Managing and caring for the Self: Learning to be a Student

A Summary of the Report

Presented to Mr. Romeo M. Galupo

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement in

Understanding the Self

Third Term, A.Y. 2019-2020

Delos Santos, Iubelle C.

Manolid, Jamby D.

Rapera Amgelica G.

Recato, Stephanie A.

Sacil, Jem Carla M.

Group 4

BSA191B

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 METACOGNITION AND STUDIES STRATEGY

What is metacognition?

1. Metacognition is the ability to think about and regulate one’s own thoughts. Teaching metacognitive
strategies can improve learners’ performance at school. This makes it a good, evidence-based target
for intervention.
2. Metacognition is often referred to as “thinking about thinking.” But that’s just a quick definition.
Metacognition is a regulatory system that helps a person understand and control his or her own
cognitive performance.
3. Metacognition allows people to take charge of their own learning. It involves awareness of how they
learn, an evaluation of their learning needs, generating strategies to meet these needs and then
implementing the strategies. (Hacker, 2009)

Metacognitive Studies Strategies

Metacognitive strategies facilitate learning how to learn. You can incorporate these, as appropriate,
into eLearning courses, social learning experiences, pre- and post-training activities and other formal or
informal learning experiences.

1. Ask Questions. During formal courses and in post-training activities, ask questions that allow
learners to reflect on their own learning processes and strategies. In collaborative learning, ask them
to reflect on the role they play when problem solving in teams.
2. Foster Self-reflection. Emphasize the importance of personal reflection during and after learning
experiences. Encourage learners to critically analyze their own assumptions and how this may have
influenced their learning.
3. Encourage Self-questioning. Foster independent learning by asking learners to generate their own
questions and answer them to enhance comprehension. The questions can be related to meeting
their personal goals
4. Teach Strategies Directly. Teach appropriate metacognitive strategies as a part of a training course.
5. Promote Autonomous Learning. When learners have some domain knowledge, encourage
participation in challenging learning experiences. They will then be forced to construct their own
metacognitive strategies.
6. Provide Access to Mentors. Many people learn best by interacting with peers who are slightly more
advanced. Promote experiences where novices can observe the proficient use of a skill and then gain
access to the metacognitive strategies of their mentors.

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 7. Solve Problems with a Team: Cooperative problem solving can enhance metacognitive strategies
by discussing possible approaches with team members and learning from each other.
8. Think Aloud. Teach learners how to think aloud and report their thoughts while performing a
difficult task. A knowledgeable partner can then point out errors in thinking or the individual can use
this approach for increased self-awareness during learning. Another approach to thinking aloud is
the working out loud approach.
9. Self-explanation. Self-explanation in writing or speaking can help learners improve their
comprehension of a difficult subject.
10. Provide Opportunities for Making Errors. When learners are given the opportunity to make errors
while in training, such as during simulations, it stimulates reflection on the causes of their errors.

MANAGING YOUR OWN LEARNING: SELF-REGULATED BAHAVIOR

Self-regulated learning is a cyclical process, wherein the student plans for a task, monitors their
performance, and then reflects on the outcome. The cycle then repeats as the student uses the reflection to
adjust and prepare for the next task. The process is not one-size-fits-all; it should be tailored for individual
students and for specific learning tasks (Zimmerman, 2002)

1. Plan, set goals, and lay out strategies

This first step of the cycle may be overlooked by many students as they dive headlong into a task.
Encouraging students to establish a plan before they start working on a task will help them strategize right
from the start. Although students may see this as taking a step backward, it will ultimately help them be more
efficient with their time and effort.

Guide students though this process by helping them ask themselves the following questions:

 Analyze the learning task. Is this a task I've done before or something new? Does it build off of a
task I've done before? How much time will it take? How much focus will I need?
 Set goals. How will I structure this task? What are the intermediate checkpoints and sub-goals?
Can I complete an outline with two weeks to go, and then a rough draft one week prior to the due
date? That would allow time to get extra help as needed.
 Plan strategies. Will I need resources from the library, a color printer, help from my lab
partners, or an appointment for office hours? Given my needs, when should I get started on this task?
 Set expectations for the outcome. Given how much time I have available, my strengths and
weaknesses, and my current standing in the course, what type of outcome would I like? Do I need to
"ace" this, or is it OK if I can just complete it successfully?

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2. Use strategies and monitor performance

In this phase, students carry out the plan that was outlined in the forethought phase. Ideally, students
can proceed with confidence because they have already established a detailed plan of action.

Here are some key points you can use to coach students through this phase.

 Use self-observation to reflect on the actions taken by the student and the effectiveness of the
results.
 Because things don't always go smoothly, have students make a plan for what to do when
obstacles arise (Flanagan, 2014).
 Prompt students to stick with the strategies, even though it may be tempting to revert back to
known (but ineffective) strategies. Unfamiliar approaches may feel inefficient at first, but learning the
method can be as important as learning the material.
 Have the students monitor their progress on the intermediate goals, and the strategies they are
using. At the same time, you can also monitor their progress and offer

3. Reflect on performance

Many students focus solely on the extrinsic outcome of their grade. While grades are important, you
can help students reflect on how they think they did on a particular assignment, and why. This self-reflection
can help them understand why they earned a certain grade and how to improve their performance. Activities
like an exam wrapper can solidify this process.

 Ask students to evaluate their own performance and their results. Students should compare their
performance to their original goal, rather than comparing themselves to others.
 Reflect on the effectiveness of strategies used. Did they select an appropriate strategy? Did they
follow through with the selected strategy?
 Encourage students to attribute poor outcomes to the effort made and/or the strategy used.
Students should be coached to not attribute failure to lack of ability.
 Help students manage their emotions, and in time, direct them toward productive lines of
thinking about how they can improve their performance. Even if their outcome is not what they had
hoped, they can still learn from the experience.
 A key part of this process is that students use this reflection to plan for the next task. How will
they adapt their planning, strategy, time management, and self-monitoring?

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 “The only source of knowledge is experience” - Albert Einstein

LEARNING
Learning is a process that lets us retain acquired information, affective states, and impressions that can
influence our behaviour. Learning is the main activity of the brain, in which this organ continuously modifies
its own structure to better reflect the experiences that we have had.
A. How learning takes place
Learning occurs when we are able to: Gain a mental or physical group of the subject. Make
sense of a subject, event or feeling by interpreting it into our own words or actions. Use our newly
acquired ability or knowledge in conjunction with skills and understanding we already possess. Do
something with the new knowledge or skill and take ownership of it.

B. The 8 types of Learning Styles

1. The Linguistic Learner - the linguistic learner is one who learns best through linguistic skills
including reading, writing, listening, or speaking.
2. The Naturalist -the naturalist learns by working with, and experiencing nature.
3. The Musical or Rhythmic Learner - the musical or rhythmic learner is one who learns using melody
or rhythm.
4. The Kinesthetic Learner - the kinesthetic learner is a person that learns best by actually doing
something.
5. The Visual or Spatial Learner - a person who learns best is there are visual aids around to guide
the learning process.
6. The Logical or Mathematical Learner - the logical or mathematical learner must classify or
categorize thing.
7. The Interpersonal Learner - is someone who learns by relating to others.
8. The Intrapersonal Learner - the intrapersonal, as opposed to interpersonal learner is
someone who works and learns best when they are alone.
C. Laws of Learning
1. Law of Readiness. A person learns best when he has the necessary background, a good attitude, and
is ready to learn. He does not learn much if he sees no reason for learning. Getting a student ready to
learn is usually the teacher’s job. A clear objective and a good reason for learning sometimes help to
motivate students to learn even when they start off not caring.
2. Law of Exercise. Those things most often repeated are the best learned. This is the basis for practice
and drill. The mind rarely retains, evaluates, and applies new concepts or practices after only one
exposure. A student learns by applying what he has been taught. Every time he practices, his learning
continues.

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 3. Law of Effect. This law is based on the feelings of the learner. Learning is stronger when joined with a
pleasing or satisfying feeling. It is weakened when linked with an unpleasant feeling
4. Law of Primacy. Primacy is being first, which often creates a strong impression. This means that the
instructor must be right the first time. Everyone knows from experience how hard it is to break a bad
habit. “Unteaching” wrong first impressions is harder than teaching them right the first time. The first
experience of a student should be positive. This helps to provide a stable foundation for all that
follows.
5. Law of Intensity. A sharp, clear, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or
boring one. This law implies that a student will learn more from the real thing than a substitute.
6. Law of Regency. Other things being equal, the things learned last will be best remembered. The
opposite is also true. The longer the student is away from a new fact or understanding, the harder it is
to remember.
D. Factors affecting Learning.
1. Intellectual factors - The term refers to the individual mental level. Succes in school is generally
closely related to level of the intellect.
2. Learning factors - Factors owing to lack of mastery of what has been taught, faulty methods of
work or study, and narrowness of experimental background may affect the learning process of
any pupil.
3. Physical factors- Under this group are included such factors as health, physical development,
nutrition, visual and physical defects, and glandular abnormality.
4. Mental factors- Attitudes falls under mental factors attitudes are made up of organic and
kinesthetic elements. They are not to be confused with emotions that are characterized by internal
visceral disturbances.
5. Emotional and Social factors- Personal factors, such as instincts and emotions, and social factors,
such as cooperation and rivalry, are directly related to a complex psychology of motivation.
6. Teacher's Personality - The teacher as an individual personality is an important element in the
learning environment or in the failures and success of the learner.
7. Environment factors - Physical conditions needed for learning is under environmental factor.
One of the factors that affect the efficiency of learning is the condition in which learning take place.
E. Laws of Forgetting
T. Ribot's (1881) law of retrograde amnesia states that brain damage impairs recently formed
memories to a greater extent than older memories, which is generally taken to imply that memories
need time to consolidate. A. Jost's (1897) law of forgetting states that if 2 memories are of the same
strength but different ages, the older will decay more slowly than the younger. The main theoretical
implication of this venerable law has never been worked out, but it may be the same as that implied by
Ribot's law. A consolidation interpretation of Jost's law implies an interference theory of forgetting that is

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 altogether different from the cue-overload view that has dominated thinking in the field of psychology for
decades.

“The significant problems we face cannot be solved at the same level of thinking we were at when we
created them.” — Albert Einstein

THINKING

A. Meaning and Importance of Thinking

Thinking refers to all the mental activities like daydream, wishes, fantasies, images of having new ideas,
philosophical theorizing, political argument, making decision, reading, writing, and planning. Thinking is an
important mental process. It helps us to define and organize experiences, plan, learn, reflect and create. Thinking
is one of the most important aspects of learning process. Our ability to learn and solve the problems depends
upon our ability to think correctly which helps us in adjustment and is necessary for a successful living.

B. Types of Thinking
1. Perceptual or Concrete Thinking:

 This is the simplest form of thinking the basis of this type is perception, i.e. interpretation of sensation
according to one’s experience. It is also called concrete thinking as it is carried out on the perception
of actual or concrete objects and events.

2. Conceptual or Abstract Thinking:

 Here one makes use of concepts, the generalized objects and languages, it is regarded as being
superior to perceptual thinking as it economizes efforts in understanding and problem-solving.

3. Reflective Thinking:

 This type of thinking aims in solving complex problems, thus it requires reorganization of all the
relevant experiences to a situation or removing obstacles instead of relating with that experiences or
ideas.

4. Creative Thinking:

 This type of thinking is associated with one’s ability to create or construct something new, novel or
unusual. It looks for new relationships and associations to describe and interpret the nature of things,

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 events and situations. Here the individual himself usually formulates the evidences and tools for its
solution. For example; scientists, artists or inventors.

 Characteristics of Creative Thinking:

a. Creative thinking, in all its shapes and forms is absolutely an internal mental process and hence
should be considered as an important component of one’s cognitive behavior.

b. Every one of us is capable of creative thinking and hence it is a universal phenomenon.

c. Creative thinking results in the production of something new or novel including a new form of
arrangement of old elements.

d. Creative thinking in all its dimensions involve divergent thinking instead of the routine and final types
of convergent thinking. The mind must have complete freedom to wander around to create a new idea.

e. The field of creative thinking and its out part is quite comprehensive and built wide. It covers all the
aspects of human accomplishments belonging to an individual’s life.

5. Critical Thinking:

 It is a type of thinking that helps a person in stepping aside from his own personal beliefs, prejudices
and opinions to sort out the faiths and discover the truth, even at the expense of his basic belief
system.

6. Non-directed or Associative Thinking:

 There are times when we find ourselves engaged in a unique type of thinking which is non-directed
and without goal. It is reflected through dreaming and other free-flowing uncontrolled activities.
Psychologically these forms of thought are termed as associative thinking.

C. Theories of thinking

 Behaviourist Theory
Behaviourists view thinking as something that produces a measureable change in an
individual’s actions.  Since thinking takes place as a result of reacting to external stimuli in this model,

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 the educator’s responsibility is to provide an environment rich in stimuli that will cause behaviour to
shift in the correct direction.

Two main theories

 Classical Conditioning maintains that learning is developed through a new stimuli-response

association or reflex.  
 Operant Conditioning states that learning occurs as a result of the consequences of a
behavior rather than as the response to a stimulus or a system of rewards.

 Pavlov’s famous experiment about dogs salivating when they would hear the dinner bell ring is an
example of behaviourist theory. He would condition the dogs to expect food when a bell sounded. Dogs would
hear a bell then food would be immediately served to them.  After a while the dogs would hear the bell and begin
to salivate whether food was present or not.

Cognitive Theory
Cognitive theorists such as Piaget argue that thinking and learning are internal mental actions that
take place in the brain and include sensory perception, processing of information, applying and combining
information, and memory. In this model of thinking, the teacher’s role is to structure experiences that will
cause individuals to learn through both physical and mental activities.

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different
stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire
knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget's stages are:

 The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping,
looking, and listening
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them

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  They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around
them

 The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to
represent objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think
about things in very concrete terms.

 The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 to 11 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

 During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
 They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of
liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a
general principle

 The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Up

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and
reason about hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges

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  Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and
political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information

Humanist Theory
In the humanist model, the purpose of thinking is to fulfil an individual’s potential. As such, the acts
of thinking and learning are always personal, not institutional. Also known as “whole child” theory, humanists
advise that the purpose of education is to develop a self-motivated, autonomous individual who can think and
learn on his own. Theorists such as Maslow and Rogers fall into the humanist school, which includes an
emphasis on personalized and individualized instruction and rejects the use of standard curricula.

Maslows’ Humanistic Theory of Personality: Personality and Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow is perhaps most well-known for his hierarchy of needs theory, in which he proposes that
human beings have certain needs in common and that these needs must be met in a certain order. These
needs range from the most basic physiological needs for survival to higher-level self-actualization and
transcendence needs.

Maslow believed that successful fulfillment of each layer of needs was vital in the development of
personality. The highest need for self-actualization represents the achievement of our fullest potential,
and those individuals who finally achieved self-actualization were said to represent optimal
psychological health and functioning. Maslow stretched the field of psychological study to include fully-
functional individuals instead of only those with psychoses, and he shed a more positive light on
personality psychology.

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Rogers’ Humanistic Theory of Personality: Personality Development and the Self Concept

Rogers believed that everyone exists in a constantly changing world of experiences that they
are at the center of. A person reacts to changes in their phenomenal field, which includes external
objects and people as well as internal thoughts and emotions.

He also believed that all behavior is motivated by self-actualizing tendencies, which drive a
person to achieve at their highest level. As a result of their interactions with the environment and
others, an individual forms a structure of the self or self-concept—an organized, fluid, conceptual
pattern of concepts and values related to the self. If a person has a positive self-concept, they tend to
feel good about who they are and often see the world as a safe and positive place. If they have a
negative self-concept, they may feel unhappy with who they are.

Rogers further divided the self into two categories: The ideal self is the person that you
would like to be; the real self is the person you actually are. We experience congruence when our
thoughts about our real self and ideal self are very similar—in other words, when our self-concept is
accurate. High congruence leads to a greater sense of self-worth and a healthy, productive life.
Conversely, when there is a great discrepancy between our ideal and actual selves, we experience a
state Rogers called incongruence, which can lead to maladjustment.

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Social and Situational Theory
The fourth major model of thinking and learning is perhaps the least applied theory in industrialized
countries today. In this model of thinking, learning occurs as a result of social interaction and the observation
of human social behavior. As such, learning is more of a community endeavor than an individual one. Some
social and situational theorists include the natural environment as a part of this community of learning.

The goal of thinking under this model is to achieve full participation of individuals in their respective
communities; the environmental branch of this theory would add to that the goal of utilizing natural
resources in a responsible and renewable manner.

Practical Thinking
At Illumine we provide training to enhance practical thinking skills to improve the performance of
individuals and teams. These ‘skills’ can be an integral part of management and personal development; to fill
gaps that have been identified in existing development programmes or to fulfil a business need. The unique
portfolio of high quality, high impact training, builds skills in five inter-related areas:

 Management & leadership Essentials – The essential skills required to be a successful

manager and leader.
 Learn, Absorb & Understand – Learn more efficiently, take better notes, think and plan
 Meetings, Facilitation & Coaching – Enhance group participation, share knowledge and run
productive meetings that make good use of everyone’s skills and experience.
 Write, Speak & Influence – Make a positive impression, be remembered, build relationships
and influence effectively – in every interaction. More at
 Creative Thinking & Innovation – Generate new perspectives and ideas, solve real problems
and enhance decision making and team working.
 Engagement & Personal Balance – Enhance engagement and motivation, reduce stress levels
and improve performance.

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“We are all the pieces of what we remember. We hold in ourselves the hopes and fears of those who love
us. As long as there is love and memory, there is no true loss.”
― Cassandra Clare

MEMORY

Memory is the power of the brain to recall past experiences or information. In this faculty of the mind,
information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.

Human memory is not a unitary process. Research suggests, that, at the psychological level, various
types of memory are at work in human beings. Human memory is fundamentally associative. You can
remember a new piece of information better if you can associate it with previously acquired knowledge that
is already firmly anchored in your memory. And the more meaningful the association is to you personally, the
more effectively it will help you to remember. So taking the time to choose a meaningful association can pay
off in the long run. Also, contrary to the image that many people have of memory as a vast collection of
archived data, most of our memories are actually reconstructions. They are not stored in our brains like
books on library shelves. Whenever we want to remember something, we have to reconstruct it from
elements scattered throughout various areas of our brains.

But memory is not entirely faithful. When you perceive an object, groups of neurons in different
parts of your brain process the information about its shape, colour, smell, sound, and so on. Your brain
then draws connections among these different groups of neurons, and these relationships constitute your
perception of the object. Subsequently, whenever you want to remember the object, you must reconstruct
these relationships. The parallel processing that your cortex does for this purpose, however, can alter your
memory of the object. Also, in your brain's memory systems, isolated pieces of information are memorized
less effectively than those associated with existing knowledge. The more associations between the new
information and things that you already know, the better you will learn it.

Psychologists have identified a number of factors that can influence how effectively memory
functions.

1) Degree of vigilance, alertness, attentiveness, and concentration

Attentiveness is often said to be the tool that engraves information into memory. Thus,
attention deficits can radically reduce memory performance. You can improve your memory capacity
by making a conscious effort to repeat and integrate information.

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 2) Interest, strength of motivation, and need or necessity

It is easier to learn when the subject fascinates you. Thus, motivation is a factor that
enhances memory. Some young people who do not always do very well at the subjects they are
forced to take in school often have a phenomenal memory for statistics about their favourite sports.

3) Affective values associated with the material to be memorized, and the individual’s mood
and intensity of emotion

Your emotional state when an event occurs can greatly influence your memory of it. Thus, if
an event is very upsetting, you will form an especially vivid memory of it

4) Location, light, sounds, smells...in short, the entire context in which the memorizing takes
place is recorded along with the information being memorizes.

Our memory systems are thus contextual. Consequently, when you have trouble
remembering a particular fact, you may be able to retrieve it by recollecting where you learned it or
the book from which you learned it. Was there a picture on that page? Was the information toward
the top of the page, or the bottom? Such items are called “recall indexes”. And because you
always memorize the context along with the information that you are learning, by recalling this
context you can very often, by a series of associations, recall the information itself.

A. Types of memory

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Sensory memory

Is our shortest form of memory? It's very fleeting - no more than a flash. Sensory memory acts as a
buffer for stimuli received through the five senses. These images are accurately retained, but only for a brief
moment in time, typically less than half a second. It includes two sub-systems: iconic memory of visual
perceptions and echoic memory of auditory perceptions.

Iconic Memory
This refers to immediate visual memories. Iconic memory is also very, very fleeting. It's
how the brain remembers an image you just saw moments ago. Say something flashed on your
computer screen for less than a second. Your brain will "remember" what it saw very briefly, even
after the image is gone. Beyond the 0.5 second mark, anything you "remember" goes on to short-term
memory.
Echoic Memory
Sometimes referred to as auditory sensory memory, echoic memory pertains to audio
memories. Overall, echoic memories are stored slightly longer than iconic memories: about four
seconds. If you hear a few notes of a melody, you may able to hum it back immediately after it
finishes. However, if you were asked for the melody again in a few minutes, you may be unable to
remember it unless it transferred to short-term memory.
Haptic Memory
This refers to memories involving the sense of touch. Just like with iconic and echoic
memory, haptic memory is equally fleeting. If you run your hand over a rough surface, you'll
remember the exact sensation you felt for a few seconds. After that, the memory needs to be encoded
into short-term memory for later recall.

Short-term memory 
Short-term memories are slightly less passing than sensory memories, but they still get dismissed
after a few minutes. The label is quite apt, given their function. Short-term memory is the part of our brains
that holds onto information until we need to recall it. If we make mental lists before we run to Target, it's our
short-term memory that will help us recall the fabric softener or the folding chair
Working memory 
Is a more recent extension of the concept of short-term memory? As techniques for studying
memory have become more refined, it has become increasingly apparent that the original
conception of short-term memory as a mere temporary receptacle for long-term memory is too
simplistic. In fact, it is becoming increasingly clear that there is no strict line of demarcation
between memories and thoughts. In order to test some hypotheses that may provide a better

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 understanding of this complex phenomenon, the concept of working memory has therefore been
advanced.

Long-term memory includes both our memory of recent facts, which is often quite fragile, as well as our
memory of older facts, which has become more consolidated. Long-term memory consists of three main
processes that take place consecutively: encoding, storage, and retrieval (recall) of information.

 Encoding is the first process that the human memory puts in operation. The efficiency of learning,
in general, depends on the efficiency of the encoding process. It is an active and selective process
that depends on a number of factors. There are 3 types of factors that can influence encoding
efficiency:
 Content factors
 The volume of the material (the greater the volume, the more difficult the encoding).
 The degree of organization of the material (the better organized, the easier the encoding).
 The degree of familiarity.
 The place occupied by the information in the structure of the content; that is, at the
beginning, middle, or end of the material (information placed at the beginning and at the
end tends to be stored more easily than that placed in the middle).
 The nature of the material.
 Environmental factors, although not always considered important, are significant to the
memorization process. Temperature, humidity, noise, affection, socio-emotional climate, etc., are
just a few environmental factors. Depending on these particularities, the encoding process may be
stimulated or inhibited.
 Subjective factors can include elements such as the learner’s state of rest or fatigue, health, or
illness. Motivation, interests, and disposition are critical to the encoding process, which is why, as
Instructional Designers, we spend a lot of time defining "What’s in it for me?" for all training
programs.
 Storage can be regarded as the active process of consolidation that makes memories less
vulnerable to being forgotten. It is this consolidation that differentiates memories of recent facts
from memories of older ones. The latter have been associated with a larger amount of pre-existing
knowledge. Sleep, and in particular the rapid-eye-movement (REM) phase of sleep, along with
reviewing (such as studying for exams) play a large role in consolidation.
 Lastly, retrieval (recall) of memories, whether voluntary or not, involves active mechanisms that
make use of encoding indexes. In this process, information is temporarily copied from long-term
memory into working memory, so that it can be used there. The more a memory has been encoded,
elaborated, organized, and structured, the easier it will be to retrieve. Thus, we see that forgetting

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 can be caused by failures at any of these stages: poor encoding, insufficient consolidation, or
difficulties in retrieval.

Types of Long Term Memory

Long-term memory can be divided into explicit and implicit memory, and implicit memory can in
turn be divided into various subtypes. But always bear in mind that in the actual workings of human
memory, these various subsystems are interacting all the time.
 The first is declarative memory: your memory of all those things that you are aware of
remembering and that you can describe in words, such as your birthday, or the meaning of the
word "cradle", or what you ate last night. This form of memory is also called explicit memory,
because you can name and describe each of these remembered things explicitly.
 Episodic memory (sometimes called autobiographical memory) lets you remember events
that you personally experienced at a specific time and place. It includes memories such as the
meal you ate last night, or the name of an old classmate, or the date of some important public
event. Episodic memory is the kind most often affected by various forms of amnesia. Also, the
emotional charge that you experience at the time of the events conditions the quality of your
memorization of the episode.
 Semantic memory is the system that you use to store your knowledge of the world. It is a
knowledge base that we all have and much of which we can access quickly and effortlessly. It
includes our memory of the meanings of words–the kind of memory that lets us recall not only
the names of the world’s great capitals, but also social customs, the functions of things, and their
colour and odour; rules and concepts that let us construct a mental representation of the world
without any immediate perceptions. Its content is thus abstract and relational and is associated
with the meaning of verbal symbols; spatial/temporal context in which it was acquired. Since it is
a form of reference memory that contains information accumulated repeatedly throughout our
lifetimes, semantic memory is usually spared when people suffer from amnesia, but it can be
affected by some forms of dementia.
 Non-declarative memory also known as implicit memory, because you express it by means other
than words. For example, when you ride a bike, juggle some balls or simply tie your shoelaces, you
are expressing memories of motor skills that do not require the use of language. Such "motor
memories" are just one type of implicit memory.
 Procedural memory, which enables people to acquire motor skills and gradually improve them.
Procedural memory is unconscious, not in the Freudian sense of suppressed memories, but
because it is composed of automatic sensorimotor behaviors that are so deeply embedded that

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 we are no longer aware of them. Patients with profound amnesia often retain their procedural
memory, which argues for a system of separate neural pathways.
 Implicit memory is also where many of our conditioned reflexes and conditioned emotional
responses are stored. The associative learning that constitutes the basis for these forms of
memory is a very old process, phylogenetic ally speaking, and can take place without the
intervention of the conscious mind.
 In priming, researchers try to increase the speed or accuracy with which their subjects make a
decision by first exposing them to information that relates to the same context, but without the
subjects' having any other particular reason to retrieve the piece of information concerned.

B. Improving Memory
1. Feedback- Knowledge of the result of an activity performed will give you the opportunity to
check if you are learning or if there is a need to further improve your work.
2. Recitation- Recite what you have learned to yourself. Silent recitation will make you
remember past lessons.
3. Overlearning - it does not mean going beyond what has already been learned; because what
has already been learned is already “learned”. It simply means that if you wish not to forget
what you have already learned, continue to reviewing it now and then.
4. Selection - it is difficult to remember all the notes written in your notebook or the
information printed in your textbook. Hence, you have to place selection markings in your
notebooks or textbooks which you can use to summarize your idea.
5. Spaced practice – this is a strategy of studying in which a relaxation or rest period (15- 30
mins.) is alloted in between a schedule of studying.
6. Organization – this strategy can be done by organizing your notes or making an outline so
that when your ideas are already organized, learning become easier, clearer, and faster.
7. Learning by Whole Learning by Parts – for simple and short learning material, it is better
to learn it first as a whole before proceeding to learn the parts.
8. Serial position – in a long list of items or series of statement, we often remember only the
first and the last items. We tend to forget those in the middle.
9. Sleep – a good sleep can improve memory. It is a way of relaxing the muscle and the brain.
10. Review – is a way of using the Law of Exercise or the Law of Use. Is a form of practice and
over learning
11. Cues – create a mental picture of what you are studying or memorizing for easy retrieval.
12. PQRST Method – this means Preview, Question, Read, Self-recitation and Test. It is a way
of understanding and remembering your lessons in every chapter of the book.

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13. Use of Foods, Medicine and Vitamins – they do not exactly improve memory but they can
induce or stimulate the process of learning the material to a certain extent, if properly
controlled.

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