RESCEU-6/20

Standard Model Prediction for Cosmological 21cm Circular Polarization

Lingyuan Ji∗ and Marc Kamionkowski†

Department of Physics and Astronomy, Johns Hopkins University
3400 North Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218, United States

Keisuke Inomata‡
Research Center for the Early Universe (RESCEU),
Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo,
Hongo 7-3-1 Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan

Before cosmic reionization, hydrogen atoms acquire a spin polarization quadrupole through in-
arXiv:2005.10250v1 [astro-ph.CO] 20 May 2020

teraction with the anisotropic 21-cm radiation field. The interaction of this quadrupole with
anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation field gives a net spin orien-
tation to the hydrogen atoms. The 21-cm radiation emitted by these spin-oriented hydrogen atoms
is circularly polarized. Here, we reformulate succinctly the derivation of the expression for this
circular polarization in terms of Cartesian (rather than spherical) tensors. We then compute the
angular power spectrum of the observed Stokes-V parameter in the standard ΛCDM cosmological
model and show how it depends on redshift, or equivalently, the observed frequency.

The redshifted 21-cm line of neutral hydrogen pro-
vides the most promising probe of the cosmological “dark
ages,” the epoch after CMB photons are emitted and be-
fore the first stars are formed. While the majority of
theoretical work has focussed on intensity fluctuations of
the 21-cm radiation [1–5], there has also been some work
on the linear polarization [6, 7].
The circular polarization of the redshifted 21-cm line
was considered in Refs. [8, 9]. Ref. [8] showed that circu-
lar polarization arises from an interaction between CMB
anisotropies and the atom’s spin polarization induced by
anisotropies in the 21-cm radiation incident on the atom.
Ref. [9] then focussed on the circular polarization from
the CMB quadrupole induced by primordial gravitational
waves and discussed the prospects to detect an inflation-
ary gravitational-wave background in this way.
In this Letter, we translate the central atomic-physics
results of Ref. [8], which were presented in terms of spher-
ical tensors, in terms of more intuitive Cartesian ten-
sors. We then calculate the angular power spectrum for
the 21-cm polarization that arises at second order in the
primordial-density-perturbation amplitude in the stan-
dard ΛCDM cosmological model. We employ aspects of
the total-angular-momentum (TAM) formalism [10, 11]
to derive the results in a relatively economical fashion.
We then evaluate the circular-polarization angular power
spectrum numerically and determine its dependence on
the observed frequency, or equivalently, the redshift of the
emitter. Throughout this letter, we use units in which
c = h̄ = 1.
Consider the circular polarization V (χ, n̂) of the 21-
cm radiation that arrives to us from a comoving dis-
tance χ and direction n̂. The hydrogen atoms at the
point ~x = χn̂ are immersed in a 21-cm radiation field
that has anisotropies arising from local gas-density inho-
mogeneities. This then induces a spin-polarization ten-
sor with a quadrupole aligned with the quadrupole of
the 21-cm radiation. The atoms are also immersed in
a CMB radiation field that also has anisotropies, which
are mainly determined by the density fluctuations on the
last scattering surface. Ref. [8] shows that a net spin
orientation of the neutral hydrogen arises from the mis-
alignment of the atomic spin-polarization quadrupole and
the CMB quadrupole, which leads to spontaneous and
stimulated emission of 21cm radiation in direction −n̂
that is circularly polarized. The spin quadrupole mo-
ment of the hydrogen atoms at comoving position ~x (at
the conformal time η = η0 − χ, where η0 is the con-
formal time today) can be represented as a rank-2 ten-
sor γab (~x, η) that is symmetric (γab = γba ) and trace-
free (γbb = 0) — it is given explicitly in Eq. (3) of
Ref. [8]. Likewise, the CMB R temperature quadrupole at
that point is tab (~x, η) ≡ d2 û (3ûa ûb − δab )Θ(~x, û, η),
where Θ(~x, û, η) ≡ T (~x, û, η)/Tγ (η) − 1 with T (~x, û, η)
the CMB temperature at (~x, η) arriving from direction û
and Tγ (η) the mean CMB temperature at η.
The circular polarization is parity-odd and is thus a
pseudo-scalar. We therefore infer that the circular polar-
ization must be
V (χ, n̂) = C(η0 − χ)abc na γbd (χn̂, η0 − χ)tcd (χn̂, η0 − χ),
(1)
as this is the only pseudo-scalar that can be constructed
from na , γab , and tab , and the Levi-Civita symbol
abc . The coefficient C can be determined by comparing
Eq. (1), Eqs. (4) and (46) in Ref. [8], and the transla-
tion [e.g., Eq. (3) in that paper] between spherical and
Cartesian tensors. The result is
r
2 (1 + z)Ts (η)Kmag τ (η)
C(η) ≡ , (2)
3π A[1 + 0.75x̃α (η)]
where Kmag = 1.65 × 10−12 s−1 ; A = 2.86 × 10−15 s−1 is
the Einstein coefficient of the hyperfine transition; z the
redshift at conformal time η; Ts (η) the spin temperature
 2

at that time; and x̃α (η) the coefficient describing the rate of last scatter. Using the shift formula, this relation can
of de-alignment of polarized hydrogen atoms. Here, τ (η) be written in Fourier space as
is the optical depth in the 21-cm line. Z   
~ δab i~
The next step is to determine the connection between t̃ab (k, η) = − 2
d û ûa ûb − e k·û(η−ηls )
Φ̃(~k, ηls ).
3
the spin-polarization tensor γab (~x, η) and the linear-
(9)
theory fractional density perturbation δ(~x, η) at that
The integral over û can be evaluated by using the plane-
time. This tensor can again be written in terms of spheri-
wave expansion and taking ~k = kẑ. The gravitational-
cal tensors, and the spherical-tensor components induced
potential perturbation can be related to the density per-
by one Fourier mode δ̃(~k, η), of wavevector ~k, of the den-
turbation through the (Fourier-space) Poisson equation,
sity field are [Eq. (4) in Ref. [8]],
(k/a)2 Φ̃(~k, η) = 4πGρ̄δ̃(~k, η), with a the scale factor and
ρ̄ = 3H02 Ωm /(8πGa3 ) the mean density in the matter
r
~ 4π
P̃2m (k, η) = D(η)δ̃(~k, η)Y2m (k̂), (3) dominated era. Finally, we arrive at
5
6πH02 Ωm
 
~ δab
where Ylm are the spherical harmonics. Here, t̃ab (k, η) = j2 [k(η − ηls )] k̂a k̂b − δ̃(~k, ηls ),
  a(ηls )k 2 3
1 T? Tγ (η) f τ (η) (10)
D(η) ≡ √ 1− ,
20 2 γT (η) Ts (η) 1 + x̃ α (η) + x̃c (η) where jJ (x) are the spherical Bessel functions.
(4) Next, we relate the matter perturbation δ(~x, η) at con-
is a ~k-independent quantity, where T∗ = 68 mK is the formal time η = η0 −χ and ηls to the primordial curvature
hyperfine splitting in temperature unit, f is the growth perturbation R(~x) generated during inflation. Since both
rate of structure (which is unity during the matter dom- times are within the matter dominated era, the relation
ination), and x̃c (η) describes the rate of collisions with in Fourier space takes the form [12]
other hydrogen atoms. In terms of Cartesian tensors, the 2k 2
relation must take the form, δ̃(~k, η) = T (k)D+ (η)R̃(~k). (11)
5H02 Ωm
 
2 1 2 Here D+ (η) is the linear structure growth function and
γab (~x, η) = F (∇ ) ∇a ∇b − δab ∇ δ(~x, η), (5)
3 T (k) is the matter transfer function normalized to unity
(where ∇a ≡ ∂/∂xa ) given that any symmetric trace- at large scales.
free rank-2 tensor constructed from the scalar δ(~x) must We now expand the primordial curvature perturbation
be proportional to [∇a ∇b − (δab /3)∇2 ]δ(~x). In Fourier
X h i
R(~x) = RkJM 4πiJ Ψk(JM ) (~x) , (12)
space, this relation becomes kJM

k2
 
in terms of scalar TAM waves Ψk(JM ) (~x) ≡
γ̃ab (~k, η) = −F (−k 2 ) ka kb − δab δ̃(~k, η). (6)
3 jJ (kx)YJM (x̂). Here k is a shorthand for k 2 dk/(2π)3 .
P R

We assume that R(~x) is a statistically homogeneous and

The function F (x) can be determined, for example, by
isotropic random field in which case,
taking ~k = kẑ (which makes γab diagonal) and compar-
ing Eq.
√ (6) with Eq. (3). Doing so, we find F (−k 2 ) = h(RkJM )∗ Rk0 J 0 M 0 i = δkk0 δJJ 0 δM M 0 PR (k), (13)
2
−D/( 2k ), or
where the angle brackets denote an average over all real-
izations of the random field. Here δkk0 is a shorthand for
 
~ D(η) δab
γ̃ab (k, η) = √ k̂a k̂b − δ̃(~k, η). (7) (2π)3 δD (k − k 0 )/k 2 , and PR (k) is the primordial curva-
2 3
ture power spectrum.
We now review the relation between the CMB- Likewise, a symmetric trace-free tensor field hab (~x) can
anisotropy tensor tab (~x, η) and δ(~x, η). Since tab (~x, η) is be expanded in much the same manner
the quadrupole moment of the CMB anisotropy observed h i
J k,α
XX
at (~x, η) during the matter-dominated era, we can obtain hab (~x) = hα
kJM 4πi Ψ(JM )ab (~ x) , (14)
it from the Sachs-Wolfe effect. Thus, α kJM

Z where the sum on α is over the five types (α =

tab (~x, η) = d2 û (3ûa ûb − δab )Θ(~x, û, η) L, VE, VB, TE, TB) of tensor TAM waves. Given that
  we are here concerned only with primordial density per-
δab
Z
= − d2 û ûa ûb − Φ[~x + û(η − ηls ), ηls ], turbations, we will require only the longitudinal (L) mode
3 which can be obtained from the scalar TAM wave from
(8) r  
k,L 1 3 1
Ψ(JM )ab (~x) = 2 ∇a ∇b − δab ∇2 Ψk(JM ) (~x).
where Φ(~x, ηls ) is the Newtonian-gauge gravitational po- k 2 3
tential [12] at the conformal time ηls of the CMB surface (15)
 3

These tensor TAM waves can be written in terms of ra- In 21-cm measurements, the light received in a given
dial functions RJLβ (kx) and tensor spherical harmonics frequency band corresponds to light emitted over a cor-
β responding range of redshifts or, equivalently, comoving
Y(JM )ab (x̂) as,
distances. Here we surmise that the circular polariza-
Ψk,L RJLβ (kx)Y(JM
β tion is measured in a frequency interval that corresponds
X
(JM )ab (~
x) = )ab (x̂). (16)
β
to emission from a shell of comoving-distance width ∆χ
centered at χ. The observed circular polarization in di-
Here, the sum on β is over β = {L, VE, TE}, the radial rection n̂ will then be
eigenfunctions can be inferred from Eq. (94) in Ref. [10],
and the tensor spherical harmonics are defined in Eq. (91)
in that paper.
Thus, we can write
χ+∆χ/2
dχ0
Z
V (χ0 , n̂)
h i
Tγ (k, η)RkJM 4πiJ Ψk,L Vχ (n̂) ≡
X
γab (~x, η) = (JM )ab (~
x ) , (17) ∆χ
χ−∆χ/2
kJM
' C(η0 − χ)abc na γbd (χn̂, η0 − χ)tcd (χn̂, η0 − χ).
and similarly for tab in terms of a temperature tranfer (20)
function Tt (k, η). The transfer functions Tγ (k, η) and
Tt (k, η) can be determined by combining Eqs. (7) and
(10) with Eq. (11), then using Eqs. (8) and (104) of
Ref. [10] to convert the Fourier amplitudes to TAM co-
efficients. Doing so, we find
The approximation in the second equality will hold as
2k 2 D(η) long as the redshift evolution of tab , γab and C is rela-
Tγ (k, η) = − √ 2 T (k)D+ (η), (18) tively slow over the integration interval. Below we will
5 3H0 Ωm
√ assume this approximation is valid and then limit our
12 2π D+ (ηls ) attention to the circular polarization on angular scales
Tt (k, η) = − √ j2 [k(η − ηls )]T (k) . (19)
5 3 a(ηls ) θ> <
∼ ∆χ/χ (or multipole moments l ∼ χ/∆χ).

R Inserting Eq. (17) and the similar one for tab into Eq. (20), the spherical-harmonic expansion coefficients Vχ (lm) ≡
∗
d2 n̂ Ylm (n̂)Vχ (n̂) then evaluate to
X X
Vχ (lm) = C(η0 − χ) R(kJM )γ R(kJM )t Tγ (kγ , η0 − χ)Tt (kt , η0 − χ)
(kJM )γ (kJM )t
h i
VB,VE TB,TE
× R̃JVE
γ
(k γ χ)R̃ VE
Jt (k t χ)K lm(JM )γ (JM )t + R̃ TE
Jγ (k γ χ) R̃ TE
Jt (kt χ)Klm(JM )γ (JM )t , (21)

where R̃Jβ (x) ≡ 4πiJ RJLβ (x). Here, Klm(JM

VB,VE TB,TE
)γ (JM )t and Klm(JM )γ (JM )t involve Wigner-3j symbols and can be inferred
from the integrals in Eqs. (64) and (66), respectively, of Ref. [11]; they are nonzero only for l + Jγ + Jt = odd. Using
Wick’s theorem and Eq. (13) for the primordial power spectrum, plus the summation properties of the K-factors, the
V V
angular circular-polarization power spectrum Cl χ χ ≡ h|Vχ (lm) |2 i is found to be
n h io
V Vχ
X X
Cl χ = |C(η0 − χ)|2 PR (kγ )PR (kt ) Tγ (kγ )Tt (kt ) Tγ (kγ )Tt (kt ) − Tγ (kt )Tt (kγ )
η=η0 −χ
Jγ Jt (odd) kγ kt
    2
(2Jγ + 1)(2Jt + 1)  VE VE l Jγ Jt TE TE l Jγ Jt 
× R̃Jγ (kγ χ)R̃Jt (kt χ) 0 +1 −1 − R̃Jγ (kγ χ)R̃Jt (kt χ) 0 +2 −2  . (22)
4π

Here “Jγ Jt (odd)” means the sum of all terms where Jγ + Jt + l is an odd number for a given l, and the com-
bination of transfer functions in the curly brackets should be evaluated at η = η0 − χ. The all-sky mean-square
V V
signal is Vχ2 ≡ d2 n̂ |Vχ (n̂)|2 /(4π). By Parseval’s theorem, it has the expectation value hVχ2 i = l (2l +1)Cl χ χ /(4π).
R P

Evaluations of the angular power spectrum Eq. (22) for 17, 24, 80 [redshifted frequencies νobs = 1420/(1+z) MHz]
the circular polarizations emitted at three redshifts z = are shown in Fig. 1. The three redshifts correspond
 4

10−21 10−16

10−22 Hz
8. 9M 10−17
=7
10−23 ν obs Hz
17, 5M
z= 7. 10−18

hVχ2 il≤1000 [K2 ]

=1
[K2 ]

10−24 , ν ob
s
80
z= 10−19
V Vχ

−25
10
Cl χ

Hz
10−26 6. 8M 10−20
s
=5
24 , ν ob
10−27
z= 10−21

z = 17

z = 24

z = 80
−28
10
10−22
100 101 102 103
101 102
l
z

V V
FIG. 1: Angular power spectra Cl χ χ of the 21-cm circular P1000
FIG. 2: The mean-square signal hVχ2 il≤1000 ≡ l=0 (2l +
polarization sourced by scalar perturbation at redshifts z = Vχ Vχ
17, 24, and 80, corresponding to the redshifted frequencies 1)Cl /(4π) as a function of the redshift. The three vertical
νobs = 1420/(1 + z) MHz = 78.9 MHz, 56.8 MHz, 17.5 MHz. lines correspond the power spectra plotted in Fig. 1. The
The signals peak around l ∼ 400, corresponding to an angular strongest signal is sourced around z = 17, corresponding to a
scale θ ∼ 180◦ /l ∼ 0.5◦ . redshifted frequency νobs = 78.9 MHz.

roughly to the times when X-rays from stellar remnants
starts to heat the gas (z ∼ 17), when the Lyman-α pho-
tons from the first stars start to heat the hydrogen atoms
(z ∼ 24), and when the spin temperature begins to ap-
proach the CMB temperature (z ∼ 80). The functions
C(η) and D(η) depend on the details of the ionization
history and heating of the IGM and are quite uncertain,
particularly at the lower redshifts (z < ∼ 20) associated
with the epoch of reionization. To illustrate, we use
here the model (designed to be roughly consistent with
EDGES [13]) detailed in Appendix B of Ref. [14]. For
low multipoles (l ≤ 30), Eq. (22) is evaluated exactly us-
ing WIGXJPF [15] to evaluate the Wigner-3j symbols. For
high multipoles (l > 30), we use the flat-sky approxima-
tion [16, 17].
The numerical results indicate that the angular power
spectra at different redshifts differ primarily in their
magnitude, while the angular (l) dependence is similar
(though not exactly). The power is spread over a wide
range of angular scales but peaks at l ∼ 400 correspond-
ing to an angular scale ∼ 0.5◦ . We indicate the redshift
dependence of the signal through the mean-square circu-
P1000 V V
lar polarization, hVχ2 il≤1000 ≡ l=0 (2l + 1)Cl χ χ /(4π)
shown as a function of redshift in Fig. 2. Again, there
are considerable uncertainties in this calculation, primar-
ily at lower redshifts, although the gross features should
be reliable. We see that the signal strength can vary quite
rapidly with frequency at frequencies ν ' 80 MHz cor-
responding to the beginning of the X-ray heating. The
detailed frequency dependence here is, however, uncer-
tain. There is a more robust prediction for a second,
wider, peak at ν ' 20 MHz.
To close, we have evaluated the circular polarization
of the 21-cm radiation from the dark ages and epoch of
reionization that arises at second order in the primordial-
density-perturbation amplitude. We leave a detailed ex-
ploration of the detectability of the signal, and strate-
gies for detection, to future work. Still, the estimates
of the signal from the gravitational-wave induced CMB
quadrupole [9] suggest that the signal may be within
reach of an ambitious lunar radio base [18]; if so, the
density-perturbation signal considered here, which is at
least 1/r (>
∼ 14, r: tensor-to-scalar ratio [19]) times big-
ger, should also be within reach. The techniques de-
scribed here can also be generalized to models with pri-
mordial gravitational waves or vector perturbations. It
will also be interesting in future work to investigate the
dependence of the signal on the detailed physics of reion-
ization and to consider cross-correlations of this signal
with other observables.
Acknowledgements. We thank E. D. Kovetz,
J. L. Bernal, and K. Boddy for useful discussions and
B. Wang for providing an ionization-history code. LJ
and MK were supported by NSF Grant No. 1519353,
NASA NNX17AK38G, and the Simons Foundation and
KI was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers,
15H02082 and 20H05248.
∗
Electronic address: lingyuan.ji@jhu.edu
†
Electronic address: kamion@jhu.edu
‡
Electronic address: inomata@resceu.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp
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