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Abstract: Modern mining procedures aim to replace human resources directly involved in the mineral
extraction process by automatic or remote control systems. Data may be collected from sensors, or data
and/or video may be transmitted by telecommunication equipment. The actual technology trend is to do
these transmissions using wireless technology (WSN, Wi-Fi, among others). This work summarizes the
experience that has been collected from characterizing a Single-Input-Single-Output (SISO) large scale
870 MHz and 2.45 GHz wireless propagation channel in an underground copper mine. Also the Rician K
factor and channel coherence time are calculated for a 2.45 GHz mobile link.
Keywords: telecommunication, wireless propagation, underground copper mines
2
P G G λ2 ⎛ ⎡ 2πh h ⎤ ⎞
PRx (dBm) = 10 log10 Tx Tx Rx2 ⎜⎜ 2 sin⎢ Tx Rx ⎥ ⎟⎟ (3)
(4π ⋅ d ) ⎝ ⎣ λ ⋅ d ⎦ ⎠
Fig. 1 confirms Mahmoud’s (1974) statement that for Due to the fact that the El Teniente mine facilities are still in
frequencies below 500 MHz, attenuations are extremely large full production, special measuring equipment had to be
(w/λ < 1). Communications in underground mines will designed and implemented to perform these measurements
greatly benefit from the use of leaky coaxial cables if carrier during regular working hours. A portable transmitter box was
frequencies happen to be such that w/λ < 15, because built using two oscillators, the ZOS-1025 VCO (voltage
attenuations will be large at those frequencies and these controlled oscillator) from Minicircuits®, delivering 10 mW
cables will provide good signal coverage. When the cross in the 685 – 1025 MHz range and a NS2-2000104 M2
section dimensions of the tunnel w > 15λ, the attenuation rate NovaSource® 10 dBm signal generator operating in the 2 –
depends less on the area of the cross section and the wave 2.5 GHz range, (Novasource (2008)). The transmitters were
transmits almost the same as in free space. Therefore, housed in a plastic toolbox, to prevent damage caused by
technologies like WSN and Wi-Fi benefit from the water and dirt, as shown in Fig. 2. The box included
propagation characteristics in underground mines since at rechargeable batteries and voltage regulators to provide stable
2.45 GHz, w/λ > 32.6 for tunnels 4m wide or above, resulting power supplies for the electronics.
in attenuations that are less than 2 dB/km. Benzakour et. al.
(2004), Boutin et.al. (2006), Li et.al. (2007), Kennedy and
Foster (2006) report that at distances typically less than 40 m Measurements at 870 MHz were carried out using the
from the transmitter, attenuation can be modelled best using portable ZOS-1025 transmitter connected to a 9 dBi Yagi
the LOS (Line of sight), free-space (Friis) path loss model antenna, as seen in Fig. 2, and the Anritsu MS2711D
represented by equation (2), Spectrum Analyzer, provided with an Anritsu 2000-1032
antenna.
where PTx and PRx are the transmission and receive powers,
GTx and GRx the transmission and receive antenna gains and d
the separation between the 2 antennas. The before mentioned
authors also state that at distances larger than 40 m the tunnel
starts behaving like a waveguide, resulting in attenuation
much lower than the one that may be predicted by equation
(1) (however, none of the 4 before mentioned publications
invoke explicitly equation (1)).
Fig. 2. 870 MHz portable Transmitter with antenna
-40
XC-30
-50 XC-40
XC-50
-60
-80
-90
-100
-110
-120
-130
4 44 84 124 164 204 244 284 324 364 404
distance, m
Analyzer. -20
⎛ r 2 + A2 ⎞ ⎛ Ar ⎞
p (r ) =
r
exp⎜⎜ − ⎟I 0 ⎜ ⎟ A ≥ 0, r ≥ 0
σ 2
⎝ 2σ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ σ 2 ⎠ (4)
p (r ) = 0 r<0
⎛ A2 ⎞
K (dB ) = 10 log⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
Fig. 7. 2.45 GHz portable transmitter and sampling receiver ⎝ 2σ ⎠
Equation (4) shows a Rician distribution, where A is the
amplitude of the dominant signal r and I0 is the modified
type-one Bessel function of order 0. When A = 0, only
multipath components are present, the envelope of the
received signal distributes according to Rayleigh. Due to
many reflections at the tunnel walls it is not obvious that the
predominant signal will actually be the LOS signal. Abdi
et.al. (2001) proposed a method to estimate the K parameter
based on statistical performance of two moment-based
estimators, as a less complex alternative to the maximum
likelihood estimator. In our analysis of the collected
empirical data we use this estimator. This result was verified
by comparing the empirical data with a representation of (4), Fig. 10. Sample o received power level recordings from
adjusting its K value to fit the empirical data. moving loader.
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