
This is in effect a field tension operating throughout the floor with this maximum stress
at the centre of the cast bay. Now although it is an incongruity to consider this stress
alongside the plastic redistribution of stresses used in the yield line approach, there is
presently no other way of appraising these jointless designs without such violation of
principles. Accordingly, it is proposed that these restraint stresses are factored (1.5)
and deducted from the joint stress available for the Mn plus Mp moment stresses.
Available stress capacity ¼ ð1 þ Re;3 Þ fct 2 1:5 0:42
¼ 1:50 4:59 1:46 ¼ 5:42 N=mm2 :
Hence
P ¼ 8:11 5:42 1502 =6 ¼ 164:8 kN,
and reduced by load factor to a working load this becomes
164:8=1:5 9:81 ¼ 11:2 tonnes < 10:
44
Desktop analysis
Commentary. This is not a structurally correct appraisal and therefore the results
should be considered only as an estimate. Clearly during the course of its life the
subbase friction can be greater than simply that generated by the slab self-weight, due
to the imposed load. Restraint stresses will be reactivated with any changes in ambient
conditions, i.e. raising or reducing operating temperatures in the building. There is also
the potential for some dissipation of restraint stress by creep. It will be noted that this
calculation addresses the internal load condition and not the generally more onerous
edge and corner condition. This reflects the practice, not necessarily condoned, that in
large jointless floors these two conditions occur with less frequency.
45
9. Planning and managing
the project
The task of manufacturing a high-quality product in an incomplete site environment is

not to be underestimated. In such conditions, circumstances may always arise which
impede the planned process. The objective of effective project management is to
achieve a totally satisfactory end result by logical means such as to avoid any duplica-
tion of effort or activity and any remedial works or making good. This is particularly
critical in the construction of high-quality floor slabs. Although measures are available
for rectifying issues that do not achieve the standards specified, in all instances such
measures never entirely reproduce the performance levels that are achievable in the
first instance. To ensure that the end result totally fulfils its intended purpose, careful
and considerate attention is necessary at all stages in the project. For this purpose the
principal stages are Preparation, Execution and Post-execution, and the following text
discuss the issues that are relative to these stages.
Preparation At the initial discussions on a project, the intended application for the building must
be defined. It is no longer adequate to talk in terms of ‘commercial or industrial
development’ because, as will be seen, the methodology, details and major consider-
ations in the design and construction can be affected by the end-user’s operation.
Specifications In any property-related contract, specifications define the standards to be applied in

the design, performance, materials and workmanship of the works contained in the
contract. Many different contractual arrangements are exercised in the construction
industry today where, for example, the responsibility for design and construction of
whole, or constituent elements of projects, can be split between consultant and
contractor or can be consolidated into a ‘design and build’ form. Accordingly, specifica-
tions relating to these particular elements must reflect the precise contractual arrange-
ments. It is important for all parties involved that the contents of these specifications
should be well defined, both in terms of the works they cover and their interface with
works outside, but influential on, the scope of works contained in the contract.
Concrete ground floors are an element for which the provision of appropriate specifica-
tion clauses at all stages in the project are of paramount performance. Incompatible
and therefore potentially conflicting priorities in the performance requirements can
lead to an excessively onerous specification in one area, causing the risk of generating
46
Planning and managing the project
an eventual failure in another. Failure to address this issue reasonably and diligently
may lead to later disputes.
Specifications, which will be formulated between client and consultant, may take the
form of a simple ‘fit for purpose’ description. They will also be required to support the
interface provisions where a subcontractor takes responsibility for the design and con-
struction of a ground floor slab on a subgrade prepared by others. This demonstrates
the range of different specification forms that may be addressed by the engineer or
building professional. The issues detailed in these specifications will vary according
to the interface relationship covered by the particular contract/subcontract being
described.
Construction logistics With the recognition that the concrete ground floor slab is a major asset in any
industrial building, and with the speed of construction that modern methods of floor-
laying can achieve, the planning and site organization of industrial buildings has
received a critical review.
For the best results, the building should be sealed from the weather such that the
effects of rain and wind can be excluded. Even the slightest of crosswinds can
accelerate moisture migration and exacerbate the curing process.
In arriving at a suitable arrangement of pours and joints, consideration must be given

to the means of access of concrete trucks to the work as it progresses. For this purpose
it may be necessary to omit sections of the cladding.
Continuity of concrete supply is very important, particularly with large-pour

construction, and the construction sequence should be planned such that no cold
jointsi.e. areas of the face where an initial set has formed
are created.
The process of preparing the bay, laying the slip membrane, placing and finishing the
concrete can take many hours, and will be longer during the winter when temperatures
are low and air moisture levels are high. It is important that adequate labour should
be available throughout the various stages of the operation in order to ensure that
the standard of quality is maintained. The supply of concrete, particularly where the
project is affected by potential road traffic congestion, may require to be phased during
construction to avoid periods of peak traffic. This can create pouring times that are
outside normal site hours. Site facilities, however, must be provided throughout the
operation.
Large-pour constructions make extraordinary demands on local concrete supplies.

Alternative supply arrangements should be investigated and adequate notice of pour
programmes given to ensure that there are no supply problems.
Execution While other elements of the building have been recognized as ‘trade items’, the
concrete floor has widely been regarded as part of the ground works package and thus
within the scope of the concrete gang whose work package includes foundations,
drains, etc. To achieve the quality of floor now required by industry, the skills of
specialist subcontractors are essential. New machinery, such as the Laserscreed, have
improved control on placing and levelling the concrete, but experience on issues such
as the timing of trowelling and aggregate grading are essential to the production of
successful floors. While design practice guides can provide the general understanding
47
of the critical issues only the input of a seasoned tradesperson will provide the
opportunity to meet all the performance criteria now essential.
During execution, the prime objective is to ensure that all the provisions considered
during the pre-planning are effectively addressed. To this end a series of quality control
procedures are the best means of ensuring that the disciplines necessary to maintain an
acceptable and consistent standard are exercised. Slump tests, to monitor the work-
ability and water content of the mix, and control cube tests should demonstrate that
material standards are being monitored.
Post-execution Curing by spray-applied membrane is the most effective. This can be applied
immediately after final trowelling and thus before sawcutting. While polythene is also
Curing effective as a curing membrane it is easily displaced and can leave a variable and
blotchily coloured surface.
Protection While the high-quality slab is constructed and finished to provide a durable finish, it
must be protected if this condition is to be maintained until at least contract handover.
Ensuing trades can do considerable damage to the surface by way of dropping
scaffolding and fittings, spilling oil and brake fluid from trucks, etc. It is important,
therefore, to make provision for protecting the surface and this can best be achieved by
covering with a layer of hardboard or other inexpensive sheet panel material.
The conduct and ‘Defined traffic’ is concerned with variations along and at right angles to the path of
interpretation of trucks running in prescribed aisles. This flatness criteria, i.e. the Properties I to III of
flatness surveys the Concrete Society Report, are only pertinent where the position of these aisles is
defined prior to construction since the characteristics surveyed relate to two specific
wheel tracks in prescribed positions on the floor, and not to any general or arbitrary
aisle positions. As the construction methodology will have been evolved around the
required flatness provisions in these prescribed aisles, the appropriate survey lines will
have been determined and these can be set out at the same time as the lines for
sawcutting.
Any survey of the flatness of a floor is essentially concerned with obtaining a

representative sample of data relative to the surface produced. Data is recorded, not
continuously, but on a grid with fixed intervals. For ‘defined movement’ (Figure 18)
this grid has an interval of 300 mm down the aisle and at right-angled points separated
by the track width of the truck. By relating successive survey results on this grid, a
series of values of Properties I–III can be generated.
For ‘random traffic’ provisions Property IV is recommended as the critical parameter

for satisfying the less critical conditions. Although the Concrete Society has expanded
the ‘free movement’ provisions to include a revised Property II for use in ‘random
traffic’ areas, its validity has not been proved in practice and the need for these further
survey measures has not been justified.
Because the surface of the floor is continuous and not simply a series of points on a
regular grid, any change in the starting point for the ‘down-aisle’ ‘defined traffic’ survey
or the position of the datum in each direction for the 3-m grid of the ‘random traffic’
survey will generate an entirely different set of data. This is not important since the
object of the survey is to obtain a representative sample and to verify statistically that
48
Planning and managing the project
Figure 18 A surveying
machine for recording defined
movement properties.
the standard of flatness achieved complies with that specified. In order to obtain an
impartial representative sample it is strongly recommended that the precise location of
the starting point and datum for these surveys be agreed during the approval stage of
the floor construction layout. It is recommended that the ‘down-aisle’ survey starts at
1 m before the centreline of the first rack upright, and for the 3-m grid the datum be
chosen conveniently, e.g. centreline of building in one direction and 1 m back from the
edge of the loading dock.
The object of any survey is to obtain data in order to assess the quality of surface
regularity of the floor. In the first instance the aim is to demonstrate compliance with
the standards specified; however, according to the success or otherwise in this regard,
there may be a second aim of identifying those specific areas that fall outside
acceptable limits.
With any operation that has been ‘finished’ in an incomplete building environment,
and within the constraints of construction equipment and human resources available,
there is inevitably the risk of ‘rogue’ results. The survey may show a small number of
results close to the maximum permitted tolerance, but this would be acceptable as such
instances should not, subject to degree, render the entire aisle or floor unsatisfactory.
If it is shown that the surface had a high proportion of results approaching this limit
then it would indicate a poor level of control and a floor likely to cause problems in
operation. Conversely, if the majority of results gave low readings, this would indicate a
floor with good quality control. To this end, Table 7.1 of the Concrete Society report
defines 100% limits and 95% limitsand by applying these values to the results of a
floor flatness survey the acceptability of the area surveyed can be assessed. The 100%
figure is the maximum permitted tolerance in the Property figure which should not be
exceeded in any of the survey results, and the 95% figure is that which should not be
exceeded by more than 5% of the results.
49
Interpretation of There are three scenarios which the survey may produce:
flatness survey (a) the floor satisfies both 100% and 95% figures;
results
(b) the floor meets the 95% figure but not the 100% in a few places;
(c) the floor fails to meet 95% figures notwithstanding the 100% compliance.
Clearly (a) presents no problem, (b) reflects the occasional lapse and since the 95%
compliance suggests a floor with an otherwise acceptable level of control, a more
detailed survey or local remedial action may be appropriate. Scenario (c) suggests a
floor that has generally a poor level of quality control, with widespread lack of compli-
ance. Any remedial action, such as local grinding of high spots, will create a surface
of very varying appearance and wear characteristics.
The objective of the methodology approach developed in this design guide has been to
achieve a floor surface that is compliant with the appropriate standards. Clearly there
are occasions where some remedial recourse may be most expedient. In case (b) above,
the locations where 100% limits are exceeded may be identified and the offending
areas locally ground to achieve the 95% limit. If, as in case (c), there is widespread
non-compliance then the options are removal and replacement, large-scale grinding
and possibly a thin epoxy or polymer surfacing.
50
10. Materials and
construction details
Subbase The subbase is both a temporary working surface and a constituent part of the ultimate
load-distributing slab structure. In this latter role its contribution is manifested in the
structural design by its enhancing the effective modulus of subgrade reaction.
As a temporary working platform it has to protect the subgrade from the weather and
the heavy construction plant involved in the distribution and placing of the concrete.
For this task, the subbase should be of sufficient thickness to enable concrete lorries to
traverse the formation without permanently rutting its surface. The subbase a granu-
lar material ideally of Type 1 DOT material which, being angular, provides a better
binding mediumshould be laid and compacted with appropriate mechanical plant
in 150-mm layers. The surface should be brush blinded with fine granular material
to provide an even surface for the polythene membrane. A 25- or 50-mm sand bed
should not be used over the subbase as this will be easily displaced under traffic. The
same laser technology (Figure 19) that is used in large-pour construction to control
surface levels is now also available, coupled to the plant used to place and level the
Figure 19 A flat well-

consolidated subbase is critical
to any ground-bearing
concrete industrial slab.
51
subbase. The surface level and condition of the subbase are especially important in
ground slabs. In this situation, where the concrete is acting unreinforced in flexure,
any variation in its thickness affects twice the corresponding percentage variation in its
structural capacity. Since any depression will be accompanied by an adjacent bulging in
the subbase, this will cause not only a potential subbase restraint but a significant
weakness in the slab.
On certain subgrades, such as sensitive clays where the usual subbase materials are
easily rolled into and lost in the subgrade, it may be more cost-effective to use a rolled
dry lean concrete subbase. The effects of this additional concrete layer can be reflected
in the design by reducing the thickness of the main concrete slab.
Slip membrane For most industrial buildings a damp-proof membrane is not required to satisfy the
Building Regulations. A membrane is, however, usually provided in order to avoid loss
of fines into the subbase and to act as a low friction surface to enable the slab to adjust
to drying shrinkage stresses without restraint from the subbase. A polythene sheet of
1000 microns is sufficient to withstand subsequent construction traffic and provide a
degree of free movement to the underside of the slab. Joints in the membrane should
be lapped by a minimum of 150 mm. This membrane should not be allowed to ruck as
this may cause intrusions into the concrete, reducing the section locally and providing
local restraint.
Concrete quality The question of concrete quality is again one of judicious compromise. In respect of
and admixtures the fact that the concrete is required to perform in flexure, it is the tensile strength
of the material that is critical to the capacity of the slab. However, since simple,
reliable control tests of tensile strength have not been widely accepted by the concrete
industry, the specification and control of concrete for ground floor slabs is based on the
compressive strength. A lower bound relationship is adopted for the tensile strength
appropriate to a particular compressive strengththe use of crushed aggregates does
provide improved tensile strength which may be exploited with control trials with
beam tests if the project merits.
A good-quality concrete capable of providing, if so required, a self-finish floated and

trowelled surface can be achieved with a C30 mix having a minimum cement mix
content of 325 kg/m3 and a water/cement ratio of 0.5. Higher strength mixes, up to
C40, can be used but will require more cement, and therefore more mixing water, and
this will magnify accordingly the need for good curing and control of the environment.
The higher strength concrete may facilitate a thinner slab, but it will not necessarily
improve the durability of the wearing surface.
The normal precautions of excluding harmful constituents in the aggregates are

necessary, but particularly for concrete ground slabs, especially where these are to be
self-finished, soft materials such as lignite, etc., are to be strictly eliminated from the
aggregates.
Cement replacement with ground-granulated blastfurnace slag (GGBS) is also now

practised. Substitution of up to 20% by GGBS has been found to have little or no effect
on the structural performance or durability of the concrete and can be useful in
controlling the setting time and limiting bleed.
52
Materials and construction details
Joints Day joints in large-pour slabs should be heavily dowelled (16 mm 600 mm bars at
300 mm centres) and placed midway between sawn joints. This will ensure that no
Formed joints movement takes place in the jointonly spread among sawn joints (Figure 20).
Sawn joints Sawn joints (Figure 21), also called induced joints, are made by diamond disc cutting
approximately one-quarter to one-third of the slab depth into the concrete, thus
creating a potential weak plane such that a full depth crack will be induced at this
Figure 20 Even the best of

formed joints is vulnerable to
damage during construction.
53
Figure 21 Sawcutting.
Figure 22 Sawn joints show

limited opening and surface
quality of arrises is consistent.
section during the shrinkage process. The slab should be sawcut within 24 hours after
casting, i.e. when the surface is capable of accepting the operation without damage.
Bays should be of rectangular plan shape with a maximum plan ratio of 1 : 1.5. For
ratios greater than this, uneven opening of joints may be experienced. The distance
between sawcuts is dependent on a number of variables. The recommended spacing for
stress-relieved floors is 6 m. At longer spacings sudden drying or falls in temperature
may bring about a ‘flash crack’ when a new sawcut is attempted, or a crack midway
between planned incisions. For thin overlays, closer sawn joint centres are necessary
to cope with the concentration of moisture migration from the top surface and the
increased tendency of the thinner slab to curl.
For most industrial buildings, sealing of these joints is not necessary (Figure 22). In the
course of normal housekeeping, these joints tend to fill with fine material. Should it be
54
necessary to fill these joints, it is prudent to consider this a two-stage operation,

i.e. using a temporary soft product initially and replacing this, after some 9 months
when the majority of probable opening has taken place, with a hard filler material.
Alternatives to sawcutting have been marketed, such as plastic strips pressed into the
surface of the slab immediately after casting. While these strips also effectively fill any
stress-relieving joint, the process of pushing them into the surface alters the constitu-
tion of the adjacent concrete, causing this to be a concentration of fine material. This
reworking of the surface reduces its integrity and the arrises are potentially weakened.
Lines of formed or sawn joints should be continuous across main slab joints, i.e.
contraction or day joints. Failure to observe this may cause propagated cracking in the
adjacent bay. The sequence of sawcutting can often affect their ultimate opening
working in from the ends or edges of a pour is to be favoured in this regard.
It has been the practice in the past in long-bay construction to provide triangular
timber crack inducers on the slip membrane at locations corresponding with the sawn
joint positions. This is no longer recommended since it is found that these timbers are
readily displaced during placing of the concrete, causing cracking of the slab in pos-
itions other than those planned.
Movement and Around the perimeter of the building and all internal obstructions such as structural
isolation joints columns, service access covers, etc., separation joints should be provided. Where
movement will only be in a direction away from the joint, as against an edge beam, the
joint may be effected by simply returning the membrane up the face. Where, however,
there is an obstruction which provides potential restriction to the slab’s lateral move-
ment, such as column projections, etc., then a filled gap should be provided. These are
recommended as 20 mm wide filled with a compressible lower filler and finished with
an elastomeric filler. Final application of the surface sealant should be left as late as
possible in the construction programme. Movement joints are also necessary in large
buildings to limit the maximum length of the slab to 90 m.
Movement joints, where they occur within areas of trafficking within the building and
at door openings, should be provided with double steel angle edge protection. It is
important that these angles are supported by the edge formwork such that their top
surfaces remain horizontal and flush with the surface of the slab throughout.
Loading docks and the surrounding areas of floor are subjected to the heaviest
concentration of trafficking and it is very important that the backfill to the pit walls
should be well consolidated to provide long-term support to the slab. Being commonly
at the edge of the slab the detailing must take into consideration the perimeter move-
ment joint. A potential solution is to cast the slab over the wall with a good slip
membrane between and angle protection to the slab edge.
Monolithic finishes A durable wearing surface can be achieved from a good-quality concrete properly
consolidated, floated, trowelled and cured.
For more heavy duty applications, where, for example, steel wheels or the dragging of
steel equipment is common, special mineral or metallic aggregate mixeswhich can be
applied preferably by machine to the finished slab surface after floating and before
trowellingare to be recommended (see Figure 4).
55
Weldmesh Weldmesh reinforcement performs two functions:

reinforcement it provides a continuous tie force capable of motivating the creep relaxation of the
maturing concrete;
it maintains close contact of the two faces of the slab across sawn joints, thus
ensuring load transfer by aggregate interlock.
Load transfer is essential in any industrial concrete ground slab. Without load transfer,
and under the passage of a moving point load, adjacent slabs will displace vertically.
This will momentarily create a step and cause wear with the eventual breakdown of
the arris. Also, the repeated movement will cause a pumping action on the subbase/
subgrade and this local loading will breakdown the subgrade support. The differential
movement between slabs will thus be increased and the situation will degrade
progressively.
Aggregate interlock is very effective in ensuring load transfer, provided the opening of
the sawn joint can be limited to 1 mm or so. If the joint opens more than 2 mm then
under repeated trafficking the interlock will be gradually eroded. For this reason it is
important that, in the planning of sawn joints, no situations are created that would
encourage any one sawn joint to open more than its neighbours.
In both the functions described, the contribution of the mesh can be seen to be largely
medium term, i.e. when the slab has matured through controlled curing all subsequent
structural stresses are absorbed by the concrete itself, and since no further drying
shrinkage will take place, the sawn joints will maintain their stabilized width. In the
last decade or so, many millions of square feet of industrial floor have been laid in the
UK using the large-pour technique with comparatively light steel mesh reinforcement
placed towards the bottom of the slab. The mechanism by which this arrangement
secures stress-free slabs with very small movements at the sawn joints has been
detailed in an earlier section.
For most effective and reliable results, the mesh reinforcement should be placed at or
just below the mid-depth of the concrete section on spacer blocks or steel chairs
(Figure 23). In this way it will provide the matrix for developing stability of the
Figure 23 Weldmesh placed

on chairs immediately prior to
casting the next line of
concrete.
56
concrete during curing, will not be cut during the sawing and will not interfere with
any wire guidance system cut into the slab or fixings for plant, racking and guide rails.
The following tabulation gives mesh sizes found by experience to be suitable according
to slab depths for normal construction circumstances and effective curing.
Slab depth (mm) 150–200 200–275 >275

Weldmesh reference A142 A193 A252
This approach to the provision of mesh reinforcement in concrete ground slabs appears
radically different from that of earlier design guides such as the C&CA publication
(reference [8]) and the Concrete Society Working Party Report TR 34 (reference [5]),
where the mesh reinforcement is
(a) proportioned according to a premise that the tensile force to be resisted is equiva-
lent to the potential build-up of subgrade friction on the base of the slab, and
(b) detailed to be in the top of the slab with some 50-mm cover, but is discontinued at
the sawn joint positions and replaced with a short strip at the bottom of the slab.
The difference results from the fact, stated in these documents, that the mesh is
provided ‘to reduce the risk of random cracking’, whereas the objective of the
principles described here is to marshal the natural mechanisms of the concrete such
that the stresses generated during curing are dissipated, by appropriate detailing and
curing, such as to eliminate non-structural cracking. In fact, these principles have been
recognized by the Concrete Society and incorporated into the latest revision of their
Technical Report No. 22 entitled ‘Non-structural cracks in concrete’ (reference [7]).
The philosophy of this approach appears to be an extension of a design method for the
pre-stressing of concrete slabs where clearly the applied compressive force at the ends
of a bay will be reduced at the middle of its length due to the drag effect on the
subgrade. While the basic design of pre-stressing allows for creep relaxation, the simple
translation of this philosophy to the plain concrete slab does not. This ‘subgrade tension’
approach to the proportioning of reinforcement still recommends that intermediate
(sawn) joints be included, but no account of their behaviour in relieving stress build-up
is made in the approach. The formula is accordingly misleading and the conceptthe
provision of heavier mesh than is required and the logistics of ensuring that the mesh is
located close to the top surface and not simply on spacer blocks on the membrane
is an unnecessary expense that would be better spent on improving curing conditions.
Fibres In recent years, fibres have been introduced into the construction of industrial ground
slabs (Figure 24). There are essentially two different types, polypropylene and steel.
These are marketed in a variety of different formats by a number of companies. While
these are commonly grouped under the same generic term, i.e. fibres, the material and
form of these elements create for a range of potential influences on the maturing and
hardened concrete. The contribution of these fibres to the performance of the slab is
potentially threefold.
1. They can provide a matrix which maintains the integrity of the concrete during
curing.
2. They can act as a structural reinforcement providing theoretical post-cracking
strength and thus extending the load-carrying range of the concrete.
57
Figure 24 Steel fibres

introduced into the ready-
mixed concrete on site.
3. They can improve the resilience of the section and enhance its resistance to impact
loading.
Research also suggests that their inclusion can reduce the incidence of bleeding in the
laid concrete.
Pre-stressing Post-tensioning of floors is a further development that has been used successfully in
recent years. Its particular benefits are:
1. The pre-stress, usually of the order of 1 N/mm2 after losses, effectively increases the
flexural capacity of the slab.
2. Stress-relieving sawn joints are not provided. Light mesh ensures that any drying
shrinkage cracks are kept small and any such fissures are closed by the pre-stress.
Also the formed joints, if the floor is cast long bay, are closed under pre-stress
eliminating much of the potential weakness that their otherwise subsequent opening
usually exposes.
Pre-stressing of ground slabs is a specialist technique and should only be undertaken by

appropriately experienced subcontractors and suppliers.
58
Appendix
This is a short review of issues related to stress evaluation.
Internal stress:
Westergaard’s 4 log ðl=bÞ þ 1:069
i ¼ 2:70ð1 þ ÞP kN=mm2
equation h2
where l ¼ [Eh3/12(12)k]0.25
b ¼ (1.6r2 þ h2)0.5 0.675h for r < 1.72h

in which r is the radius of circular area equal to the loaded area or effective loaded
area.
This equation determines the maximum flexural stress directly under the loaded
area–tension at the slab underside. At a distance from the loaded area, there is a radial
flexural stress which reduces as the displacement increases and then reverses such as to
produce tension on the top of the slab at approximately l from the centre of the applied
load. There is also a tangential stress, a hoop stress which is tensile on the bottom of
the slab and simply reduces as the displacement increases (see Figure 16).
When evaluating the maximum stress beneath a load, the effects of adjacent loads,
edge loads and other internal loads at that point, must be considered. When the adja-
cent load is an internal load, both directions of stress, i.e. radial and tangential, must
be examined in order to determine the most critical combination.
The internal condition applies when the centre of the load is more than 500 mm from
the slab edge or joint.
Edge stress:
Kelley’s equation 4 log ðl=bÞ þ log ðb=25:4Þ
e ¼ 5:19ð1 þ 0:54ÞP kN=mm2
h2
where b ¼ (1.6r2 þ h2)0.5 0.675h for r < 1.72h
in which r is the radius of the semi-circular area equal to the loaded area or effective
loaded area.
59

This equation gives the maximum flexural stress directly under the loaded
area–tension on the slab underside. At a distance from the loaded area, there is a
radial stress which reduces and at approximately 0.7l reverses to become tensile at the
top of the slab. There is no ‘hoop stress’ for the edge-loading condition. When an edge
load falls within the quadrant of the critical stress line of a corner load, the edge load
should be considered to be consolidated into an effective corner load and the
combined corner load situation reappraised.
Corner stress: ( )
Pickett’s equation 1 ðr=lÞ0:5 =½0:925 þ 0:22ðr=lÞ
c ¼ 41:2P 2
kN=mm2
h
where r is the radius of the circular area equal to the effective loaded area.
This equation determines

pffiffiffi the maximum flexural stress which occurs on top of the
slab at a distance 2[ 2 rl
0:5 from the corner, and is a radial stress. Being critical on
the top of the slab, this value is often increased by the effects of adjacent edge and
internal loads.
The Meyerhof Corresponding to the three possible point load positions, the Meyerhof formulae are as
formulae for the follows.
collapse load of
concrete ground Central load
supported slabs P0 ¼ 6:0ð1 þ 2a=LÞM0
Edge load
P0 ¼ 3:5ð1 þ 3a=LÞM0
Corner load
P0 ¼ 2:0ð1 þ 4a=LÞM0
In all the above, a is the radius of the equivalent circular contact area, L is the radius of
the relative stiffness as in the Westergaard formulae above, and M0 ¼ Mn þ Mp ,
where Mn and Mp are the negative and positive moments at the failure sections—the
one being the moment immediately prior to the cracking and the other the moment at
the first cracked section after its cracking. Thus for plain concrete and steel fibre
reinforced concrete, the moment at a section to cause cracking Mp ¼ fct bh2 =6 and for
steel fibre reinforced concrete, the moment at the section after cracking, Mn ¼
ðRe;3 =100Þ fct bh2 =6.
Base plates and Base plates to racking and other structures have little effect in enlarging the effective
contact areas loaded area. The relative stiffness of the comparatively thin base plates to that of the
concrete slab preclude any such effect. It is practice to evaluate stresses with racking
having a notional 100 mm square base plate and raised storage floors having 200 mm
square plates.
60

Appendix
To allow for the contribution of the slab thickness in effectively spreading the area of
load application at edge and corner condition, it is practice to consider such loads
applied at 100 mm clear of the joint as the illustrations.
For most slabs it will be found that racking loads are the critical issue in the design and
loads from trucks are relatively small. However, where wheel loads from industrial
trucks are a critical issue the wheel contact area may be evaluated from contact pres-
sures of 0.7, 1.25 and 1.7 N/mm2 for pneumatic, cushion and solid wheels respectively.
Concrete flexural The relationship of flexural strength ( fct)to compressive strength ( fcu)is dependent on
2=3
stress aggregate type, angular or rounded. A lower bound equation of fct ¼ 0:393 fcu is used.
Since the concrete will have been cast some time before the building is used
operationally, it is practice to allow for a 10% increase in the flexural strength to allow
for a notional 90-day curing period.
Load transfer At slab joints, formed or induced, there is a break in the section such that no bending
moments are transferred. However, load transfer at such joints is achieved by either
dowels (in the case of formed joints) or aggregate interlock (for sawn or induced
joints). Research has shown that corner and edge flexural stresses are reduced by this
load transfer and a figure of 0.7 is used as the efficiency factor for corner stresses where
the corner is contained within adjacent slabs and 0.85 for edge stresses.
61

References
1. The Design of Ground Supported Concrete Industrial Floor Slabs. ITN 11. British Cement
Association, Crowthorne, 1988.
2. BS 6399: Part 1: 1996. Design Loading for Buildings. British Standards Institution, London,
1984.
3. Classes of Imposed Floor Loads for Warehouses. Information Paper IP 19/87. Building Research
Establishment, Watford, 1987.
4. BS 8204. In-situ Floorings. British Standards Institution, London.
5. Concrete Industrial Ground Floors. Technical Report TR 34. Concrete Society, London, 1994.
6. Design of Floors on Ground. TT2550 Cement and Concrete Association, Wexham Springs,
1982.
7. Non-Structural Cracks in Concrete. Technical Report TR 22 (revised). Concrete Society,
London, 1992.
8. Concrete Ground Floors Their Design, Construction and Finish. Cement and Concrete
Association, Wexham Springs, 1982.
62

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Concrete industrial ground floors

Where appropriate, the guides will feature checklists to be used as an aide-mémoire on

Frank R. Neal CEng BSc MSc DIC MIStructE FICE

Distributors for Thomas Telford books are

First published 1996

ISBN: 0 7277 3137 8

# Institution of Civil Engineers, 1996, 2002

All rights, including translation, reserved. Except as permitted by the Copyright,

Produced by Gray Publishing, Tunbridge Wells, Kent

As the advent of ready-mixed plants allowed greater volumes of concrete to be laid

Slip membrane/methane barrier

Figure 1 Typical slab

incorporated the linking arrangementi.e. dowels or jogglesof the earlier small-bay

Figure 3 The Laserscreed

Figure 4 Laserscreed and

Ground bearing. If the subgrade is adequate or can be improved by vibro or other

There are further variants to the basic ground-bearing method, including:

Site investigation information is necessary to enable these strategic decisions to be

Figure 6 Reach trucks carry

Figure 7 VNA trucksthe

As a logistics solution, VNA trucks are generally accepted as practical up to a total

Figure 8 Top-guided trucks

Figure 10 Free movement

Any ground-bearing concrete slab is entirely dependent on its supporting subgrade.

In considering whether a subgrade is suitable for a particular project, some measure of

Figure 11 The load class

The narrow- and wide-aisle operations of Category 3 do not embody ‘defined

Figure 12 Flatness criteria of

Is the slab to be ground bearing or is a suspended solution necessary?

In long-bay, narrow-bay and wide-bay construction, the down-bay flatness is

Large-pour and wide-bay construction can achieve Category 2 ‘defined movement’

As has been described above, particular construction methods are appropriate to

In order to predict the behaviour of materials and structures in service, engineers

The use of concrete as a load-distributing/wearing surface is fundamentally different

The importance of a durable and, therefore, implicitly crack-free working surface is

As described above, the detailing of weldmesh/sawcut floors is such that restrained

Other proprietary designs include additional bar reinforcement in beam strips to

Shortcomings are inherent characteristics of a particular design or construction detail

Shortcomings Some typical shortcomings are discussed below.

Formed dowelled longitudinal joints are a frequent feature of traditional long-bay

To overcome the relative fragility of concrete immediately adjacent to formed joints a

Excessive or uneven opening of sawcut joints is usually caused by inappropriate pour

Figure 13 Sawn joints stand

Measures such as ensuring a weathertight enclosure, reducing bleed water and

Figure 14 Surface crazing.

Figure 15 Crack in the

Robustness categories and suggested typical applications are:

Common to all such analyses, however, is the following general approach:

The analytical model may be any of the following:

The material behaviour model can also take several forms:

1. Trial solution: Check 1: Corner condition at collapse

From the Meyerhof equation:

Check 2: Edge loading

There are two conditions to be checked, as shown in the baseplate sketches:

Figure 16 Additional stress

For the edge condition r ¼ [(200  100)/]0.5 ¼ 112.8 mm

(a) With the back-to-back legs parallel with the joint

(b) With these legs at right angles to the joint

Figure 17 Positions of maximum stress for different combinations of loading.

2. Trial solution: Check 1: Internal loading condition

From the Meyerhof equation:

So in this case this restraint stress is

¼ 1:50  4:59 1:46 ¼ 5:42 N=mm2 :

For the edge condition r ¼ [(200 100)/]0.5 ¼ 112.8 mm

¼ 1:50 4:59 1:46 ¼ 5:42 N=mm2 :