ee autuorn SAaick & SeXee crime Conertfe Ser ~ Girai Structural Engineering Document: fo / SAY 1 € SNe es je Bs f i A) oy t Ly , 4 ia > Jérg SCHLAICE Hartmut SCHEEF CONCRETE " BOX-GIRDER BRIDGES International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering IABSE Association Internationale des Ponts et Charpentes AIPC.FOREWORD ‘The box girder is today the most widely used superstructure in conorete bridge construction. That fact justifies the suggestion made by the Commission Ill of the IABSE that a comprehensive survey be written concerning this particular bridge type. The authors proceed from the assumption, however, that its contents will first be drawn upon when all possible design alternatives for the particular bridge pro- ject have been thoroughly examined, and the box girder has been proven appropriate, Their aim is less tht of encouraging the one-sided propagation of box-girder bridges but rather much mere that of con- tributing to the improvemant of the quality of such bridges. They hope to contribute to this by exten- sively relieving the engineer of the study of today’s hardly surveyable mass of literature on the subject 80 that he can better devote that time to the actual design of the bridge. That explains why this paper is kept short, why in particular cases the reader is referrad to the literature, and why subjects not per- Asining to the central theme are only touched upon and not handled exhaustively. For greater clearness, the survey follows the sequence of a practical bridge design process by dividing itself into three main parts, namely, “Design”, "Structure Analysis”, and "Dimensioning and Structural Datailing"; each saction with its individual numbering and literature list. This survey directs itself especially to the design en fact that the construction methads are handled onty br decisively influence the design at the very beginning. which manifests itself, for example, in the ly and in the section “Design”, because they Major contributions to Section Il, "Structural Analysis”, were made by Prof. Dr.-Ing. Kurt Schéfer, 8 col- Teague of the authors in the Institut fiir Massivbau at the University of Stuttgart. In this section the attempt is made to portray the catculation of the box-girder sectional forces resulting from eccentric vehicle loads with consideration of tha folded plate action or profiie deformation so comprehensively that itis not only easily understood but also rapidly applicable in the design office. This thereby eli nates the often-discussed, contraversial question as to whether the effort involved in the “exact” caicu- lation of this loading case is actually worthwhile or whether an estimation of the transverse load distrib- ution would not suffice. ‘The authors would like to take this opportunity to thank Professors R. Favre, Lausanne, and C, Mann, Zarich, for their critical examination of the peper. They are indebted to Mrs. !. Paechter and Mrs. E. ‘Schnee for their conscientious preparation of the manuscript; and Mr. E. Kluttz for his empathetical sransfation of their German original into English. Stuttgart, January 1962Copyright © 1982 by International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering All rights reserved. No pert of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without parmission in weiting from the publisher. ISBN 3.85748 0319 Printed in Switzerland Publisher: JABSE - AIPC -1VBH ETH - Honggerberg (CH-8093 Zirich, Switzerland Tel.: 01/377 2647 Telex: 822 1861ABS CH Telegr.: FABSE, CH-8093 ZiirichTABLE OF CONTENTS Part! DESIGN 1, Terms, Symbols - 2 3 4 5. 2 3. 4 Introduction... .....- Historical Development . . - Over All Design . 41 Design Principles. 4.1.1. Tha Role and Sequence of the Design Process - 41.2. Remarks asto Form . . 443. Costs ...... 42. Construction Methods « 43° Superstructure ... .. 43.4, General . 432 Longitudinal Direction 433 Transverse Direction . 4a Comptte Systm and Supports 45 Substructure . 451 Abutments 482 Plers......- 453. Foundetions ............- Literature eee |. Introduction ...... 0. - ++ Loads and Extemal Influences... Structural System. . 3.1 Final State 32. During Construction . . . Critical Losdinge and Sectional Forces 41 Longitudinal Direction... . - 42 Transverse Direction Simplified Structural Analysis ofthe Supersewenre 51 General... ... Lees . 6&2 Analysis Procedure . . . 53. Analysis in the Longitudinal Direction | | : 631, Sectional Forces due to Loads plus Restraints - 632 Timo-Dependent Alteration of the Sectional Forces seb creep « 5.4 Analysis in the Transverse Direction . 5A1. Sectional Forces Acting on the Flanges. 542 Analysis asa Frame ...... 543 Transverse Bending Moments in the Haunich of arise Depth Gi 55 Folded Plate Action cece eee eee 55.1 Fundamental Concer 552 . Solution by Means of the Analogy of a Beam on an Elastic Foundation. 5.6 Multiple-Cell Box Girders ... . . cette eee : 57 Curved and Skew Box-Girder Bridges... Computer-sided Analysis of the Superstructure 6.1 Theory of Prismatic Folded Plates : 6.1.1 Hinged Folded Plates . . . 6.1.2. Folded Plates with Rigid Joints . 62 FiniteStrips..... . 63. Finite Elements .7, Abutments . . a & Piers ....- : 2 81 Loadings 2 82 Effective Length - case : B 83 Moments According to 2 Order Theory - 74 8, Foundation. ........ ee ee rene veces B 40. Literature eee 16 Partill DIMENSIONING AND DETAILING 1. Introduction... . . - 2. Gonorol Detaling Principles... 3 Prestressing ....... re 31 The Lovel of Prastress .... 32. Tendon Profle in the Transverse Direction 42.4 Top Flange - 322 Prestressing of the Webs... 323 Bottom Flange . . . 3 Tendon Profile in the Longitudinal Direction 33.1 Inthe Webs 3.2 In the Top and Bottom Flangos - 34 Transfer of Concentrated Prestress Forces 35 Construction Joints and Coupling Joints 4, Dimensioning of the Top and Bottom Flanges 5. Dimensioning and Reinforcement of the Webs 5.1 Dimensioning for Shear, Torsion, and Transver 6.2 Web Reinforcoment........ 6, Transverse Disphragms .... . 7. Abutments, Piers and Foundations 8 Bridge Bearings... . 81 Bearing Types . . 82. Installation and Maintenance . 83 Design of Bearings... . 9 Bridge Finishes... 9.1 Expansion Joints 92 Bridge Railing... 83 Roadway Surace - 94 Drainage . 10. Literature... Note Parts I, ll, end Ill form a whole and are only divided for organisation reasons. Should the reader be referred to a figure, a section, or a reference in one of the othe? parts, he will find that the Roman numeral of the other part of the text is placed before the Arabic number; for example, Figura Section Iii, 8.1Terms, Symbols 1 Part! DESIGN 1, TERMS, SYMBOLS 2 See a oS ee pt SECTION a-a Fig, 1 Sections through a typical eimple box-girder bridge ‘The Elements of a_simple Box-Girder Bridj Foundation Substructure Superstructure + plate & box abutment 19 Wanaverae diaphragm 2 pile plate & eplll-throagh abutment {at abutments, within the epan 3 Vored piles 4 calumne, plers (wiih tind over the plora) with opening 4 driven plles 2 or more bearings) 20 hox-girder web breast wall 21 top elab (area between the webs) wing wall 22 top slats (emntilover section} Sacte wall 22 bottom slab edge beam 24 fancia beam nd dlophragm 25 gard rail bridge soat 26 Tauing support walle 21 ceallng membrane Deldge seat beam 20° wearing surface faeces chamber 29° Grain inet ‘bearing (ean be fixed oF 30° croaa drain allow movement) 31 Tongitudined cron 18 expanaton Joint By and large the text and formulas use CEB or [SO symbols.2 Design 2, INTRODUCTION ‘Though box-girder bridges are indeed often not the only solution to @ bridge project they are,however, seldom the absolutely false one and really only excluded in the case of very small spans or sharply skewed bridges, This universal applicability they owe, from the point of view of load-carrying, to their indifference as to whether the bending moments are positive or ne~ gative and to their torsional stiffness; from the point of view of economy, to their suitability for a factory-like construction sequence; and finally, from the point of view of form, to their sleek lines with which they fit into every landscape and surroundings. He, though, who expects a structure to reflect the flow of forces within it through its outer shape will regret the above-mentioned neutral load-carrying behaviour of the box-girder bridges, especially those of today. As a result of the need to construct the bridges economically, the. development has tended towards bridges with constant depths, even for varying spans. Box-girder bridges therefore deserve special care and attention with respect to pleasing proportions and conscientious shaping of their details. ‘The above mentioned characteristics have made the concrete box-girder bridges the most widespread bridge type today. The. fact that this develop- ment will continue for some time justifies this survey concerning a topic that is certainly much too specialised for he who does not like to see his design possibilities restricted. Therefore let one be reminded that the box girder is only a part of the entire bridge structure and that the directly supported box girder continuous over the supports is only the standard case. The box girder can also be found in portal frame bridges, arch and bow bridges, and cable-stayed and suspension bridges of all kinds (Fig. 2). Fig. 2. Bridges with the box girder as main structural elementHistorical Development 3 3, HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT ‘The first bridges of reinforced concrete were built as were their predecessors of stone, They were arch bridges with a gravel fill for the road surface petween the two bridge parapets over the arch. Later the gravel fill was replaced by a transverse roadway slab, and the transition to a box girder was achieved. ‘The world’s first reinforced concrete bridge, an arch bridge, was built in 1875 [1]. Probably the first box-girder bridge was Hennebique’s Risorgimento Bridge in 1911, a 3-hinged arch (see Fig. 3). SECTIONG-al SECTION b-b 1 asobt-t3, go-—}+| 3350 Due to improvements in the quality of concrete and steel as well as a better understanding of the material behaviour of reinforced conerete, the arch lost more and more on importance as a load-carrying system to that of thé beam loaded in bending. ‘The longest span simply reinforced bridge to-date was puilt in 1939 at Ville-Neuve-St. George, a three -celled, thin-walled, vary- ing-depth box girder of three spans with a 78 m middle span. Fig. 3 Risorgimento Bridge Lt was only with the development of high-strength prestressing steel that it became possible to span longer distances, The first prestressed concrete bridges, most of 1 or I-cross-section, were built towards the end of the 1920’, The great breakthrough was achieved only after 1945. The Sclayn bridge over the river Maas, which was built by Magnel in 1948, was the first continuous prestressed box-girder bridge with 2 spans of 62,70 m{see Fig. 4). In the following years the ratio of wages to material costs climbed sharply. ‘This thereby shifted the emphasis of development to the construction method. section a-a 62,70 m +l — ° i ' cal eeatessing cable ‘ (without bond} 5 Fig. 4 Sclayn Bridge over the river Maas; Prestressing by means of straight, Jarge bundles of parallel wires without bond4 Design Important development stages were the following: - cantilever construction in situ: the bridge over the river Rhine at Worms in 1953 with a main span of 114 m, the Hamana bridge in Japan in 1978 with a main span of 230 m, the cable-stayed Brotonne bridge in 1978 with a main span of 320 m - cantilever construction with precast elements: the Chillon Viaduct in 1969 with a main span of 104 m, the cable-stayed bridge over the Columbia River in the USA in 1980 with a main span of 300 m - construction with a travelling scaffolding: in situ (bridge on the Kettiger Hang in 1959, with equal spans of 39 m each) or precast (Rio Niteroi Bridge in 1974 with equal spans of 80 m) - incremental launching method: Rio Caroni Bridge in 1962 with equal spans of 96 m and the Taubertal Bridge in 1965 with spans of 54 and 60 m. ‘The box-girder cross-section evolved structurally from the hollow cell deck bridge or’the T-beam bridge, The widening of the compression zone that be- gan as a structural requirement at the central piers was in the end extended throughout the entire length of the bridge because of the advantageous trans- verse load-carrying characteristics. The first box-girder cross-sections possessed deck slabs that cantilevered out only slightly from the box portion (see Fig. 5, a - e). With prestressed concrete, the length of the cantilever could be increased. The high form- work costs caused a reduction in the number of cells (see Fig. 5, f and g). In order to reduce the construction loads to the minimum possible or to require only one longitudinal girder in the working state even with multiple traffic-lanea, the one-celled built-up cross-section constructed in modular fashion emerged as the Jast development (see Fig, Sh }. This allowed the Semorile Viaduct to be built by first incrementally launching the U-shaped portion of the box girder and adding the deck slab afterwards by means of precast elements and insitu concrete infilling (see Fig. 6). Some precast elements were built in before launching to provide stiffness, In the case of the Egchachtal Bridge (Fig. 7), the closed box girder was first constructed with only short cantilever deck slabs using the balanced cantilever method with erection girder, In the follow-up stage of constructions, the main can- tilever deck portion was added in insitu concrete and supported by precast concrete struts, The Kochertal Bridge and the Liesertal Bridge were simi- larly constructed, In the case of the West Gate Bridge in Melbourne however, the cantilevered portion was built entirely of precast elements which were covered later with only a thin concrete topping, A further reduction in the construction loads was only possible by dividing the bridge longitudinally as done for the Hammersmith Flyover in London (Fig. 8),Historical Development 5 Fig. 5 Development of the box-girder cross-section -——_——# ” ET Fig. 6 Semorile Viaduct [3] Fig. 7 Eschachtal Bridge [4] \ Ss prestressing strand Grder component, insitu concrete joint 2 Fig. 8 Hammersmith Flyover Fig. 9 Brotonne Cable-Stayed in London (1} Bridge with centerline cable attachment (5]6 Design ‘The concrete box girder with streamlined cross-section has also been success- ful recently in the case of cable-stayed bridges. Its high dead load favorably influences the dynamic stress amplitudes of the cables and the necessary long- itudinal prestressing steel. A torsionally stiff box girder is required to handle the torsional moments incurred by attaching the cables to the bridge’ s centerline (see Fig. 9). Attaching the cables to both sides allows a much- reduced section depth. A case-in point was the Columbia River Bridge where the side cells of the approach span cross-section (Fig. 10 } were only requi- red in the area near the cable-stayed portion of the bridge, and transverse diaphragms were added only where the cables were attached to the cross- section, A further area of application for box girders arose from noise and automobile emissions control for inner city elevated highways (Fig. 11). Fig. 10 Columbia River Bridge [6]: a) cable-stayed bridge, b) approach span glazed openings for natural lighting Fig, 11 Closed box girder for inner city elevated highways [7] Even though the structural development of the box girder cross-section is prob- ably close to an ond, it will continue to retain its firm place in bridge con- struction for some years to come.Design Principles 7 4. OVER ALL DESIGN 4,1 Design Principles 4,1.1 The Role and Sequence of the Design Process The over-all structural and architectural design is the most important and, for its designer, the most stimulating and. beautiful stage in the creation of a structure, Problems during detailed analysis and.design and during construe~ tion as well as defects arising during its use can be traced in mosi cases to a faulty overall design, Design entails finding an optimum compromise among the particular objective and subjective boundary conditions of an individual structure. That is why no bridge, even a box-girder one, can be like another. ‘Muchi latitude remains for creative fantasy and considerations of quality and responsibility. The design engineer must be conscious at all times of the fact that he is irrevocably changing an area’ s environment with his bridge. ‘Therefore, not only considerations of stability, serviceability, and economy count, but of equal importance are the bridge shape, the bridge’ s harmoni- zation with the surrounding Jandscape, and its impact on the preservation of the quality of life of man and nature. . ‘The optimum solution, always and exclusively a subjective evaluation, can only be found through the comparison of many alternative solutions with a different assessment of the individual boundary conditions in each case. The entire planning process from the sketched design to the planning of the con- struction is a cyclical process of increasing refinement (Fig. 12). It is to be emphasized that the development of the structural details should be inclu- ded in the earliest phase of the design process, whereas the computer calcu- lations range at its end and should confirm only whether the roughly deter- mined dimensions suffice, Construction is carried out according to drawings, not calculations. Above all, it would be a great mistake to believe that the computer could relieve the engineer of the design of a bridge. 4.1.2 Remarks as to form In contrast somewhat to arch, suspension, or cable-stayed bridges, the box~ girder bridge fits into almost every surrounding, be it varied or monotonous [8]. Just because of its simplicity, the observer finds every imbalance in its proportions and uncleanness in its lines to be disturbing. Realizing well enough that, fortunately, it is not possible and perhaps even detrimental to put forth generally valid rules for aesthetics, a few remarks on the subject will nevertheless be hazarded here. It has served its purpose well if the fact that a separate section in this paper is devoted to architectural design and form promotes the sharpening of the consciousness among engineers with respect to this subject. ‘That will even be achieved in the event that the reader finds the following guidelines or orientation aids to be false and in this manner critically grapples with the questions of form (Compare especially [9, 10, 11} as well as (8, 12, 13):| 8 Design ECONOMY ANALYSIS DIMENSIONING SOMPUTATION SF uname Skeroyen pe9S> Fig. 12 Planning: a continuous refining process - Order in the structural system: Retain the selected structural system (beam, arch, frame, suspension or cable-stayed) and only combine it with another system if the topografical boundary conditions change signi- ficantly along the length of the bridge (e.g. widened river bed or approach). ~ Harmony: Strive for balanced proportions among the length of the spans, the construction depth, and the depth of the valley; and between the supporting and supported structural elements, The span/depth ratio , i/d, alone is no guaranty for a light and elegant appearance (Fig. 13). - Order in the lines: Restrict the characteristic lines to a few directions and avoid their intersecting, A straight line should merge smoothly into a curve,Design Principles 9 b} hb’ Fig, 18 Although 1,/d, is greater than 1/4, , (b) appears lighter than (a) ~ Simplicity and clearness: Allow the function of the structural element and the necessity of the material to be perceived, and avoid unnecessary frills. - Integration into the environment: Either subordinate the bridge to its surroundings; or, if the Iandscape is monotonous or the surroundings are disorderly built up, make a feature of the bridge. - Pay attention to the order of scale between the bridge and its surroundings and the bridge and the individual person, A long bridge, especially if'it passes through hilly terrain, should never be set out in a straight alignment but harmonically pick up the movement of the terrain and the lay-out of the curves of the highway. ‘An odd number of spans which decrease in length in the direction of the abut- menté are found to be pleasini a, &, and i. reguiar-spen—— lengtlié produce a feeling of w 88 (Pig. 14b). Many spans of equal length produce a boring effect, and the valley appears to be walled in (Figs. ide and d), although a design in the form of Figure 14d with very slender in- dividual piers can be a viable solution. The harmonic division of a line accord- ing to the "golden section" commonly used in antiquity is limited by various hindrances and the soil conditions and therefore can only seldom be realised (Fig. 141), a ee Se Se gal STD” bd} — = e) i] | | ? oe ST Fig. 14 On the selection of span iéngths10 Design: Should the bridge gradient follow a trough or a crest, i.e. the upper charac- teristic line is curved, then a satisfying appearance can he best achieved by means of a constant depth, d, of the box-girder for the entire bridge. Especially for inner city elevated highways, the depth should be as small as possible and the corresponding reduction in the lengths of the spans be accepted, a) dr — ~ SEL LF re — TT4 Fig. 15 Shadow effect caused by Fig, 16 Fascia Beam: the form (b) the cantilevered deck slab causes the bridge to appear sleeker than (a) The length,a,of the cantilevered deck slab and the form given to the fascia beam and railing determine the side view of the bridge as follows: - For a/d< 1 no shadow effect is created, but for a/d> 3 the shadow is very noticeable, and for a/d > 2 it can be usefully employed as an element of form (Fig. 15), For varying bridge depths, however, the shadow should not be allowed to extend beneath the soffit of the box girder, - A deep, if necessary white-painted, fascia beam reduces the perceived depth of the box girder (Fig. 16). Suitable values are the following [ 8, 10}: d,/d 1/5 to 1/4 but always < 1/3 afl ™ 1/20 to 1/80 for long bridges qd; 200 mm. An inclined fascia beam appears even lighter because of the angle at which the light falls on it (Fig, 17). In addition, the wind is also deflected to ad- vantage, In the case of bridges near residential areas, the fascia beams can be placed higher to act as noise barriers (Fig. 18). Varying inclina- tion cause light-dark effects that give the bridge a sleeker appearance. With an appropriate design such deep fascia beams can be used as load- bearing members together with the box-girder, Pao Fig. 17 An inclined fascia beam Fig. 18 Fascia beam as noise barrier ~ Great care should be employed with the shape and structural details of the guard rail, Sufficient protection for the pedestrian plus an unhindered view for the driver of the motor vehicle are achieved with a hefty cross- beam mounted onto slender vertical standards placed at intervals of proximately 150 mm,Design Principles 11 Especial care should also be taken with the proportions of the piers with respect to the bridge superstructure, If the piers are too slender, the super- structure will appear too heavy, especially if the bridge cross-section is increased in depth from a minimum at mid-span to a maximum over the piers, ‘There the piers should never be any narrower than the box-girder bottom flange which they support, Round piers appear boring compared with prismatic ones with at least six sides, The abutments should be placed high in the embankment and be only marginally exposed. In order to assess the appearance of the bridge, it is important to compose a "picture" of it. This means making sketches at first and later drawings to scale, Along with a plan view, cross-section, and elevation, at least one per- spective drawing is necessary in order to obtain an impression of the bridge in its surroundings, With an inclined view one can best determine if the super- structure and substructure are in harmony with each other, Of great help in this respect is the photomontage, which is really not so costly, or a model. The model must include a sufficient portion of the surroundings. Not only should one not atternpt to evoke a favourable impression of the structure by choosing an unrealistic standpoint from which to observe the bridge,but one should design @ bridge that is found to be harmonically proportioned even when viewed from the worst possible perspective, 4.1.3 Costs In letting the contract for a bridge one should not overlook the fact that the total costs include not only the costs of construction but also the follow-up costs of maintenance and the ensuring of proper functioning of the bridge for at least 50 years, Unfortunately, even in the rich industrialized nations of the world, bridges are predominantly let on the basis of the lowest bid. One is seldom prepared to pay a bit more for a good architectural design and form and Jong-lasting quality. ‘The growth of costs shown in Fig. 19 are valid for Central Europe. Depending upon the regional construction materials at hand, the qualifications of the wor- kers, the ratio of wages to material costs, the extent of mechanization of the construction industry, and the climate; the particular cost analysis yields dif- fering results, The course of costs over time portrayed in Fig. 20 shows that an economical solution is only achieved today if the labour-intensive work is li- mited through repetition of the same operations or construction under factory conditions. Cost optimizations with specification of the most favourable span length or the like, as is so often found in papers are questionable for the most part, because they can never take every possible parameter into consideration. They often only consider material expenditure.Only if the ratio of labour costs to material costs is less than 1 do savings of material gain significance. One can observe from Fig. 19 that inflated calculations of savings of mild steel reinforcement, approximately half of which is required as minimum reinforce- ment anyway, do not change the total cost of the bridge to any great extent. Lar- ge savings are only achfeved if an element of the design is changed, such as a Jess expensive foundation or a less labour intensive construction method,12 Design 50% 86% 100% services structual_ work Ke tinish work Fig. 19 Cost breakdown:average values of Fig. 20 Growth of costs in the 17 typical examples (from [14] ) - industrialized nations For a bridge with average span lengths and a span/depth ratio, 1/d * 18, one can proceed from the following values for the superstructure (from [14]): - m° concrete per m’” bridge surface area, expressed as an average thickness 0,45 «1 [m’ 3,2. 4, 00,95 + 45-2 Vo ¢m?/m?y - quantity of reinforcement (mass of steel/m® concrete) normal reinforcement = 110 iigg/ mo 3] prestressing steel for the case of predominantly 5 continuous prestressing tendons = ( 4,5 + 0, 5-1 [ml] hee/m j - average cost of falsework and formwork ~ 60 % of the expenditure for concrete and steel. 4.2 Construction Methods The method of construction influences the design and its details in both the longitudinal and transverse direction. In the la&t 20 years construction me- thods have experienced a stage of rapid development. They appear today, however, to have reached the end of this stage. Box-girder bridges are con- structed today on stationary falsework (Fig. 21), if at all, only in the extreme case of a small number of spans or when the superstructure is not at a great height above the ground. For some of the large bridges highly mechanized constructions methods are used, By means of construction rhythms and many repetitive construction operations, these methods reduce construction time and formwork (Figs, 22 and 23), For the foresceable future one can expect that long bridges will be construc- ted using either launching girders or segmental cantilever construction, For medium-length bridges between 200 m and 500 m the incremental launching method and classical balanced cantilever method or cantilever method with launching gantry will be predominantly used,Construction Methods 13, ee iti j_ formworic release position 5,18 lm 9,50 ——+b200 —s15 — Fig. 21 Basic formwork for a box-girder cross-section SS 1 a ' H at=2s-som a) classica) balanced cantilever construction (Rhine Bridge ) f 4) launching girder ( Krannenberg Bridge ) i 961-4 | r= i t ‘t= 100-2501 e) incremental launching method ( Taubertal Bridge } Fig. 22 Construction methods14 Design CONSTRUCTION ‘SPAN LENGTH GRDGE LENGTH _ | [CONSTRUCTION PROGRESS METHOD 7p 40 60 40 019 0 HOON] | 200440 x 1920 30 40 50 éOmiacet} CANTILEVER, ‘elessical ux, cables Segre PRECAST ELEMENT LAUNCHING GROER INCREMENTAL LAUNCHING. Fig. 23 Classification according to onstruction method, span length, total bridge length, and construction progress (from [15}) 4.3 Superstructure 4,3.1 General ‘The box girder often is more advantageous than say a -beam due to _ its high bending stiffness combined with a low dead load, yielding & favorable ratio of dead load to live load; = its high torsionel stiffness which allows freedom in the selection of both the supports and bridge alignment; and - the possibility of utilizing the space inside the box girder, Several of the following aspects apply to both the box girder and W -beam, however. . ‘The superstructure should always be designed as a complete entity. However, in order to provide a better overview, the longitudinal and transverse direc- tion are handled separately here. 4.3.2 Longitudinal Direction Because of excessive bending deformations even under constant loads and in order to avoid cracking under repeated loading, most box-girder bridges are prestressed, As short a span as 20 m is more economical and possesse® eeore favorable load-carrying characteristics when partially prestressed than if it were simply reinforced, Under 20 m is a box-girder cross-section no longer sensible anyhow, ‘The limit for mild steel reinforced bridges of a single span lies at approximately 35 m; for more than one span ‘at a maximum of 60 m. Today practically all box-girder bridges are prestressed, ‘The selection of the span lengths should mainly follow from aesthetic aspects (compare with Section 4.1.2), From the structural point of view, the span length ratio of end span to its neighboring inner span should be lp/ly * 9.75 but not < 0.40 so as to avoid uplift at the end span supports, Most end spans with lg/ly = 0.5 do not look good.Sup ture. Especially important for the form and the dimensioning of the bridge is the selection of the bridge depth. Up to a span length of about 90 m, a constant bridge depth is sensible [16,. 17], whereby beginning with a span length of approximately 50 m it is expedient to increase the thickness of the bottom flange over the piers on the inside of the box girder where this can not be seen from the outside. For span lengths, 1, in the middle range and constant bridge depth, d, the following ratios are normally used: = mild steel reinforced: single span aw 17 multiple spans 1/d¥ 18 single spans lf 21 ~ prestresse’ : multiple spans ljd~ 25 Tf not done earlier for aesthetic reasons, it is structurally and economically advantageous to vary the bridge depth in the longitudinal direction beginning with span lengths of about 60 m onwards, For span lengths over 150'm this cannot be avoided, According to [18], the depth, dg,over the piers should vary so that it is about 3 times as large as at mid-span, dj. The depth of the box girder should vary in the longitudinal direction between the piers and mid-span in such a way that the forces in the tensile and compressive chords increase linearly and therefore the shear forces in the webs remain roughly constant throughout the span, Suitable ratios are: I/dy * 33 to 50 Udy ~ 12 to 20 Should the bridge be placed high above the valley, aesthetics dictate that, de- pending upon the width of the piers, the ratio dg/dg is better chosen some- what smaller than the structural analysis indicates as the optimum. Much larger slenderness ratios can be achieved in the case of suspension and cable-stayed bridges, as the depth of the main girder is not determined by the total span length but by the spacing of the hangers, which act a spring supports. For small hanger or cable intervals of from 6 m to 15 m, which also prove suitable for the free cantilever construction of cable-stayed bridges, the depth of the main girder when suspended from both sides is in principle determined only by its strength in the transverse direction, When the girder is suspen- ded from the center, the necessary torsional strength or torsional stiffness plays a decisive role as well. Skewed single celled box-girder bridges with gS 15° (Fig, 24) can be designed & as if they were orthogonal bridges. For larger B the angle of skew must be coneidered (e.g. [ 19, 204). 8, Fig, 24 Skewed bridge Fig, 25 Curved bridge16 Design. For curved bridges, where in addition to longitudinal bending moments My, torsional moments ,M.p,are also necessary to satisfy equilibrium, the box- girder cross-section is especially advantageous, The angle of curvature,c, (Pig, 25) is the governing criterium for the ratio of My/Mg. For a < 30° it is sufficient to caloulate My as for a straight bridge and Mey for the curved bridge, be. ‘to neglect the Coupling effect of the two upon each other (e.g. (21, 22), 4.3.3 Transverse Direction Figure 26 portrays the factors influencing the cross-sectional form, They are all approximately of the same importance. ———————_ ‘PROPORTIONS: POSSIBLE CROSS-SECTIONS Teonatant oF varying Tenjou daphne (CONSTRUCTION METHOD “atatlonary faleework Uinsremental sonching "etew from Below Fig. 26 Influences on the design in the transverse direction The use to which the cross-section is put determines its form, especially the width of the top slab. No standards exist for the necessary width of foot- bridges. That must be determined according to the expected number of pedestrians for the particular location in question [23]. In order to provide ample space for at least 2 baby carriages plus one pedestrian and to impart a feeling of safety and well-being to pedestrians, a minimum width of 3,5 m. between the hand rails should be provided, Should the bridge possess light, open balustrades or carry pedestrians over major traffic arteries, the width should be chosen expecially liberally. For railway bridges, the railway clearance profile (in western Europe as in Fig. 27) determines the width of the upper flange and the distance bet- ween the webs, as the loads should act on the box girder as near to the webs as possible (Fig. 29), Should the rail traffic be transferred to the inside of the box girder , the railway clearance profile would-then determine the widthSuperstructure 17 be = Lj L Fig. 27. Railway clearance Fig. 28 Double-track railway: Place the webs-as nearly as, possible underneath the paths of the loads, and height of the box girder as well (Fig. 29). The details of the slab carry- ing the tracks depend in addition upon whether the ballast bed is continued over the bridge or whether the sleepers are placed on vibration-absorbing pads sitting directly on the structure, For highway bridges the bridge should maintain the normal highway cross-section (e, g, Fig. 30). Should later widening of the highway be planned, the additional lanes should be constructed for the initial bridge stage and the areas not planned for initial commissioning blocked off, This avoids expen- sive reworking of the bridge in the future, a p00] foot ener lemmas [200] 375! 375|| 40o]| a75 ! 375 [300] 150 i 050 7 i Fig. 29 Design of the Metro in Lyon Fig. 30 Typical cross-section (from [24]) of a 4-lane Autobahn (R Q 23)18 Design ‘The box-girder cross-section shown in Fig. 31 has proven itself with regard to its form and structural characteristics. Many variations of this "standard cross-section " are possible. 13,00m NSss. SSSA nf PEEL Fig. 31 Typical single-cell box-girder cross-section (1/d~20;see Fig. 43) If the-availeble depth of the girder,d;is greater than from 1/6-to 1/5 of the bridge width ,byray, (* roadway slab'width), a single-cell box girder is in order, If d/ogan < 1/8, a 2-cell or multiple-cell box girder is more sen- sible (Fig, 32) Pe; For wider bridges the vehicle loads acting on the canti- lever slab can be distributed longitudinally by means of a pronounced edge beam, enabling the cantilever length to be increased (Fig. 38). Fig. 32 Double-cell box girder with Fig. 33 Load-distributing edge support in the middle beam ‘The number of cells should be kept as small as possible even for wider bridges with a small depth in order to minimize problems in construction, As cam be seen in Fig, 34, no substantial improvement in the transverse load distribu- tion is achieved with 3 cells and beyond, For economic reasons, today more than 2 cells are rare. If 2 or more box girders are placed next to each other it is advantageous to connect their top and bottom flanges in order to achieve a better transverse load distribution (Fig. 35 b). If only the top flanges are connected, they will be hightly stressed due to bending moments in the transverse direction with- out being able to effectively distribute the stresses in this direction (Fig. 35 a). It is then better to separate the two box girders.Superstructure 19 ——— 100 kN single toad ot A 100 KN uniformly distributed ‘over all webs SB_28 0 Fig. 34 Longitudinal bending stresses g et mid-span in relation to the number of cells; (example for 1/d *18 from [26]) Fig, 35 The coupling of box girders ‘The combination of extremely wide roadway decks with slender piers can be accomplished with a box girder by supporting the cantilevers with precast struts (Fig. 36). This is also advantageous for the construction. ‘At the inner supports of continuous long span bridges it is usually necessary to increase the thickness of the bottom flange to take the compression stresses (Fig. 37). The center of gravity is thereby lowered towards the bottom flange, /——_ 12,90 m ————| Fig. 38 Kochertal Bridge at Geislingen | Fig. 37 Thicker bottom flange for a 4-lane Autobahn (from [27)) over the support (Pine Valley Creek Bridge, from [28])20 Design affecting favorably the moment arm of the prestressing force. However, the increased stiffness also causes an increase in moments over the supports. The bottom flenge should be gradually thickened over a distance of 1/10 times the span on both sides of the inner support, With varying bridge depth and inclined webs, the box-girder soffit is wider in the span than over the supports (Fig. 38), In order to simplify the formwork in this case, vertical webs are therefore often selected (Fig. 39). cross-section gross-section ‘over the supports in the span Fig. 38 Felsenau Bridge, singlo- Fig. 39 Oléron Bridge with ver- celled box girder with tical webs and two sepa- inclined webs rate box girders Especially in the case of inner city elevated highways, exit lanes often begin on the bridge, requiring a widening of the bridge top slab. If the widening is not too great, it can be handled by extending the length of the cantilever por- tion (Fig 40a), Its soffit must however be carefully designed (Fig. 41). If the widening of the roadway is not symmetric, an equal cantilever length for both sides of the box girder ean be achieved by offsetting the center line of the box girder (Fig. 40b). The torsional moments are thereby reduced as well. The formwork costs are substantially increased however, . In extreme cases (Fig. 42) the distance between the webs or the number of cells can be increased, ‘The possible position of supports thereby influences the number of webs more in most cases than the maximum cantilever length of the top slab or the maximum span of the top slab between the webs, a) symmetrical widening b) unsymmetrical widening; equal cantilevers achieved through @ curved alignment of the box section Fig. 40 Widening of top slab‘Superstructure 21 a) simple design but too stubby in the normal region b) extensive formwork but in return a well-proportioned cantilever slab in the normal region Fig. 41 Extension of the cantilever slab Fig. 42 Widening for exit lanes The following: - advantageous proportions - minimum dimensions - aesthetic and structural suggestions are intended to facilitate the preliminary design but should in no way restrict the scope of the design possibilities (Fig. 43), special form for the coup- Jing of prestressing tendons Fig. 43 Design aids for the cross-sectional dimensions fh = 0.2 (to simplify the formwork, a value of Tatab Lraunch!!stap * °-5 is Fecommended) Thauneh - t/t, = from 1:2 to 1:32 Design - slab thickness t, > 1,/30, otherwise the slab must be stiffened in the compression zone by means of transverse ribs at intervals of a = 1,. (This also applies for t,). - minimum dimensions: deck slab t, = 200 mm; t, = 200 mm webs t, = 300 mm or (200+ 2fanet) bottom slab ts = 150 mm (with the utmost of care in construction, e.g. pre~ cast elements, these values can be decreased by as much as 50 mm). ‘The ratio 1 shown in Fig. 43 is very much dependent upon the transverse bending stiffness of the slabs and the webs as well as the maximum possible eccentricity of the vehicle loading as “defined by the sidewalk. For normal cross-sectional dimensions, 80 % to 90 % of the fixed-end moment ofthe can- tilever slab is transmitted into the web and 20 % to 10 % into the deck slab between the webs. The optimum cantilever length 1, lies between 2.0 m and 3.5m, 1, should be so selected that no negative moments in the span occur in the deck slab between the webs. In order to minimize the width of the pier and the span length of the bottom slab between webs, the webs should be given an inclination of from 4: 1 to 3:1 for a constant bridge depth. The transverse tensile forces in the deck slab must be accepted thereby. In order to facilitate rainwater run-off, the roadway should be transversely inclined as follows: for a straight alignment: = 2.5% for curves, depending upon the radius of curvature 2,5 % to 6%, For narrow bridges the transverse gradient can be achieved by varying the road surfacing thickness, In general though, the deck slab should be given a gradient itself, The possibilities to achieve this are shown in Figure 44. a) rotation of the b) a rhombic cross- c) differing web cross-section section with vertical heights and a about the axis webs of equal height horizontal bottom through point A slab Fig. 44 Transverse gradient of the roadway (from [14]) ‘The other elements and structural details of the bridge finishes are handled in Section II1,9,‘Complete System end Suppons 23 Diaphragms hinder the construction of box- girder bridges in most cases. They are sensible in the span only for the case of very long spans, if then. Over the piers they can take the form shown in Figs, 45 and 46, depending upon how the cross-section is supported. They can be omitted if the bridge bearings are placed directly underneath the wi makes it more difficult to réplate “a bearing however. a) most common form} b) for a central support ¢) for very stiff with access opening box girders lovally thickened webs suffice Fig. 45 Diaphragms over the piers a) smali longitudinal displacement b) very large longitudinal displacement Fig. 46 Design of the diaphragm dependent upon the movement allowed by the bridge bearing 4.4 Complete System and Supports ‘The superstructure is acted upon by both horizontal and vertical loads which must be carried into the foundation by way of the’bearings, piers, and abut- ments (Fig. 47). ‘Transverse horizontal forces acting on the superstructure and piers include mainly wind but also earthquake forces, In exceptional cases, impact forces from vehicles or ships and ice pressure should be considered. Longitudinat horizontal forces include forces from vehicle acceleration and braking, resistance to deformation of the supports or piers, and earthquake forces. For very long bridges, longitudinal wind forces should also be borne in mind as well as the dead-load components of bridges with longitudinal gra- dients, as long as the bridge bearings are positioned with the same inclination24 Design Py stcucturol systems tor verict foods ; pier ‘ebutment _ abutment PORE SAARERASEAS AAR A, f+ + os — a - =e aod oe i 4 Cenval cous ° =e _j + fin eatanns necessary every ~HOm of Be broge thecouse of torsional moments) Fig. 47 Typical longitudinal and transverse support schematic for a medium- length (L* 300 m) box-girder bridge with short or medium high piers Up to a bridge of medium length, the fixed point should"be at one of the abut- ments, as the abutment is heavy anyway and can take the horizontal forces more economically than the piers. In this case the bridge also needs only one expansion joint (Figs. 47 and 48a), For long bridges it can be more advantage- ous to place the point of fixity somewhere near the middle of the bridge in order to halve the horizontal movements to be accomodated by the bearings on the piers and by the two expansion joints at the bridge ends (Figs. 48b and c), This point of fixity should Jie at a pier with a large vertical load in the case of short “Biers. Vora bridge with tall piers, several plore near the iidate of the priage may be monolithically connected with the superstructure, yielding a floating ~support.The, stability of the entire system should, however, be examined. Piers constructed integrally with the superstructure are not only advantageous because the vulnerable bearing can be done away with,but also because they then possess the shortest effective Buler buckling length (Fig. 49). One should therefore take advantage of the deformability of tall:piers, Ore take advantage of the def oe If the final fixed points are not located at the abutments or the bridge construc- tion is advanced from both abutments, the fixed points must be moved during the construction (Fig. 50). This requires a careful determination of the initial set-up positons of the bearings (see Section III,8 ).fixed point | tote Complete System end Supports 25 point of fixity fh fixed <) Fig. 48 Support possibilities in the longitudinal direction My=0 My=My=0. {without friction) W205t UgsO7l el ge Fig. 49 Influence of end restraint on the effective Buler buckling length 1), rT free fixed ST Sn free I fit T Fig. 50 Variation of support conditions during construction + ¥or extremely long bridges it can be more economical to provide intermediate joints in the superstructure and therefore several fixed points, as the bearings become more complex and costly the heavier the loads they are required to handle and the larger the movements they are required to accomodate sirnul- taneously, i.e. the higher and wider the "trees" of Fig. 51 for the particular bridge.stixed point A wihoat joint 1A without joint 1B 2 joints — load carried bys” movable support Ll “A fixed support 1 monolithic connectioninaintenonce tree) | ~T siperstructure decd loads Temperaiure-induced movement Fig, 51 Load vs movement depending upon the support condition in the lon- gitudinal direction {from [29}) ‘To increase the number of joints because of en unsubstantiated fear of differential settlements to the point that the effect of continuity is lost (Fig. 52) should, however, be rejected, The best detailed expan- sion joint will always be much worse than the continuous superstructure. In addition, the structural reserves of the continuous systern are lost by the multiple-apan statically deter- minate system. Fig. 52 Superfluous arrangement of jointsComplete System and Supports 27 The torsionally stiff box girder enables the skewed abutment and pier walls to be avoided for the case that the bridge must cross over an obstruction at a skew (Fig. 53), sectiona-a section b-b. Fig. 53 Skewed crossing with a torsionally stiff bridge constructed at a right angle Torsionally stiff box-girder bridges built on sharp horizontal curves and sup- ported _by dividual columns located under the middle of the cross- section are stable even without the bridge ends being fixed (Fig. 54). This permits very transparent support systems, which are especially welcomed in the inner city, Nevertheless, in order to be able to use the normal expansion Joints, the bridge ends are fixed torsionally stiff. Gltemative 7 f= TT ced Fig. 54 Support of sharply curved box-girder bridges In the case of long lightly curved bridges, the columns can be alternatingly placed off-center to the bridge axis (Fig. 55a) if the bending stiffness of one or all of the columns is not to be utilized (Fig, 58b), Of course a fixed end as shown in Fig. 53 suffices for short bridges, Fig. 55 Support system for long lightly curved box-girder bridges28 Design As curved bridges experience horizontal deformations due to prestressing and creep parallel to the bridge axis and deformations due to shrinkage and tempe- vature radially from the fixed point, bearings capable of accomodating move- ment in ection are to be preferred over roller bearings. ‘This requirement of freedom, of movement in any direction produces difficul- ties for the free bridge ends. Therefore in most cases the movements there are restricted to one direction, and the piers or abutments are designed for the unavoidable restraint stresses (Fig. 56). View Fig. 56 Longitudinal movement in the direction of the bridge axis can be brought about by horizontal restraint forces (fram [9}) For bridges with transverse or longitudinal gradients the bearings can be placed as shown in Fige, 57 and 58, The transverse diaphragms should be placed vertically. Beginning with gradients a greater than 3°, the gradient must be considered, Fig. 57 Placement of Fig, 58 Placement of bearings for a longitu- bearings for a dinal gradient avoiding horizontal transverse gra- forces on the piers dient (from [14]}Substructure 29 4,5 Substructure ‘The loads of the superstructure are carried into the soil by the following: - abutments - piers - foundations, 4.5.1 Abutments The abutment provides the transition between the earth embankment and the bridge superstructure. Its wing walls secure the embankment and its back wall holds a space free for displacements of the superstructure, The super- structure is supported here by bearings mounted on the bridge seat into which the loads are carried into the support walls and they in turn into the founda- tion and the soil. In Fig, 1, two abutment types are sketched, For small bridges the spil- through abutment is sufficient. A box abutment large enough for access inside is normally provided for large bridges. The earth fill behind the abutment should be well compacted. As the abutments even for small bridges possess large dimensions, they should be covered as much as possible by the slope or embankment, The sloped area underneath the superstructure ends should be covered with dark paving stones, as no plants will grow there, The view into the access chamber, where the bearings and any drainage lines are located, should be concealed by the end diaphragm. The end diaphragm should, how- ever, leave a gap of approximately 100 mm between it and the soffit of the box girder. 4.5.2 Piers For low bridges, especially those for elevated highways, two. individual columns are more transparent and therefore more advantageous than pier walls. It can be more aesthetically pleasing to set the columns back somewhat from the outside edge of the bridge cross-séction (Fig. 59b) and to forego’ the more efficient carrying of the loads directly from the webs into the columns (Fig. 59a).In any case, good uniform soll conditions are necessary in order to prevent differential settlement between the columns standing 80 close to each other. Otherwise a common foundation should be provided, on piles if necessary. Should it not be necessary to handle any torsion moments, a single column underneath the middle of the cross-section appears more ele- gant than two (Figs, 59¢ toe), However, this is only sensible for one or two- celled cross-sections (Fig. 59d), By inclining the webs more a smaller bottom slab is thereby possible (Fig. 59e). The single columns should be de- signed sufficiently robust, as columns that are too slender do not convey a feeling of safety underneath a large box-girder (Fig. 591). Round, elliptic, or octagonal cross-sections should be preferred above square or rectangular ones because of their better appearance (Fig. 60a). Even for extremely wide, multiple-celled cross-sections, not more than 3 individual columns together should be used, as the skewed view through them produce an unsettling effect. Massive pier walls (Fig. 60b and 61) should only be used for low bridges. By breaking up the walls or varying their width, the squat shape produced can be lightened,a) Tt bd) Fig. 59 Pier arrangement Fig. 60 Cross-sectional shapes for piers (from [9] } Fig. 61 Comparison between pier and twin columns for multiple-celled box girders For piers in @ river, the top of the pier can be wider than the bottom slab of the box girder (Fig. 62a). In general, though, the top of the pier should either be set back underneath the cross-section (Fig, 62b) or set flush with the bottom sides of the bottom flange. If the pier should be protected from abra- sion, hard natural stone can be used as protection and as an addition to the bridge’ s appearance. Fig. 62 Pier shapesSubstructure 31 For high bridges over valleys the piers should also be designed with one or two-celled box cross-sections (Fig. 63). The walls should be at least 200 mm to 300 mm thick in order to permit the use of slipforms or climbing formwork, a} bo e mba Fig. 63 Box piers Fig. 64 Pier design ‘The piers should be lightly tapered from the bottom upwards, at least for one dimension (Fig, 64a), Stiffening diaphragms are not normally required or desired because of thermal stresses. The top of the pier (Fig, 64b) should be designed compatible with the construction method of the superstructure, In the longitudinal direction of the bridge the width of the top of the pier depends upon the type of bearings selected, the span between the bearings, and the dimensions of the jacks necessary to replace the bearings. It varies between 1,20 m and 2.0m. 4.5.3 Foundations The simplest type is the shallow spread foundation which is used if good soil conditions are found at a shallow depth. The foundation slab is constructed on top of an 0,1 m thick sub-base, The slab thickness should be so chosen that shear and punching reinforcement can be avoided. The bottom of the founda- tion must lie below the level of frost penetration, Should adequate soi! conditions be found only at lower levels, an excavated pile foundation or one on drilled or driven piles should be selected. In gene- ral this type of foundation is provided with a pile cap with which the pier ia connected, Depending upon the loads to be carried, the piles are either dri- ven (for loads up to * 1 000 kN) or drilled (up to © 9 000 KN). In the case of pile foundations for single columns, it is better to carry the forces directly into the foundation by means of large drilled piles or wells rather than for- cing them to travel a roundabout way through a pile cap on top of several small individual piles and its complicated reinforcing arrangement (Pig, 65), If unfavourable soil conditions are encountered or the foundations are into a hillside, it can be necessary to carry out open excavations down to a suitable soil layer or to sink caissons. The pier can then either be placed directly on Fig. 65 (a) is more the bottom of the excavation or on top of the favourable than (b) excavation or caisson wall.seeee 1 32 Design Falsework foundations should be locally widened pier foundations (Fig, 66 b) in order to prevent one-sided settlement (Fig. 66a) and the resulting dange- rous tilting of the falsework. The falsework should also be statically deter- minate in order to clearly define ite structural behaviour, lies between only rough limits, its stiffness b) otherwise Fig, 66 Careful attention should be paid to the falsework foundation 5, LITERATURE DEINMANDT, J.M,: Vom Cetméntii dum Sparabetoa, Nand 2; Heuveriag Wiestaden-Beriin; 1664 BRABERG, W ee, Tali 2; Twakeer Veriagegeneliachett Lelpsig; 1987 THUL, H.! Entelekunges im Mréckenbau: Seton- o, Stakietoebeu, Nett 1, Veriag ®, Emnat& Sean, Beritn, 78 MATHIVAT, J.: The Treteme Bridge: Proceedings, Part 2: FIP § Congresm, Larden; 1878 LEOMMARDT, F.: The Columbia River Mysdge at Pamco-ennewich, Weahlegion. USA; Procetdings, Part 2, rir ath Congress, Londen, i878 J 4 Tha aibecdon of bax bese arreagreence in bridge design: Developm ents in bridge dealgn and construc- . baited by ROCKET, BANISTER, EVANS; Crosby Lockwood iti, London, 1871 HOSMIMD, K.: Geataltang voa Brocken: Wi . Sutigert: 1972 LEOWHARDT, F.: Vortesunges ther Masaivieu, Teil §, Grondiagen dea Musstrbrtchonbaus, Spriager-Verieg, i978 hatbee of bridge design; Sournal of the Presiressed Concrete Institute, Val. 13, ¥r. |, Tereuary; Chicsge, Winvia: 197 SCHAECHTENLE, K-, LEONHARDT, F.: Die Geatalung der Hrdceon: Velk ued Reich Vering. Beri: 1937 POTVONDY, 3.G, Aesthetic pratiema la contemporery sonorete bridge demige: ACI Publicesion SP ~ 23; 1888 TIEDIE, W.: Formpectiane im Srickeites, Vortrige Detoning (085; Deutarher Beton Vertis: 1465 MENN, C.: Brtckeshen 1, Vorlesungumacustript; A! Hautagesteurwenen, ETH Zarieh) 076 FENZ, M,: Gre@hepches in Maauixbaswatss, Wacksalwirkung vos Kouatruttion and Beuteresfitring; omens u Baton, Heid, Wim 1986 O,#,: Cenerete bux girder bridges; ACI Monogragh No. Wk 1877 Der abeclute und eper sceriajuutwaad fr Brockentragaerke aus Sparabeson; Beutechnth, Hate 8 ble 3; Variag W. Ernat & 2b, iin-Monchen-Cnaeeidarf: i978 PACER, A.- Wertgeapannta Bracken in Beinsbauwelse; Zement und Beton, Heft 4, Wiens 19TH EMBL, J., PIELLK, M.: Zur Sesniteeratermittiune der tues Hotckmavend im Berenbrieeeabass; Veraitentiichuny der Abteidu/ 1. Dortmund: 1877 PROFANTER, 4.) Zor Rereshnuag echiefer Kastentrigertrichen: Bautechais, Heft 1; Vering W. Ernest & Sohn Berlin -Mincten-Duseciéor?; 1976 LACROIX, 1: Miktre 2a Lous; Le technique fren WITTFORT, Hl - Detrachtungen tur Querectaliteseshlituag von Spanrsetentricwen; Beten vind Stahibetorban, Hef 4, Vering W. Eynet & Sotm, Berlin: 1902 SULKE, 4M.) Berechoung ddanwandiger prisuatiecher Pal Dtasertetion, Univeretia! Stutagerc; (817 LINSE, A, WOSSNER, K.: Koctertathriske-Eutwtrfe einer Orofbrocke: Ravingeniear 32, Heft 12: Springer Ver- lag, Bariin - New Vern; 147% LINBY, J.R., PRMKLNS, 6.D.: Modern prestressed concrete tagheuy bridge superatracturen: Grécteille Publl- shing Compagny San Diego, California: 1976 SCHAMBECK, H.) Brocken sux Spennteton: Wirklichkavten, Méglichkeltm; Bawingmtour 51, Hef, Springer Wertag Berlin = Mew York: 107% erke inft verformbaren mahrreLligem Quereannitt;Part Il STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS (Co-author: Kurt Schafer) 1, INTRODUCTION This part deals with the structural analysis i.e. the computation of the sectional forces or stress resultants of box-girder bridges. It is based upon the elastic theory. For statically indeterminate reinforced and prestressed concrete atructures, however, the underlying assumptions of the elastic theory only agree with the real conditions for a low range of stresses. Therefore one may be of the opinion that a separation of the analysis from the dimensioning does not make much sense. Nevertheless, as explained more fully in Section III 2, this manner of structural analysis is the only method which can simultaneously con- sider all of the effects to be found in connection with box-girder bridges and their interactions with each other, Other more realistic and consistent methods of analysis and determination of the dimensions and properties of the structure have not yet reached a satisfactory atage of development. Moreover, the method of calculating the sectional forces according to the elastic theory and thereafter of dimensioning of the critical sections for the limit state of failure satisfies the lower bound criteria of the theory of plasticity, thereby always supplying an ultimate load value that lies on the safe side, In the case of complicated static- ally indeterminate systeme acted upon by high restraint stresses one should in addition to the elastic approach, always determine the real ultimate load capa- city of the entire structure by means of the theory of plasticity (Fig. I, 2). With these facts stated, a few critical preparatory remarks should be made concerning the structural analysis, especially the computer-aided analysis, as follows: ~ Garbage in---garbage out. A gtructural analysis is only as good as the Structure’s idealized model, the properties assumed, and the input data, = The results should always be drawn up So a6 to be able to visually check the variation of the sectional forces throughout the structure. - Computer results are not automatically correct results, One should therefore always check them by means of a simpler analysis. Still better is to plump for a computer analysis only after having first conducted a rough analysis by hand a0 as to know approximately what result to expect. - The amount of computer print-out ig not proportional to the accuracy of the analysis, - Because of the ratio of labour costa to material costs, a straight-forward, clear-cut structural detailing and method of erection produce a greater effect on the total costs of the bridge than any amount of refinement in the analysi« and dimensioning, The engineer with experience in the analyais of box-girder bridges will per- haps gee an inconsistency in this report between the extent devoted to the cal- culation of sectional forcee due to eccentric live loading and the effect that these have upon the total stresses. On the other hand, precisely and only this part of the analysis is particularly difficult for the less experienced, The literature dealing with this topic is also extensive and often not very easy toStructural Analysis understand, The detailed explanation included herein should alleviate this difficulty. Formulae are derived which are not only suitable for hand cal- culation but also for small computer programs. With enough experience 50 gathered in this area, one can later on appropriately estimate the effect of this loading and forego the exact calculation, 2, LOADS and EXTERNAL INFLUENCES ‘Those loads to which a bridge is subjected in the structural analysis are generally specified in the applicable code of practice for a particular country. As the design loads should not be given consideration independent of their respective safety concept and as the lve loads vary greatly indeed from country to country (Fig. 1), only the general basis for the consideration of loadings is given here as follows: eat Mgng BA Fig. 1 Comparison of various loading assumptions (from [ 1}) - Dead loads of the structure, g,: normal reinforced cqperete ¥q* 25 N/m’, lightweight reinforced concrete Ypg* 16 to 21 kN/m’ - Dead loads of the bridge finishes, gy: roadway surfacing (asphalt) y* 22 kN/m°, fascia béam (reinforced concrete) y* 25 kN/m3, bridge railing * 0, 22 kN/m, guard railing ~ 0,25 - 0.35 KN/m. - Live loads: in most codes a single-vehicle loading with a series of wheel I6ads,Qj, ahd a uniformly distributed load , q; (main lane, secondary lanes), is given. Railway bridges are loaded with the appropriate loading configura- tion for each track (e.g. UIC 71 [2]). Impact is considered by increasing portions of the live loads by means of system-dependent impact factors. The machinery employed in constructing the bridge should also be included as live loads, In contrast to the assumed vehicle loadings however, these loads act with 100 % of their actual magnitude, a fact to be taken into account in the safety concept for the design. \ce to movement of the bridge bearings: Depending upon the maximum if the earing’s performance approval ‘of friction specifications), horizontal loads act upon the box-girder bottom flange and the piers.Loads and External Influences 35 bp ++, Fig. 2 Notation used for the determination of wind load from Figure 3 CS . 3b . 3 . 3d aeons by fby= 9 smoesse By fDg ¥ B cantilever webs bottom flonge she 30 he 28 m3 a 20 at Ss ‘ : os 6 9 12 Sbin 105 6 8 12 15 bth Fig, 3 Determination of wind loads (from [3])38 Structural Analysis - Wine With the cross-sectional dimensions (Fig. 2) and the dynamic pre 4, obtained from, the wind velocity, v [m/sec], according to the formula q [KN/m?] v/1600, the wind loads, W and M, on the entire cross-section can be determined from Figures 3a to f and the localized wind loads, w, from Figures 3 g to i. Information concerning the maximum wind velocity can be taken from the applicable Code or obtained from a local weather station, If constant contact is maintained with the weather station during construction the design wind loads for the erection phase can be re- duced, depending upon the expected duration of the particular erection,any- where from 0.2. max W(< 1 day) to 0.7. max W (> 3 days), ‘The critical wind velocity causing such vortex-shedding phenomena as flutter'or galopping vibrations can be estimated with Figure 4 and the formula (from [4}) where fy = fundamental natural Sreuency of flexural 0,5b. Fx» Tro» vibration for the H03b TH 05-055 critical shape =r - 015 F40,15 -0,5b fundamental natural frequency of torsional ——"0,139b T7101 -0,2b 140,15 - 0,3b vibration for the oa critical shape mass per unit of Jength a r= radius of gyration b= bridge width a Fig. 4 Factor a derived from wind tunnel tests = factor from Fig. 4 derived from wind tunnel tests A more exact analysis requires wind tunnel tests in most cases. Bridges of normal dimensions continuous over fixed supports are generally not critical, Suspension or cable-stayed box girders could be, however, ~ Braking and acceleration forces, Fy: These forces act horizontally on the Bridgé bearings at thé tixéd points of the bridge and are degressively dependent upon the entire vehicle loading; i.e. the longer and wider the bridge the smaller is the chance that all of the vehicles simultaneously accelerate or brake. (According to the German Code, Fy * 3/20. L- b, but Fy is at least = 0,3 - Q roadway [EN] (L =200 m), heavy vehicle ~ Ter c A uniformly distributed heating or cooling of the super- structure’from its mean temperature at the time of construction only affects the movements to be accommodated by the bearings and possibly the sub- structure, The magnitude of such temperature changes can he takenLoads and Extemal influences 37 from the climatic conditions of the region. In central western Europe, for example, the temperature varies from + 20 K to - 30 K from a construction temperature of + 10°C (283 K), Heat of hydration (Fig. 5) and shrinkage in thick parts of the cross-section, especially between temperoture oy thick and thin parts of the structure and the oir between young and old concrete, can give in the boc girder rise to large localized residual stresses Fig, 5 Large temperature which exceed the tension strength of young gradient due to the conerete, cement’ s unfavourable As a good crack distribution in young heat of hydration concrete cannot be achieved, even with development and low a finely distributed reinforcement, crack- temperature of previous-' ing can only be reduced or prevented by ly concreted section cooling the aggregates and/or the water {from [5]) used or by insulating or heating the forms. ‘The insulation of the concrete should be maintained in position from 2 to 4 days, depending upon the thickness of the structural component and particularly for construction joints. The temperature gradient between the top and bottom of the roadway slab as well as that between the top and bottom of the box girder produce deformations. When the system is statically indeterminate, restraint stresses are also pro- duced. During the course of a day, the temperature in the inside of the box girder remains within about 2 K because of the absence of air circulation, whereas the roadway slab, particularly underneath its black surfacing, can heat up very significantly. A linear temperature gradient can be assumed for the top and bottom slabs between the webs, The-temperature gradient in Figure 6 comes the closest to describing the actual gradient in the cantilever portion of the top flange and the webs. (See also [8] and [9] for more detailed information), As such a nonlinear temperature distribution is not very suitable for @ practical analysis, a linear one is often chosen. For central western Europe AT = 10 to 15 K appears appropriate. - eee | concrete surface — for the section, and for the maximum torsional moment due to a dhe-sided loading with its associated 4, and V,..Critical Loadings nd Sectional Forces 1 min My, ey ue di2d2d et fate Si max, MOM, max Mp el, ea Gee ve Lem, Hey, a) Longitudinal sectional b) The minimum of sectional forces forces required for the dimensioning LZ Yl YY Yj} secondary lane load position for the LE Cie ela main tone SSTS””:~*SCS Cages moment, My, , LIKE in the span heavy lorry cerceottereeen longitudinal loading (See Fig 15} =e influence line for max. My MU LEEK a eee line for the largest ‘shear force Vy a _intivence {ine tor the associated moment Ze BE Pea | Se 4 ; by _ argest torsional moment My : : ee intluence line for My a8 _ Ne _ _load position for the ATE Torsional momen! FI SEGLCEEK ‘largest My Eee infiuence line for My 5 3 ied i iat support int c) Influence lines and loading positions Fig. 12 Determination of sectional forces for vehicle loadings42 Structural Analysis: 4,2 Transverse Direction In general it ia sufficient to determine the critical sectional forces for the dimensioning of the flanges (Fig, 13) from the loading positions of Figure 14, This holds true in spite of the fact that due to the folded plate action(Section 5,5) the zero lines of the influence surfaces do not lie in the longitudinal axis of the bridge and | not over the webs or even parallel to them. longitudinal direction x Vt 1 2 34 5 Mey "6 Ae _// May 97 9 0 11 May Me Mgy py ond mio, when the Ng bottom lange is tooded %9 b) SECTION ©) PLAN | Fig. 13. Sectional forces required for the dimensioning of the flanges a a, sis a SSS = max —/ smin ma min eZ »max M5.min TM max ™5 » min ng smax "No Fig. 14 Critical loadings, in general 5. SIMPLIFIED STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE 5.1 General ‘The box girder represents a special form of a folded plate structure. The loads are always carried three dimensionally. The analysis of the sectional forces to which the structure is subjected can be handled with the aid of the following: (see Section 6). ~ analogy of a beam on an elastic foundation - folded plate theory with the use of series expansions - finite strip method - finite element methodSimplified Structural Analysis of the Superstructure 43 As the last three approaches produce voluminous data and therefore are great- ly susceptible to error in the evaluation of their results, even today more reliable and clearer and still sufficiently accurate analyses for box-girder bridges are to be expécted from the first approach as described in Sections 5.2 to 5.5, With this approach, the box girder loaded symmetrically in the trans- verse direction can be analyzed longitudinally as a beam and transversely as a frame independent of each other. This is valid if the box girder’ s slender- ness ratio, 1/d = 4, if the span lengths, 1% 1,5 b (Fig. 15), andif the disturbance zones at the introduction of the applied forces are separately handled, é The particular problematic nature of the simple analysis approach to the behaviour of a box girder under load arises with unsymmetrical loading in the transverse direction, In this case the longitudinal and transverse stresses are connected with each other, a connection which shall be designated in what follows here as the folded plate action, This connection is taken account of through the formulation of the condition of compatibility between the separately analyzed longitudinal and transverse directions, Warp resisting supports and diaphragms or discontinuous eccentric loading produce warping torsion along with St, Vénant torsion. The additional stresses due to warping torsion die away rapidly or are small in comparison with other stresses, however, and therefore can be neglected according to [17]. ‘The analysis procedure suggested here is so selected that the results are increasingly refined the further one proceeds. If desired, one can break off the analysis without considering the folded plate action. One can also include that action sufficiently accurately for a critical loading case and extend the results to the other loading cases by means of a uniform factor. Lastly, one can systematically follow the method through for every case. The analysis procedure suggested here is so selected that the results are increasingly refined the further one proceeds. If desired, one can break off the analysis without considering the folded plate action. One can also include that action sufficiently accurately for a critical loading case and extend the results to the other loading cases by means of a uniform factor. Lastly, one can systematically follow the method through for every case. 5.2 Analysis Procedure The analysis presupposes that the statica] system, the loading, and the design cross-sectional dimensions are known, Ral -- i ba HS Pee ‘ 4a" fs Paar SECTION 2-2 427% SECTION 22 aq260'=4, conoituowar acne & a) The loading of the top flange so as to _b) The loading of the top flange so as produce the largest torsional moment to produce the largest moment, M, or the largest shear,V, respectively Fig. 15 Positioning of vehicle loading in the longitudinal direction44 Structural Analysis First the box girder is analyzed in the longitudinal direction asa beam, i.e. with the assumption of a rigid cross-section (Section 5.3). All transverse loadings are integrated together to form point loads or line loads (Fig. 15), With these loads the longitudinal bending moments and shears are determined, and the accompanying or least favourable torsional moments of the entire cross-section are determined with the eccentricities, y,, of the load resultant, gp. R Afterwards the box girder is analyzed in the transverse direction with the actual load distribution (Section 5.4), whereby the top flange is first assumed to be rigidly fixed at the webs (Fig, 16a 1), 4 q Hr—| to# ma Mp ens OO <> Feu at Top flange “8 02) Only edge loads rigidly fixed symmetric ontisymmetric a ZL, ¢ + RT REAM OH PE 9 BC MR =My +My Mg =~ mM 8 Hye bi) Symmetrical port 02) Antisymmetrical part of load of load longitudinal bending: beam transverse bending: frome 2, dM lhyrbyld Sor. mg (Veet 2 Is Gar amg ATE og abs ii A #2 ‘ul Ser ames MAS yoy cf) Pure torsion 62) Equilibrium: OF My by See Fig. 25 no resuttant 2K sectional forces je 1) Stiffened frame: d2) Folded plate action: only transverse bending longitudinal ond transverse bending Fig. 16 Splitting up of the structural system and the loading of a box girder, All arrows drawn represent external loads, The cantilevers are partially omitted for greater clarity.Simplified Structural Analysis of the Superstructure 45 The resultant reactions, qa and gp, and the fixed-end moments, mg and mg, act at the edges at A or B, respectively (Fig. 162). They are divided into @ symmetrical part (Fig. 16b 1) and an antisymmetrical part (Fig. 16b 2). A strip of length dx = 1 is taken from the bridge and analyzed as a frame sub- jected to the symmetrical part of the load (Fig. 17a). The strip is supported in this analysis by the shear force differences from flexure in the longitudinal direction (Fig. 24), Adding the transverse bending moments calculated in this manner to the symmetrical part of the moments (Fig. 16a 1) yields. the final transverse moments due to symmetrical loading, ‘The torsional part (Fig. 16e1) of the antisymmetrical load effect (Fig. 16 b2), which was taken into account in the longitudinal analysis, having been split off from the rest, state of equilibrium with the applied loading as shown in Fig. 16 ©2 is left in every cross-section.Were one to investigate this state in the same manner as the symmetrical loading by analy sing a transverse strip, one would obtain results far removed from reelity, for the idealized frame with edge free to displace(Fig, 17b) does not consider the carrying of the loads Jongitudina: ly in the plane of the plate, Nevertheless, neglecting the carrying of the anti- symmetrical loads in the plane of the plate presents a clear limiting case. Another limiting case is provided by the analysis of a frame strip whose edges are held fixed by the diagonal force, S (Fig. 16d 1), The resulting.transverse bending moments, after their superposition with those from Figures 16a 1 and b 1, generally Lie on the safe side in comparison with the actual transverse bending moments, In the analysis of the folded plate action,which follows in Section-5.5, the longitudinal beam and transverse frame action are connected together for th: antisymmetrical loading part.This is achieved by no longer forcing the shape of the cross-section to be maintained by means of the diagonal force, S,, (Fig. 16 d2). The longitudinal and transverse sectional forces due to this force,. 3, are obtained from the analysis of the elastically bedded web panels. The super- position of these sectional forces due to S with those from Section 5,3 or 5.4, vespectively, yields the total sectional forces, ‘This satisfaction of the conditions of compatibility increases the longitudinal stresses and deformations of the web immediate to the loading and decreases them for the web away from the loading, The frame deformations and moments lie between the two limit cases mentioned above, They lie netrer to the limiting case of a freely distorting frame, if the loading changes little in the longitudinal direction and the transverse stiffeners are far removed (see Sec- tion 5.5.2), On the other hand, for the case of the heavily loaded vehicle or in the vicinity of a transverse diaphragm, the limiting case of a fully rigid frame is closer to reality. Formally the analysis takes the following steps: - determination of the loading in the longitudinal and transverse direction, respectively (Figs, 15 and 21) + analysis in the longitudinal direction as for a beam with a rigid cross- section (Section 5,3; also Fig. 12), yielding M,, V,, Mp and o,,48 Structural Analysis: - division of the eccentric fixed-end reactions into symmetrical and anti- symmetrical parts (Figs. 16b 1 and b 2) frame analysis in the tranaverse direction for the symmetrical edge loads (Section 5.4; Fig. 27), yielding (m, n, Veymm ~ rigid frame analysis of the antisymmetrical edge loads (Fig. 28; Section 5.4), yielding (m, n, Vantisymm, as wellasS - superposition of the sectional forces in the transverse direction, yielding m, n, and v ~ analysis of the elastically bedded web panel loaded with q, due to the diagonal force, 8, (Section 5. 5) yielding longitudinal stresses, of, and transverse bending moments, My (Figs, 33 and 28¢, respectively) superposition of 0g, with o, and mg, with m, yielding the actual longitudinal and transverse stresses, réapectivey. : Cc Frame analysis yields only transverse bending, ‘The edges do not displace with respect to their positions from the beam analysis Frame analysis yields edge displacements to- gether with the trans- verse bending (shown for unrestrained edges) b) Eccentric loading (torsional deformation not shown) . 17 Connected beam and frame action‘Simplified Structural Analysis of the Superstructure 47 5.3 Analysis in the Longitudinal Direction 5.3.1 Sectional Forces due to Loads plus Restrainte For the vehicle loads as prescribed by the German code DIN 1072 (Fig. 1) and medium span lengths of approximately 40 m the total sectional forces not con- sidering prestress and restraint are produced to about 5% by the concentated vehicle loads (characteristic 600kN heavy lorry),to about 40% by uniform vehicle loads, and to about 55 % by dead loads, With increasing span lengths the in- fhhience of the vehicle loads and thereby the necessity of their exact analysis diminishes, ‘The sectional forces of the beam (bending moments, shears, normal forces and torsion) due to external loads and imposed deformations (as described in Section 2) can be obtained with known methods of the theory of structures. Normatly a small to medium-sized computer suffices. Should areas of the box girder be normally in the cracked State Il, even under working loads the sectional forces determined using the elastic theory can be redistributed and the sectional restraint forces thereby reduced. ‘This redistribution of forces is dependent upon many parameters and can only be obtained iteratively, whereby superposition is no longer possible. The extent of reduction of the sectional restraint forces depends upon the magnitude of the sectional forces due to external loads that act upon the section at the same time(see Fig. 7), With sufficient rotational capacity, the restraint has no influence on the ultimate load-carrying capacity (see Sections 1 and III, 2). 5.3.2 Time-Dependent Alteration of the Sectional Forces by Creep Sectional forces due to external loads are only altered by creep if components acting together within the structure contain concrete of varying ages or varying composition, This is indeed the case for segmental construction (Fig. 18), For a sufficiently exact calculation of the final time-dependent moments, the follow- ing equation taken from [ 18] can be used: (see also [19] and [20}) Ma®Z Mg, HM, -EMg, )- rar eo sowhere Ms. 1, 2,3, moments at the time of stripping of the falsework of the differ- ent segments, i.e. moments due to self- weight plus prestress moments assuming that the entire bridge is constructed at the same point in time creep factor at timeco relaxation factor taken from Figure 19 ¢ Fig. 18 Development of the bending moments from the construction stages EN set We 2s, e- Eltys 00. kd Pe a ee ae48 Structural Analysis If the time of loading, to, i.e, the time from the concreting of the section ‘until it is prestressed, is less than 10 days and the construction rythm used : in producing the individual segments, At, is less than 21 days, then the values produced by this approximation do not vary from the exact values by more than 15 %. In consideration of the unavoidable inaccuracies of the analysis assumptions and the fact that the results do not influence the safety of the structure, thia is perfectly sufficient for the normal case. Should t, or At, respectively, deviate grossly from the above values, the limiting values of the moment redistribution at time t= co can be estimated from hel = He =H jet = tah, The values for ky=k(tg) or k, and P, for t,= tytAt for the youngest or oldest construction segment, respectively, are taken from Figure 19 with the standard creep factor,m,, being taken at time t)- 28 days. ky sklhJor Kekiteh).—¢ fll or F+4) u TT 06 161, a4 a { ays 137 @ 60 30 9! 371% 8 H 360 1860 oge ot time of bodngteor tort tor tt, a) b) Fig. 19 Factora for determining the effect of creep in the analysis (from[18}) As long as individual construction segments are not prestressed very early or to extremely high values of prestress, the changes in the sectional forces due to prestress as a result of shrinkage and ereep can be calculated with sufficient accuracy as 2 uniform reduction in prestress, AP. (t), up to time t: LtoEs +aPlt tog + %, Opo — XK Gepolt* Plt t.)/2] AR. (t)= RB as E/E, €,y(t,t,) ... strain due to shrinkage within the time span (t - t,)- The values are dependent upon the humidity of the air, etc, and lie between - 0,1 % and - 0.5 % (see [66]} modulus of elasticity for prestressing steel and concrete, respectively‘Simplified Structural Analysis of the Superstructure 49 Plt, t,) creep factor (the values are dependent upon the time ° span (t-t,), the humidity of the air, etc, and lie bet- ween 1 and 4, see(66]) stress in the concrete at the position of the tendon due to self-weight and other dead loads (compression negative) we initial stress in the concrete at the position of the tendon due to prestress alone (compression negative) initial stress in the tendon due to prestress alone agers Ca epo oo. pe Sectional restraint forces due to differential settlement, temperature, and shrinkage are greatly altered by creep even without cracking. Suddenly oceurring restraint stresses (e.g, due to differential settlement in sandy soils) are great- ly reduced (Fig, 20}, According to [21] , the elastically calculated moment Me} in State I is reduced to =o. (y~ Ket (t) PIE) = Mag 1- FAT For restraint stresses that occur gradually at a rate approaching that of creep (e, g, settlement in. clays, shrinkage) the moment that is produced instead of Mg) is only uy fet} Me =Plev Fe 5k-8 FO ‘That is why it fs false to reverse the effects of a pier settlement that 1 10 = 100 100 tk has occurred slowly by suddenly . adjusting the bridge support to the Fig. 20 Creep-induced change of full magnitude of the settlement. restraint moments result- ing from support settle- ment 5,4 Analysis in the Transverse Direction For the vehicle loads as prescribed by the German code DIN 1072 (Fig. 1), the sectional forces in the transverse direction are a result of an approximately 10 % contribution from the uniform vehicle loadings of the main and secondary lanes, an approximately 70 % contribution from the concentrated vehicle loads of the characteristic 600 kN heavy lorry, and an approximately 20 % contribu- tion from dead loads, 5. 4,1 Sectional Forces Acting on the Flanges For the practical analysis, the clearest method is first to analyse all flange sections aa if they were rigidly fixed at their junctures with the webs (Fig. 16 al)50 Structural Analysis, and then to redistribute the total moments acting at these junctures according to the frame's stiffness (see Section 5.4.2). While the sectional forces due to dead loads, prestress, temperature, and uniform vehicle loadings over large areas can be determined as acting on flange strips (or also acting directly on the frame), influence surfaces must generally first be evaluated for concentrated vehicle loads (Fig. 21c). Wheel loads can be distributed under 45° to the middle plane of the flange (Fig. 21a) and the uniform loads can be integrated sufficiently accurately to concentrated Toads as shown in Figure 21b, In [23] the influence surfaces are supplied in table form for the majority of sectional forces, whereby the limiting moment diagram can be estimated as shown in Figure 22. . The transverse distribution of the concentrated loads on the cantilever portions of the flange depends largely upon their structural details (Fig. 23), ‘The moments occurring in the top slab due to a temperature gradient, ST, between the flange surface and its underside are constant between the two fixed ends and are given by the following: 1 tg 2p AT E-12/ 12 (tor state 0 phy Radway wearing surface BT sbe2tyete oa cd -g-th-bh reap. fda b) Position of the distributed load resultants (from [22]} «op 0) ek a) Wheel load distribution 4 10 06__9t ¢) An Influence surface (example from [ 23] ) and its evaluation Fig. 21 Determination of the sectional forces due to vehicle loadings from influence surfacesSimplified Structural Analysis of tha Superstructure 81 O5- | O5+l 035-1 03:1 O35 Obl bbl Pot p 01 a5 ad T0251 "O51 07500251 o2sl O51 ‘oz! dal, al M- limit envelopes for concentrated loads —b) M-limit envelopes _—_c] M-fimiterwelopes for ‘acting on cantilevered portions of the flange for concentrated toads concentrated toads acting on flange strips acting on flange strips in the tans- verse diaphragm te- gion;3-sided apport Fig. 22 Moment envelopes (from [24}) y a 0 tet ort ° °o fel NilBed Tonge @ 0} Vorkos cantilever oeigns The orea snder the curve yields 0 <1 uotitotive diagram of the moments m,. ot y= Fig. 23 Influence of the cantilever design on the moment diagram (from [25] and [26})82 Structural Analysis 5.4.2 Analysis as a. Frame Every arbitrary loading can be separated into a symmetrical and an antisymmetrical part, On the element of Jength dx = 1 taken from the structure, the shear force differences, aT’, (and the longitudinal stress differences, do,, which are of no further interest here) mintain the external loading, a(x), in equi- librium (Fig. 24a), For symmetrical loads (Fig. 24b), where Fa Ger-dx the following holds true: Te vt = VS/Is dv’. S dv. ax eo ae 1 Frome with entsynmelical tesa equitenmm Where with dx = 1 Fig, 24 Frame analysis ats Th 4a Symmetrical moments at the junctune of the flange. with. the box, mp/2, (Fig. 16b1) produce no shear forces. For antisymmetrical loads as in Figure 24, the following holds true aTiz 4hte_ . Gabe +2try Ke ke where S.,, first moment of area of the partial half-cross-section about the centroidal x-axis moment of inertia of the entire cross-section Ayes ids (bgt by)/2 (Fig. 25) ‘The sectional forces acting on the frame must be calculated for the simultaneous application of the external loads and a’ . atx ° moments of inertia scant longitudinal transverse ~~ Tert(bet2hJ/72 LebHe a 4 Let bee Ee2 Turtabo/t2 Ee tile kern area A, (continued next side ) ed Fig. 25 Notation for the longitudinal and transverse directionSimplified Structural Analysis of the Superstructure $3 mudliary values 3 Rb ba ; orener ? La) BeBe? E a= pepe 5 mR 5 ge + (22s)? “ SIZ2X, 7 t x b) Fig. 26 Redundant forces (a) for symmetry, (b) for antisymmetry Symmetrical Loading For symmetrical loadings the frame is statically indeterminate to the 24 degree (Fig, 26a), because no shear is possible in the plane of symmetry. Figures 27a and b portray the moment and internal axial force diagrams resulting from the loads and moments, respectively, acting at the rigidly fixed junctures of the box with the flange, for such a cross-section as shown in Figure 25, In addition, Figure 27c portrays the moment and axial force diagrams resulting from an increase in the length of the top flange, 41g, over the bottom flange. This allows the possibility of considering, for example, a uniform increase in temperature of the top flange (T,) over the bottom flange (Ty) throu; ove Ale= (TT heb, and the shortening of the top flange due to transverse prestress, P, nue Ee It should be mentioned here that 41, should not be multiplied with a creep factor for the statically indeterminste analysis as long as the creep conditions are approximately the same throughout the entire cross-section. Due to the effect of the forces resulting from the curvature of the longitudinal prestressing tendons (see [27]} upon the webs, shortening |41,j of the webs occurs, which with the value 4}, = 2|41g[ - sin@ , can be converted to the case of Figure 27c. This is only necessary to be considered if the radii of curvature of the tendons in the webs are small and the angle, ?, is large. Figure 27 also provides the sectional forces from moments at the rigidly fixed junctures, m,, /2, acting on the joints of the lower Mange with the webs such as those moments arising from self-weight of the lower flange and webs, One need only turn the cross-section upside down and change the subscripts in the formulae from denoting the top flange to denoting the bottom flange.84 Structural Analysis: LOADING TRANSVERSE MOMENTS ‘2xIaL_ FORCES MH 3tg) Ely oA Je RP as ay p= 2iz0l Sle. ny « 21%) Ely q oh, . ouxiliary value hy 2 142% 42%) +hy rm n Fig. 27 Effect of the symmetrical part of the loading on a fram: b)Nodal moments c)Temperature- induced increase in length of top flange or prestress-induced shortening ‘Varying thicknesses of the fianges and webs can be approximated with constant thicknesses, providing the same cross-sectional areas. In extraordinary cases or when the separation of moments-into those moments acting at rigidly fixed junctures and those on a frame is to be avoided, one ean of course carry out a thorough frame analysis by the usual methods. The shear and normal force deformations can thereby be neglected, with the exception of the 6,, values from prestressing. Antisymmetrical Loading For antisymmetrical loading the moments and normal forces are zero in the plane of symmetry, The sectional forces acting on the transversely stiffened frame (Figs. 28a and b) can be determined on a system that is statically indeterminate to the 294 degree if the symmetry of the system is maintained by means of the antisymmetrical diagonal forces $/2 as shown in Fig. 26b . ‘The sectional forces acting on the freely deformable frame, which is statically indeterminate to the first degree, are given in Figures 28 ¢ and d for comparison. They provide a limiting case, which may be of interest now and then (see Section 5.2). If the folded plate action is considered as described in Section 5,5, the sectional force diagrams due to the diagonal force, 5, of Figure 28 e are needed.Simplified Structure! Analysis of thre Superstructu z 4 aoe baton ee Me oss : °5 doysas 33g = gst 2% de derdere= Sy wey (ze y= 4 sanyea Kapiyixnd Me fas My de Be been ge + My 1qe%aip qe mM, Sovspe rn My Ba g-e Ou Bus Mya tiseo a YO, pideuz yay. 0 Bey. OH Pigs, ey By oq fmf tl, We 6 \Tige=de-8 |g B S308Od TWIXy S $3004 TYNOOVIC W SLNBWON 3SUSASNYHL ONIDVO?58 Structural Analysis 5.4.3 Transverse Bending Moments in the Haunch of Variable-Depth Girders In the bottom flange of haunched box- —t girder bridges (Fig. 29), forces due to “Tikes curvature, q=o,*t,/R, directed towards oe the inside of the haunch arise in the zone of negative moments. These forces create transverse bending moments which act against the moments due to self-weight of the flange. According to [28], the stresses, o,, are not uniformly distributed across the hox-girder width, b,, when the haunch is sharply curved but are concen- trated in the areas near the webs, The determination of the transverse bending moments therefore employs a mean stress Sum: instead of o,. Using Figure 30, the following is then obtained: Fig. 29 Loading of the bottom ~ effective width of the bottom flange flange of the haunch b.= 3 “y ai ~ Ly is the moment of inertia and z, 5 the distance between the neutral axis of the section and the mid-depth of the flange, both for the idealized cross- sectional velues with by; - mean stress at mid-depth of the flange Sam Myo Zilles (State I) - transverse bending moments at the edge and in the middle respectively, due to non uniform distribution of q: meth . - 2 tw 02 04 06 08 19 Whby 4: tay fe eR Fig. 30 Factors B, y, ay 2 Cay as taken from (2 [28] alco handles the influence on the moments of elastic fixed-end conditions in case of deep or thin webs as well as the influence of transverse haunches at the bottom flange,implified Structural Anolysis of the Superstructure 67 5.5 Folded Plate Action Among the various methods of analysis (see in [29] and (30]), the one employ- ing the analogy of a beam on an elastic foundation is the most suitable for the actual practice. This method is therefore summarily portrayed here as taken from [17, 25, 32] and expanded by some own developments. 5.5, 1 Fundamental Concept ‘The analysis is based upon the following assumptions: ~ The lengths of the plates are large in comparison to their widths (1/b> 4) ~ The plate thicknesses are small in comparison to their widths - The box girder is symmetric about its vertical axis, A constant cross- section is maintained throughout the length of the girder (Fig. 25). - The thicknesses of the flanges and webs remain constant in the transverse direction. (The influence of haunches can be neglected according to [31] ) - The principle of superposition is valid hore Having handled all symmetrical loading effects plus the antisymmetrical ones as far as torsion and transverse bending on the diagonally stiffened frame are concerned in.Section 5, only the partial loading of Figure 16d 2 remains to be investigated. The imaginary diagonal forces, S, which were determined as shown in Figures 28a and b as acting on the stiffened frame become the external loads with reversed signs on the box girder, qo S bulg 4s = S-bs/g Qu =5- Mg ‘5 Fig. 31 The resolution of § into forces acting in the planes of the plates (notation defined in Figure 25) Under the applied load, S, which can be mentally resolved into the components Gg: dy and q, acting in the planes of the plates (Fig. 31), the webs and flanges deform not only in the longitudinal direction (flexural behaviour) but algo in the transverse direction (frame behaviour), because the deflection of the plates are coupled with the displacements of the joints of the cross-section {distortional deformation) (see also Section 5.2). The load, S(x), is there- fore partly carried in longitudinal bending as in a simple beam, S%{x), and partly by the resistance of the frame to distortional deformation of the cross- section, S (x): Sexy = Sx) + Sex) Qs) = GE) + Fs) (5.1)58 Structural Analysis Edge shear forces, T, and T',, contribute to the carrying of the load of the individual plates in the longitudinal direction, q", These forces, as the shear stresses in a girder of a standard section, are distributed in proportion to tho shear, V(x), due to the load, q’, (Fig. 32). The condition that the longitudinal inplane stresses, ,, of adjacent plates at their junctures must be of equal magnitude yields the idealized moment of inertia for the web as Ig = FB Ll both) (hurd) ~ 17 “I, +B) (3+3 B+ he t+ Xu fh ‘Ss and places the neutral axis (Fig. 33) at 4+2B +0u Bh _, =b,- Yo= 373 f +07 BPs Yu # Bs ~ Yo therewith the longitudinal stresses in the web resulting from af can be determined as for a regular girder: Ms tx) Gj = aca. Yo Cruz ROD oy, (5.2) % wo 8 KO tT Oxu Loading of a web pone! in its plone Fig, 32 Loading in the plane Fig. 33. Stressesc, due toS of the web Because of the antisymmetrical loading, all longitudinal stresses in the planes of the flanges are also known (Fig. 33). The deflections of the webs, v,, due to q< can be calculated from the differ- ential equation of an elastic beam as follows: El, “4 d's _ axe ~~ dx* * 9s (53)Simplified Structural Analysis of the Superstructure 59 As the stresses, c,, and o,,, in the longitudinal direction, x, have distribut- ions proportional to one another (oxo/a = - ¥o/Yy Fig. 33), the curvatures and deflections derived from them for all-of the plates must also be proportional to each other (e.g. vo/vg * - 2y,/b,). For that reason the diagonal deformat- ion of the edges, 6 (x), can be expressed by means of the geometrical relations of Section 6.1 in terms of the deflection of the web as follows: e+e B® 2 Star= age ka Wind where lee ANE oe one tal) (54) The resistance, 5, of the frame to such a diagonal deformation, 8, can thereby be determined by calculating due to a diagonal force,S, acting on a frame element of length dx=1,The component of 5 in the plane of the web is of the form ~ __b. _ gE, +2 B+2B*+ ve + me? ing Sede he S where. hye Grpae tet or, if from Eq, 5.4 is used: Gs =K-yew) where Kio be ker keels (5.5) From Eqs. 5.1, 5.3 and 5.5 the differential equation of a beam on an elastic foundation is obtained for the web te Ely $40 + K- yexd = qscn) (5.6) whereby the first term describes the longitudinal bending, the second term the elastic foundation produced by the effect of the frame, and q, the load due to 8, Similar equations can also be written for the flanges. These are however not necessary, because the distribution of the sectional forces in the planes of the flanges are proportional to those of the web, The solution, v,(x), yields the longitudinal moments 2 Mex) = ~BIgj « Se (5.7) the stresses,o, (from Eq. 5.2), and the transverse moments, m (x),as shown in Figure 28¢ for the analysis of the deformable frame with the loading Sinn KB yoo60 Structural Analysis 5.5.2 Solution by Means of the Analogy of a Beam on an Elastic Foundation The solution, vg (x), sought for the web must not only be a function that satie- fies the differential equation (5. 6) but also one that fulfills the boundary con- ditions of the structure being analyzed. For example, a simply supported beam with transverse diaphragms at the supports can be represented as the system shown in Figure 34a, The basis for the solution of such @ system is the infinitely long beam on an elastic foundation (Fig. 34b). It is subjected to all loads of the form, q(x) =S(x)-bg/g , which as shown in Figure 16 d1, arise from the resistance to the diagonal deformation, where S is derived as shown in Figures 28a and b, Moreover, the beam is loaded with unknown additional forces, Q) and Qo, and additional moments, My and Mg, at the supports which are determined from the support conditions, »b) Fig. 34 Systems for the beam on an elastic foundation: a)in reality b) basic system with equivalent loading For example, for the beam in Figure 34a at the supports, x=0 and x1, the deflections, vg,and moments, Mg, due to the loads, additional forces, @,,Q2, end moments, M,°Mp, are required to be zero. For a continuous beam with diaphragms over the inner supports, the condition of v, = 0 at these supports requires an unknown additional force, Q, but no moment, at each of the inner supports in the basic system. Diaphragms in the span also compel v, = 0 at that point and the corresponding unknown additional force Q. Should the warping of the cross- section be completely hindered at some point, the condition of dv,/dx = 0 applies there, which can be achieved by means of an additional moment at that point. The influence of the resistance to warping by transverse diaphragms and frames can be neglected here, however. For a supporting condition with- out transverse stiffening, the antisymmetrical part of the bearing forces should be handled as external loads (Fig. 35) as correspondingly shown in Figure 16. This translates into a large concentrated load, Q,, in the plane of the webs for the beam on an elastic foundation and not a support condition. LT tt Fig, 35 Loading at a support without transverse stiffening‘Simplified Structural Analysis of the Superstructure 61 The solution to the differential equation (5,6) takes the form of strongly damped vibrations as follows: AM) =e™. (cos AX + siAX) Burze™. sin dx Cx) =e?“ (cosdx - sin dx) Dexy-e**- COs AK LALK where A= T7* FEL, and L, = characteristic length The effect of a change in loading or in the support reactions can be seen to die away to only a few percent of their original values at a distance of 3L to 4.1L 80 that loads or support conditions for distances greater than 4 L from the point under consideration can be neglected. For the same reasons, transverse stiffening i.e, diaphragms to prevent distortional deformations in the span is only worthwhile, if at all, if such stiffening is placed at intervals & 2 L, ‘The sectional forces and deformations acting on a beam on an elastic foundation are handled in detail in the literature such as [33]. Loadings as shown in Figure 34 produce the following: yon pf Br Arx + Q-Ad-x) + OsAUK-ael)f + 2 oho, Ben + MyBa-o} + +f foo [Deay-x) - Deay* a,-x)] + 62[2-Dex-a,) ~Deayea,-xi] + +¢,[Dtx-a,-a,) ~Dix-ae) } where cf C7 0;30 for 0x4 a, C34 C4 =0570 =x ara, Cyt C,=0,50 QZ xs | Myre {Qe Con + Oy Cx) + Q,-Cox-a.n} + [Pty Dixy + Mg Dit-x)} + +Bel-c[Bra-x) -Biasea,-x]] + 6,[Bo-a) + Blaea,-x)] ~ ~e,[Btx-a,-a,) ~ Box-a)]}62 Structural Analysis Yoo $a, Da) * Qy Dil-x) + Cy Qe DUk-aal)} + thef-MpAcn + MyAU-K)} + Be tes Cea,-x)~ Ca,e,~xi] + 6, [Cix-a,) ~ Ceayeat,x)] - ~¢,[C0x-a,-a,) ~Cox-aul}} co=41 for x4a, , C274 for x® a, ‘The unknown additional forces and moments can be obtained by plugging in the boundary conditions given, or from the following formulae (see also (33): Mo? Be Cay ~ Br [Bia ~Ba,ea,)] My * BE Ct-ay + fee [Bia,+a,) ~Beas)] Vio = Bh Aca.) +3 Daw ~ Diaran] Yo *-S Au-a.n ~ fe [ravea,) ~Deay)] 4 et . yy af. et 1° 2 comal Fos al ? net COshAl = cosAl = Ax[L (Mot Myo) BO) - ARE (o* Vo) ft * DEY] F QP =A tef2 (Mio - Meo) BU + 4X EL ie ~ Viol - DIL] } Me ae {(Mio* Mol [TONU]* ZN ET; oo * Yeolft * CtUH]} =~ 04{(Mio~ Meo [1 -All]- 2 ELai (Yo ~ Voll ~ CCU} Q,=Q+Q” Q=Q'-Q” M, =P +M” M,=M'-M"Simplifiod Structural Analysis of the Superstructure 63 ‘The transverse moments obtained from the folded plate consideration are Proportional to the web deflection, vg. The influence lines for v, take the form of Figure 36 in the transverse direction and in the longitudinal direction are proportional to the elastic curve of the beam on an elastic foundation oub. jected to a point load at the section under investigation (64, = 84;). In orden to determine the critical positions of the loadings, one, however. rather seeke orientation from the known shapes of the influence surfaces for the plate effect and the influence lines for the fixed frame effect. This yields sufficient accuracy as the transverse moments from the folded plate -action play only a minor roll, ‘The influence line (Fig. 36) has its maximum generally between the webs. Only in the case of very deep box girders with rigid flanges can the maximum lie at the end of the cantilever arm. In order to avoid calculating the folded plate action for every individual loads ing position in the transverse direction, it normally suffices to calculate the longitudinal stresses for the folded plate (fp) action due to one characteristic loading position only (Fig, 36). A ratio is then determined between these stresses and the longitudinal stresses for a symmetrical loading of the same magnitude. This factor, ff, is used to increase all eccentric loads for the analysis in the longitudinal direction. o, + 6. 1 = R_ Bas BK 7 a 1 0 fp iB where ¢,,... stress due to the force S Pp " from the antisymmetrical q/2 (folded plate action) Og ... stress due to the sym- metrical q/2 Fig. 36 Influence line n for vg, where the position of max 1) is dependent upon the cross-section. For the normal case yp“ 0.4, For normal box-girder cross-sections, f,, lies between 1.1 and 1.3 for uni- form loads (main lane; q, as in Fig. 15) Bnd between 1.3 and 1,5 for concen- trated loads (characteristic heavy lorry), As long as the folded plate action is not neglected in calculating the transverse bending moments it should be separately considered for every eccentric loading,5.6 Multiple-Cell Box Girders Basically the same is true for multiple-cell box girders as is for singlé-cell ones, With increasing degree of statical indeterminacy an analysis by hand becomes too time consuming, In Section I, 4.3.3 comments are made con- cerning the design of multiple-celi box girders, As multiple-cell box girders are only constructed in special cases, the design engineer is here referred to the literature [29] [I, 26] as well as Section 6.2 for further information concerning their analysis. 5.7 Curved and Skew Box-Girder Bridges In horizontally curved bridges the longitudinal bending moments, Mg, and the torsional moments, M,,, mutually influence each other, Some sectional forces for a single-span girder are compiled in Figure 37. For special supporting systems and multiple-span girders, the reader is referred to [25] and [34 to 36}. According to [38], two-cell box girders can be roughly analyzed by using factors for the longitudinal and transverse bending moments, the shear forces, and the deformations taken from an idealized straight bridge. Skew box~girder bridges are in principle not sensible, as in most cases the box-girder can instead be supported perpendicular to its longitudinal axes by affording a minimal increase in length (Fig. I, 53). [37] contains a method of analyzing a skew box-girder bridge. ‘olisma) | “ose (Ses) | the i ri yet 5 “(k— 2, }rfo—4 Fig. 37 Support reactions and sectional forces acting on a single-span girder torsionally fixed at both ends (from [ 25, 34)Computer-sided Analysis of the Superstructure 65 6. COMPUTER-AIDED ANALYSIS OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE 6.1 Theory of Prismatic Folded Plates A folded plate is a 3-dimensjonal structure of thin plane plates joined together along their longitudinal edges. Normally an analysis of a continuous box- girder bridge by means of the folded plate theory is too involved to be carried out by hand, ‘The following presentation is therefore not intended for practical implementation but rather serves the main purpose of calling to mind the basis upon which a computer program using this theory is built, ‘The loads to which the folded plate is subjected are carried by the plates both parallel and perpendicular to their planes to the end diaphragms serving as, end supports, A simply supported prismatic folded plate (Fig. 38) is here used to present the fundamentals of the analysis as according to [39] . The following assumptions are made: - that ordinary bending theory is used - that the section under investigation is at a sufficient distance from’ the end diaphragms - that a maximum of two plates or diaphragms meet at an edge. ‘The loading is expanded in the form of a Fourier series (Fig, 39) as follows: gon 2 gh-sin ox where = 7 Loeang Case om a tq Pomme, | 8 metas ETP LE sn ORY mets, ro east? | =24 cos mes m=u22... peta SEE, Fig. 38 Simple folded plate Fig. 38 Fourier coefficients for the most important loading cases In the following, the analysis is portrayed for the m*” loading term. For simplicity, however, the index, m, is dropped in the discussion that follows.86 Structural Analysis. 6.1.1 Hinged Folded Plates ‘The system is idealized here as a number of prismatic plates joined together by hinges which induce no moments into the statically indeterminate system (Fig. 40), The applied loads on. the plates are reduced to loads, Q., acting at the edges of the structure, whereby the edges are at first assumeid.to be rigidly supported. The edge loads are resolved in the directions of the planes of the plates as shown in Figure 41. The dead load becomes, for example On = (ace Bren * Gn Bn) Sauna” Qn’ sin By Sita Yn Saynes® On Sit Pen [Sit Yn hie results in a load in the plane of the plate, n, of Gn Gr sin ax = Sines ~ Snogn ® Fig. 41 Resolving the load into its components in the directions of the planes of the plates As the members cannot deform independently of each other along their mutual edges, edge shear forces, T,,.andT,,,, are necessary, Requiring equi- librium on en element, dx, of the plate, n (Fig, 42) yields Fig. 40 Hinged folded plate subjected to dead load Vy = ~ Gnd, N= (Troe A (6.4) an AM, = Yelk ~ $0, + Tres) Bn OX xs edge n [T, +My, Integrating, one obtains WE n° Np Me Uyfcosax ; Ny2Ne-sinax en i AAV py M= Mavsinax ; Tr = Ty cosax 4 aigens1 with the fixed values 7," and Tarte ye degt yy Niet) Fig. 42 Sectional forces ey Nae ior (6.3) in the plane of the x © bo, member Marae Ben Toea)Computer-aided Analysis of the Superstructure 67 ‘The condition that the strains and therefore also the resulting stresses of the adjacent plates along the edge, n, are equal is given by Na 61 — Nae. 6 Mh. Be aie tone, tee From this plus Eqs. 6.2 and 6.3 the "three-shear equation" for edge, n, is obtained as follows: Bitte lake ate) ati EB, othe) This yields one equation per edge: i.e. for a single-cell box girder, four equations for its four edge shear forces, and with Eqs. 6.2 and 6.3 the sectional forces, M,, N, and V_, for cach plate, The deflections in the planes of the plates follow from the differential equation of the beam by substituting ¥, 7 VA sinax as follows: dy, tarer Elvaxt =~ EL, ya" sin ax * 4 Sa* ee). Orbe Whe ree 19 ~ (Tet Tate) be] ‘The edge deformations, w, perpendicular to the plane of the plate can be My Ine tebe in in which yields determined as shown in Figure 43, Fig, 43 Geometrical relationships of the deformations, e.g.on edge 2 6.1.2 Folded Plates with Rigid Joints In order to remove the rotations of the hinged plates in relation to one another, the redundant moments, ¥,, = YR sinax, are applied at the joints (Fig. 44), The associated support reactions of the plates AQ, = Yay Yn68 Structural Analysis create the additional plate edge loads Q Q S AQna A & Gn =~ AQAn (cot fn r col Pre) — Gag 7G Fig. 44 Edge loads, 4Qp, due to the edge moments, vy, Sin Yn Si Boat From this one can determine the moments, M., the normal forces, N_, the shear forces,V_, the edge shearTorces, T_, and the deformations, v, and w,,a6 shown above. They are all dependent upon ¥,, (for n= 1 to 4). The 4 determining equations for ¥, to ¥, are obtained from the condition that every angle between two adjoining plates does not change, The rotations in the hinges due to transverse bending of the plates are determined as for a beam. The load due to self-weight, qn, yields for example (Fig. 4a) bn si Dnynes = Onein = Gero sin he im The redundant forces yield (Fig, 45b) “iynee = BEY, * Yous) and Mean EAE (2 Yous * Yn) The angle produced by the deformation of the plate loaded in its plane (Fig, 45c) is Fig. 45 Angle of rotation at the edges With the above, the compatibility condition for edge, n, takes the form Qnnca t Orne + + ives Wnt * Erne = OComputer jad Analysis of the Superstructure 69 By substituting the values determined above, all moments Y, all sectional forces, and all deformations can be determined. As a closed summation of the Fourier series is not possible, separate caiculat- ions for several periods (for m = 1,2,3....) must be carried out in order to achieve sufficient accuracy, With this can be seen the limits of the manual folded plate calculation. Influences such as diaphragm stiffness, plate wall shear deformations, or continuous folded piates are not even considered in the above presentation. For theoretical investigations, the reader is referred to the extensive literature (e.g. in [40]). Of practical significance are those methods prepared for the computer. The extended folded plate theory of [41] is transformed into a computer program in [42] and [43]. 6,2 Finite Strips Analysis by means of finite strips lies somewhere between the rigorous folded plate theory and finite elements. In order to decreage the amount of calculation vequired and especially to be able to analyze folded plates with any sort of boundary conditions, the boundary conditions are satisfied here in the longitu- dinal direction by periodic functions (Fourier Series) and in the transverse direction by simple polynomial functions (44, 45] . For long girders, often only a few gtobal , strips are necessary. For short girders conainate system slement Ps Y: 2 cenedinate system and for greater accuracy, the number 5 e of strips is increased (Fig. 46). Bs vf With further refined strip elements ; re {46}, any boundary conditions, multiple S S Seer spans, and transverse diaphragms can also be considered (see also [47]). Fig. 46 Dividing the box girder into strip elements (from { 46] ) Analysis by means of finite strips or strip elements is advantageous for multiple- cell (44, 45, 46] or curved [48] box-girder bridges, while for single-cell straight bridges an analysis as described in Sections 5,2 to 5.5 is sufficient in most cases, Finite Elements With the finite element method, the two-dimensional partial differential equations are reduced by discretization to a two-dimensional system of algebraic linear equations. The structure is divided into elements that are only connected at their nodes (Fig. 47).70 Structural Analysis Fig. 47 Finite Element analytical model (from [49] ) ‘The forces and moments acting on each element (Fig. 48) are reduced to forces and moments acting at the nodes (Fig. 49), The conditions of equilibrium and compatibility supply the n equations inn unknowns, whereby n depends upon the number of elements and the number of degrees of freedom of each node. 4 S Ny w Moy Membrane Forces Slab Forces Fig. 48 Positive internal forces and Fig, 49 Nodal point forces, 8, displacements in a finite and displacements, v, for element, (from (491) y a finite element (from[49]) 2 Fig. 50 Triangular elements (a)with 3 nodes, and (b)with 6 nodes for a refined analysis (from {50] } Along with rectangular elements, predominantly triangular clements are used (Fig. 50). In order to avoid numerical difficulties, triangular elements should not be given too small an angle. Parallelogram-shaped elements have been developed for skew bridges, A survey is given in [50] . Recently the development of 2- or 3-dimensional finite elements capable of simulating the actual nonlinear behaviour of reinforced concrete after the formation of cracks has made considerable progress. [51] and [52] contain examples of this. Figure 51 portrays the results of such an analysis in which the large deviation of the actual behaviour from the elastic theory can be seen when the structure is heavily loaded,Computer-aided Analysis of the Superstructure 71 {° fee -h- —A stiffened ~- B unstiffened a) Failure mechanism of an b) Loading and stiffening at mid-span unstiffened box girder flood P [MND oe web away from load 0.6 > : 20 «5 © 6 w» 2 0 Ot 02 03 Ge a5 OB o7 Deflection [mml Load P IMNI — box girder A stiffened ~~ box girder 8 unstiffened ¢) Relation of the deflection 4) Relation of the angle of rotation to the to the load at mid-span load at mid-span Fig. 51 Influence of nonlinearity on the deformation at mid-span of a box girder (from (53]) A uniform gridwork for the closed analysis of an entire box girder should be avoided because of the associated effort involved, especially that for the evaluation of the computed data. It can be more sensible to analyze the structure using a rough grid in the area of no particular discontinuities and a refined grid only in those regions where there are abrupt changes in geometri- cal or statical conditions, For an introduction to the fundamentals of finite element analysis, the reader is referred to such literature as (64) or (55). In [56], [57] and [58] box- girder bridges are analyzed by means of finite elements. Because of the extensive input data required in using finite element programs, especial emphasis should be placed upon the ease of use of such programs. This trans- lates into the requirement that the gridwork ie automatically generated for some regions,72 Structurel Analysis 7. ABUTMENTS ‘The abutment is subjected to the following loads (Fig, 52): ~ dead load, g - support forces from the superstructure, Fy, Fy, Fy - earth pressure from the backfill e,,; ‘The magnitude of the earth pressure depends upon many factors of the earth (settlement, subsequent compaction by the traffic) and the abutment walls (movement, surface roughness, type of foundation) and is therefore difficult to completely consider, It is therefore recommend- ed to use the earth pressure at rest in the calculations, earth pressure due to the working load on the backfill, eg Fig. 52 Loads onan abutement - braking forces on the backfill, eg - working load on the abutment, e.g. footpaths, q lateral impact, Qy other loads {59] concerns itself with the analysis of abutments and contains tables for platea supported on two or three sides. 8, PIERS 8.1 Loadings Along with the sectional forces acting on the undeformed system due to - dead load of the pier - support forces from the superstructure - movement and rotation of the bearings due to changes in length of the superstructure ~ wind - temperature differences ~ impact load from vehicle hitting a pier 2 - pressure of moving water for piers in water (Fp = Cp -£- vy" - A, where the drag coefficient, Cp ~ 0,8 to 2 from tables, v= velocity of the water, and A = cross-sectional area of the pier to the flow) ~ ice pressure [60, 61} ~ impact from ship hitting a pier [ 62]Piers 73 arise moments due to ~ geometrical nonlinearity (2"" order theory) ~ physical nonlinearity (nonlinearity of the M-curvature-relationship for reinforced concrete) - horizontal force from the deformation of the system (Fig. 53) - unplanned eccentricity (construction inaccuracies) - foundation rotation Al due to ‘The influence of the theory of 2" order depends temperoture wpon the slenderness ratio of the pier and-can be neglected for = Bogli < 25 . where 3,5... effective length (buckling length) Fig, 53 i... radius of gyration A horizontal force, H, arises from the inclination of the column hinged at both ends which acts on the fixed pier 8.2 Effective Length In order to determine the slenderness ratio, 4 , the effective length, 8.¢¢, the distance between the inflection points on the elastic curve, must be determined, In most cases, the pier is taken to be fixed at one end (Fig. 54), For the case of 8o57/d,,% 15, where d, is the width of the pier, and pinned supports the free movement at the top of the pier can be assumed to be limited [63] .In [64] , the influence on the pier moments of the manner in which the elastomeric bearings accomodate movement is portrayed. If the superstructure and piers together form a framework, the effective length can be taken from tables (e.g. [65]; see also [ 24, Vol. II] ), sb-| fb, + oH 228s where2< Bu for practical case Fig. 54 Comparison of the deformations and effective lengths of a column rigidly fixed in the soil and one elastically fixed74 Structural Anslysis, 3 Moments According to 2°? Order Theory ‘The determination of the moments on the deformed system cannot be separated from the dimensioning of the structure, The ratio of reinforcement influences the deformation by way of the stiffness and thereby influences the moments. If tables [65] cannot be used in which the ratio of reinforcement is already in- cluded, the moments must be determined by iteration, An approximate method from [65] is chown below as follows: ~ determination of the moments according to the 1°* order theory, MI, Mi, (Pig. 55) with consideration of an initial eccentricity (e.g. according to SIA 162 [66] 0,02 m= uy, = 9,,/300) - rough dimensioning of the pier, choice of ratio of reinforcement ~ determination of the effective stiffness, Bj, from the M-curvature- relationship (Fig. 57), depending upon the reduced cube compressive strength of the concrete, f../ Y yyy, and the reduced yield strength of the steel fyi/Yyqq) as well as the limiting strain, €, yp,i¢ and € which are based upon the particular safety concept used ~ calculation of Mit 8, limit’ due to the Y, and yp factored loads and the resulting deformations * i 8% - . To z pat Set = Bical Nair [Sux Se) - He (ME 2 MEY la “hs* 94 Yes + Healy Na FOR, where: N internal axial foree (compression negative) safety factors, e.g. according to the CEB(66) Yi dide with ¥, = Yp for the unfavourable effect and Yq for the favourable effect of the axial force M, fa ~ oe ctor for creep deformation due to the creep: tt Te roducing moment, M,; for A<170 and fa P iz ie 35 <2, the influence of ereep can be neglected 4 Zi)* Oye AE CI (# “Q, ;] factor for the coupled framework system a s i] (see Fig. 58) TAL factor for the rotation of the foot of the pier oe “HET, 2(z;Q,,:) (see Fig. 56) where Aj... area of the foundation Ey stiffness coefficient of the soil for loadings @” over a short period of time Ip: ++ moment of inertia of the foundation This equation is only valid for a Nj smaller than the buckling load and for Mil < My. The dimensioning of the pier at section ”a’ can be carried out for the moment at the limit state of collapse, MJ, or for the converted moment at working load, M/y; (Fig. 55).Foundation 75 a a“ ull lat uit ateg fret rey oR T 1 © hat t Wy pe area Se . _ hing Le Lie] Fig. 55 Basic system of the Fig. 56 Coupled framework system and free cantilever column rotation of the foot of the pier Moment M M ho u 4 b frocie 5M rete Soseection ‘moattton ; IK 0 ky 0 Ku Curvature k Fig. 57 Moment-Curvature-Relationships irMl> M,, the calculation must be repeated. The values for M,, k,, and By, “depending upon the axial force, N, and the ratio of Seatoretinel ,P,can be taken from tables (e.g. [65, 67] for rectangular and circular cross-sections, determined for 6, yoni = 3% and €o timit =~ 3-5 %). The tension stiffening provided to the reinforcement by the concrete between. the eracks, was not considered above. This leads to an overestimation of the moments, MII . Therefore for very high piers a more exact calculation should be made with consideration of the mean steel strain ¢,,, on the tensile side (68, 69]. 9, FOUNDATION Along with the ultimate strength of the foundation, its sefety against over- turning should also be checked, whereby in most cases the freely standing pier during the construction phase is the critical case. Furthermore, the settlement due to constant load should be investigated, The analysis of the foundations depends upon the soil conditions. The foundation requirements are handled in detail in [70]. ‘The foundation of the scaffolding requires exact knowledge of the soil conditions (see Pigure 1, 66). in order to be able to follow the flow of forces from the loads on the scaffolding into the soil a statically determinate model should be used in the calculation if possible lecause of the uncertain stiffness distribution.@ " " ® " 2 a eS * 5 Ey a 2 30 3 2 a « % 36 a 20 2 a 2 ry Structural Analysis LITERATURE ROSTAM, §., PEDERSEN, B.5,: Pastlaty presicen ‘Technical Untvaralty of Denmark; 1980 DEUTSCHE BUNDESBAAN: Vorachrift for Eleentahbrdcken and ronslige Ingenteurhauwerse (VEL: Vorsuegabe (DV 804); Bundoabahazenicalarst, Mineheni 1973 Wininast bet Dricken, Voruchlag fOr dle Neufaasung der DIN 1055, To 4 Bundeesnstait fur Strsenwesen. Koto: 18 HIRTZ, HW. Berioht ther den Stand dor Arbeiten an Regeln zur Erfoncong dar Wiadwirhsng auf Bauwerke; Konetruktl- ‘var Ingenieorbeu, Berichte Reft 38/36; Ruhr-Univeraitst Bochum; 19 PAUSER, A.: Grundeaize for dle bauliche Durehbiéung: Zeront and Beton, Heft 2: Wien: 1976 HAMBLY, 5.C.: Temperature dlutedllons and streoees ia concrete bridges: The Structural Engineer: Vol. $6 A, and ‘Ne. i, Vol, SP At London: 1978/78, ‘Yon W. FUCHS: Bemeamung von Betonbedcken untor Tempersivrbesneprichi ‘sonorete bridges, Danish experience, Serle R, No 128; tractures: Reveareh Report 78 - 21, Departnent of Civil Boxing ing. Universty of Canterbury, Chrteleburch, New Zealand: 1078 LEONHARDT, F.1 Vorlenngen dber Manaivbes, Teil 6; Grundlagen det Mé ‘Borlin - New York, 1070 SCHAMDECK. 11,: Drtichen aus Spannboton: Wirldjenkeiten, Mogiiehkettan; Baulagenieur 81, H. Borlin - New York, 1976 HUANG, T.: Dynamic response of concrete highway bridges; ACI Publleation SP - 22: 1808 ‘CHU, KC... JONES, MM: Theory of dynamic analysts of box girder bridges - Dynamic analyets of a box girder bridge; ‘Abhandiungen 38 - 1, 15H, 1976 Symposlum on dynamic venaviour of Bridges; TRL. Supplementary Report 17S; Transport and Road Research Labo- elory: Crowihorac;. Berkshire; 1977 'naten Natsonal Group ofthe IABSE: Dynamic response of bridge decks in relnforcod and prestressed concrete with lon 9, IABSE: New Delhi: 1976. ‘special reference to vibration; Special Publle ‘MATSUZAKL, K.2 Dynaimie deste of footbrtige MATSUMOTO, ¥., NISHIOKA, ., SHIONRI, 11/18; WABSES 19 NARASIMHAN, 8.¥., PANT, C.P.: Free vibrations of box gitder bridges: Journal ofthe Indian Nstfonsl Group ‘of the IABSE, Vol 9, Mo. 2, 1679 STEINLE, A.: Torsion ind Profiiverforimung belo elnasiiigen Kasten (aiehe agen Hert 10/1070 und Hen 6/1972), FROST, j1., WOLFF, 1.J.: Zur wirklichkeltanshen Briattlang der Beaneprvchangen in abschalttews ten Spannhetonteapwerican; Bavingenteur 8, 1270 RUSCH, H., JUNOWINTH, D., HILSDORF, W. ‘Yoni Krischen und Sehwtnien BAZANT, Z.P.: Prediction of concrete creep etects ntvbrockenbaue ringer Verlag, Springer Verlag, Proceedings fon- ond Stahtbetontins Hest 0/1970, hergestal- iskang von Zwingungea in Spanabetontragwerken; Beton- und Stahlbetonhau 8, 1970 RIECKMAWH, H, «P.: Numeriache Integration von Blnfuaniohen for Plattenechnttlneten; Daviagenieur 11/1970 HOMBENG, H,, ROPERS, W,; Fanrbannplatten mit vorindarlicher Dleke; 84: 14 Tl; Springer Verlag, Berlin = ETH Zartehs1079 ‘Tiohikastenbroceend# 1 (geht cmmte Bracken}; tnatttut for Mesaivbea, Universitat Staligert BAKRT, 3. Stmplifie’ analyte of edge tfened cantleves slabs; Jooryal of the Strvetural Diviaan, ¥. 3, Marek, 3 LIPPOTH, W.: Zur Beanepruching mehrzelliger Hobilaatenquerachnitte quis oar Lang Langtvo hibetonbau 12/1870 mIBL, Je, IVANYT, 0 ig der Querblegung von Druckglation govouteter Hohlkastentrager; Bastechntk, Heft 4: Veridg W. Ernat & Sohn, Berlin» Minchen = Dloecldort: 1971 -ASTRILLON, 0.2,A,: Boltrag sur Berechnung Janger dOguvendiger relzeiger Trager unter Berdckelontigung der auertation, Universitat Srttgarts 1978 MMAIBEL, B.1., ROLL. F.: Methods of analysts and design of concrete boxteama With eide cAatileve Rport 4,434; CCA; 1974, PRAKASH RAO, 1.8.1 Binflud dor Quorochaltteshoeanungen suf dle Profilverforsnung von me ion und Sianibetonbau, Heft 1; 1081 ‘TUNG, D.HLH.: Torsional unlybie of single thin-walled traperoltst conrete box girder brid iP = 25; 1069 107, Ne mnchse aus Umlenkkrifien der ACI Pubiteation 7. Bute, 1964 I, ,: Gekeammte ddanwandige Trager; Springer Vering, Berlin - New York: 10 MeMANUS, .F., NASIR, G.A.. CULVER, .¢.' Horizontally cured gitdere - state ef the set; JSD, Vol 9§ No ST §: May 1960 KOMISHL, I., KOMATSU, 5.: Three dimensional anklynin of curved girder with thin-walled crose ‘gen 25, 1VBH; 1985, PUBL, J., PELLE, K.: Zor Szhnltteraftermittiong des sehiefen, slarelligen Hobikastens im HetonbrOchenbaus Veratfent= Tichung der Abieting Bauwesen, Konstrubtiver Ingenieorbau: Universitat Dortinindy 1877 MUKHERJEE, D., TRIKHA, D.N,: Dealgy coulliclante for curved box girder concrete bridges: Indian Concrete Journal, Wo 11, Vol. 84 1990 (GimiAGANH, K-: Flacheotragwerve, 5, Aufl; Springer Verlag. Wien: 1959 ‘Task Comitive: Phase ! Report on Folded Plate Construction: ASCE, Vol. 89, No St 8, S, 305 ff: 1963 GOLDBENG, 1.F,, LEVE, i, Fle of prismatic olded plate siructures: IVDH, Vol, 17; 198 SCORDELIS, A.C:: Analysis of amply avpported box girder bridges; Repoct Ne, SESM 66 - 17, arkeley: 1966 MBYER, C.. SCORDELIS, A.C.: Computer program for prismatic folded plates with plate and beam elemente; Report "890 ip Method In atructural anelysla: Pergtmon Press, Oxford - New York - Torante - Sydaey- Parla - Fronklurt; 1078 CHUNG, Y.X.: Analyais of box girder bridges by the Flaite Strip Method: Vol. 2, ACI Publications SP - 21 jon; AbRandlun- 11« so a 2 2 “ ss 3 Litereture 77 DU PREBZ, R.Z.: Borachnong prismattscher Flachontragworke init Hlfe von fintze Strestenelementen: Baulechoik Het 5; Verlag W. Emat & Sohn, Berlin; 1972 L00, ¥.-C., CUSENS, AR,: Developments of the finite strip mottod in the analysis of bridge decks; p. $3 CHEUNG, 19.8., CHEUNG, ¥.K.: Analysts of curved bor girder bridges by Finite Strip Method; Athandlungen 91 1BH 17} SCORDELIS, A.C., DAVIS, R.E.: Stresses in continuous conerete bor girder bridges: Vel, 1, ACI Publleations SP - 26, 1071, SISODIYA, R.C., GRALI, A.: Analysis of box girder bridges of arbitrary shape: Athandlungen 33 - 1, TVBH: 197% ARGYRIS, JH, et al,: Finite Blementherechnsng ven Speanbelon-Rexktordrucxbehiliern; Devlechor Avsaeht fOr ‘Stanibeton, Heft 219; 1977 IABSE-Collogilon: Advanced mechantes of reinforced concrete: Delt, 1981 MAURER, G., MEHENORN, C.* Zum Tragverhalten den elnzelligen vorgeepannten Kaslentoigers unter Rerckolcht _gung wiridicseltenahen Werkatoftverhaltens; Forschung, Siralenbas und Strafenverkehratecntk, Haft £70; Bona i BUCK, K.E., SCHARPE, D,W., STBIN, &., WUNDERLICH, W.: Finite Blemente in der Stati, Verlag W. Enel & Sohn, Berlin -"Monchen: 1973 GALLAGHER, R.H,: Plnlle-Blement-Analysis; Springer Verlag, Berlin - Mew York: 18 VAN ZYL, 8.P.; Anslysia of curved eegmenially erected prestressed concrete box girder bridges; Report Ne UC ‘SESM 76 - 2; Borkeley! 1976 SCORDELIS, A.C,: Anelylosl and experimental studiee of mulli-eell concrete bor glider bridges: bulletin n. $6, ‘Val. XVin2, of the 1088; Madrid; 1928 SISODIYA, R.G., CHBUNG, Y.K,, GHALI, A.: Finte Blement analysis of ekew, curved box girder bridge; Abhandlon- ‘gen Sout, VB; 1070 NEILL, .R.: Dynamic tc forces on piers and FREDERKING, R,, SCHWARZ, J. A mocel inveatigntion of ee foress on Sized and oaciliatng cones; IMT #0-208/01-08, 1980 OSTENFSLD, C.: Ship collisions against bridge plore: IVRM Publications Vel. 25: 1963 LIEKMANN, .: Das Trag. sad Verformoungsvernalten von Stanbetonbrdckenpiatlern mit Rollenlageen; Deutecher Aus ‘chad far Stahibeton, Heft 26 KAWNING, W,: Flestomer-Lagar fr PendeltGtaen - Ein(ud der Lager suf dle Beanapruchung der Stoteen; Baulngentenr 12; 1900 KORDINA, K., QUAST, U,: Nachwels der Koickelcherhelt,in: Dementung von Belon- und Stahibetorbauteslen: Devtacher ‘Ausschud far Staniboton, Weft 20, 2. AsM; 1970 CED/PIP Model Cote for Conerate Structures; 1873 WALTHER, T., HOURIET, B.: Bemersungnabelien fr Stahibetonquerschnie, Band Il; Hehiquerachaitte: Presses polylechnigques romandes, Lausanne: 1900 NOAKOWSKI, P.: Vereintachte Ermittlng der Momente 2. Ordwong in ndustrloschornstoincn;.Berteht Wr, 1332/Nos/K ‘des Insitute fr Bauingenlearweden Il, Lehrstuhl fOr Mascivbau, TU Mdachen; 1960 SCHLAICH, J., SCHOBER, 1l., KOCH, R.: Versuche zur Mitwichang dea Botona ln der Zagzone von Stahtbetons hte altal fOr Mavsivban, Universlt8e Suitgat 1873 KLOCKNER, W., SCHMIDT, H-G.: Grundmngen, Betonkalender 1877, 1. 8. 727 6. Can. Journal of CWil Engineering, Vor.Introduction / General Detailing Principles 79. Part II] DIMENSIONING AND DETAILING 1, INTRODUCTION In this part the dimensioning and detailing of box-girder bridges is handled, This includes also those areas whose stresses cannot adequately be described with the normal bending theory as assumed in part Il. Further appropriate prestressing tendon profiles and reinforcement arrangements are suggested, and elements of detailing and bridge finishing are itluminated. 2, GENERAL DETAILING PRINCIPLES ‘The general design principles of reinforced and prestressed concrete struc- tures apply of course as well to box-girder bridges but with the more stringent requirements necessary to ensure their serviceability and durability, In this publication intended for the international forum of IABSE,only the CEB/FIP Model Code in its latest edition [1] can be recommended as a safe and practi- cal basis for ensuring the structure’ s ultimate strength and serviceability. Meeting the safety requirements of the national codes of practice must be left up to the individual reader, With today’ s level of knowledge and state of the art, the structural analysis and dimensioning of box-girder bridges cannot dispense with any of the three methods named below or achieve a satisfactory result with the exclusive use of only one, The following methods are also allowed equal status in the CEB/ FIP Model Code: - the determination of the sectional forces as according to elastic theory: i.e, the assumption of the uncracked State I independent of the magnitude of the stresses (see Part II of this paper) and the dimensioning of the eri- tical sections so that the behaviour of the member with regard to cracking, deformation, and vibration is satisfactory under working load or service Joad conditions and so that the ultimate resistance of the member at failure or collapse (Fig. 2a) should provide for sufficient safety. ~ the determination of the sectional forces when the nonlinear stress resul- tant - deformation relationships of the cracked State If are considered, in particular the nonlinear moment - curvature relationships (Fig. 1) which are a function of the loading and the restraint deformations (e.g. due to temperature or settlement), Step-by-step iterative integration or appro- ximate methods are used [2, 3], ‘The dimensioning of the sections is carried out as described above. ™ A cys Healt Eom M1 Fig, 1 Moment - curvature relationship8 Dimensioning and Detailing - a closed check of the ultimate limit state based on the theory of plasticity @. 5, 6). The static method, which supplies a safe lower bound for the ultimate load, is especially suitable for beam members (Fig. 2b). The kinematic method or yield-line theory which supplies an unsafe upper bound, is especially suitable for plates (Fig. 2c), The sections must, however, provide a sufficiently large, rotational capacity, Box girders with their ro- bust slabs satisfy this requirement in most cases with sufficient mild steel reinforcement, whereby overly reinforced box girders (p> 2%) are ex- eluded for economic and structural reasons anyhow. Although the ultimate load design methods for beam members and plates are today in principle so thoroughly developed that they can be used, sufficiently simple methods for box-girder bridges that can be comprehensively applied and that take every effect into account are still lacking. This is especially true for such cases as eccentric loadings or bridges with curved alignment. Up until now this has only been met by a structural analysis according to the ela- stic theory and a dimensioning based upon the load-carrying capacity of the a a COSTES “EF Me Fe ua amy OY A B c D , | “nytt yn, . A Ming MG af ent) ats ZZ ae ws . bank (HG 8 ~kinemat. ptousible estate | ~plast. moments bound My My Lie Aah Nate ge sowasu(ht-amg) Cx Loa 208 nf) Fig. 2. Example of the determination of the ultimate load in bending with the ultimate load design method (failure in shear excluded) a) for comparison: taking the moments determined according to the elastic theory and dimensioning the critical sections satisfies the = lower bound aq, an fy b) static method selecting the correct bending moment diagram c) Kinematic methoa} OF cHapse mechanism, respectively, so that the correct Q, is foundGeneral Detailing Principles 81 critical sections; it should be remembered that also this method does not de- prive the structure of its material-derived inherent safety and ability to redi- stribute the stresses. The elastic theory remains therefore, at least in the short run, the basis for the design of box-girder bridges. This especially applies to the service load condition, which is quite correctly described in most cases by the elastic theo- ry even with relatively heavy loads because of the prestress and about which the ultimate load method can provide no information Of course the inherent contradiction between the stiffnesses used for the calculation of the sectional forces and the assumptions on which the dimensioning of the members is based should not be allowed to lead to meaningless or even dangerously false conclu- sions with regard to the assessment of the influence of the statically indeter- minate stress resultants resulting from loads and prestress and above all of the restraint stresses resulting from temperature, differential settlement, shrinkage, and creep. It is false to specify permissable values for the elasti- cally determined stresses due to these influences and thereby to force an in- creased level of prestress. Instead one should provide the statically indeter- minate sectional forces with the possibility of redistribution and especially the restraint stresses with the possibility of relaxation by means of a controlled formation of cracks. The use of the elastic theory should also not be allowed to become an obstacle to partial prestressing, Dare one not dispense entirely with a check calculation of the restraint stresses and instead, because they do not influence the ultimate resistance of the struc- ture but only consume part of the rotational capacity of the plastic hinges, control these. stresses by structural means, then one is only left with the above-described second method of determining the sectional forces by consi~ dering the cracked State II, It yields realistic results under the working loads as well and leads to an adequate degree of prestress, However, this method is too complicated for the individual case, although it would produce in prin- ciple no difficulties if the longitudinal and transverse direction of the box- girder bridge are treated independently, Therefore in any case an additional check by means of the theory of plasticity of the entire bridge system in the longitudinal direction and of the top flange in the transverse direction is pro- posed. Only in this way one can be assured of determining the actual ultimate Joad undistorted by the influence of the stifiness-dependent statically indeter- ‘minate sectional forces produced by the loads, prestress, and restraint con- ditons. In any case there is no cther but the ultimate load method if one must determine the remaining strength of damaged bridges, e.g. due to excessive settlements, For the judgement of the conditions under working loads in general and in par- ticular for the calculation of the crack widths from the average steel stresses, one must clearly differentiate between the statically indeterminate sectional forces due to loads and prestress on the one hand and restraint sectional forces due to temperature, differential settlement, shrinkage, and creep on the other (Fig. 3), While the restraint sectional forces are therefore sharply reduced. in general by a reduction in stiffness, e.g. by cracking, the statically indeter- minate sectional forces due to loads and prestress are at most redistributed within the system, Indeed, given a uniform reduction in stiffness of the entire system, they remain completely unchanged in magnitude.82 Dimensioning and Detailing ‘This difference can also be clearly seen by the influence of the creep of thé concrete, If creep occurs uniformly throughout the entire structure, this corresponds to a change of the effective modulus of elasticity ©=E,/(1+9 - 9). ‘The sectional forces due to the loads remain the same, but the restraint sectional-forces are reduced by creep to a fraction of their original magnitude. ‘The statically indeterminate sectional forces due to prestress are not altered by creep if the effect of the relatively small reduction in prestress is treated 28 a separate matter. They behave in similar fashion to that of the sectional forces due to loads, One should therefore not include the statically indeterminate sectional forces due to prestress with the restraint sectional forces as is unfortunately frequently the case. +a pyre delta If 2 pe TESST = Mi, 2-7 asl Mas "Mar a8 Ii Mi AS/EL Fig. 3 Comparison of the statically indeterminate bending moments M! due to load q or prestress P, with those due.to differential settlement 43 or temperature difference 4T ‘This means that in limiting the crack widths it should be understood that the sectional forces due to loads and prestress always create stresses (in the steel) and the corresponding crack widths, which are directly proportional to the imposed loads, In order to obtain acceptably small crack widths therefore, one must provide the largest possible amount of small-diameter reinforcement to evenly distribute the cracks, The restraint stresses can best be handled by a minimum of stiffness and a minimum of reinforcement distributed in the ten- sile zone. This minimum reinforcement should be so proportioned that the steel does not reach its yield point with the appearance of a crack and that a good bond between steel and concrete enables the restraint deformations to be finely distributed among many small cracks, Too much reinforcement increa- ses the magnitude of the restraint sectional forces but cannot significantly re- duce the restraint deformations. It would be totally inadvisable to increase the prestress on account of the re- straint sectional forces , because the reduction of these forces in the trans- ition between the States I and II would thereby be delayed from occurring. For prestressed bridges, there arise no serviceability problems at all, if even in those areas in which the ultimate strength can be satisfied by the prestressing steel alone one does not rely entirely upon the prestress wires with their poor bond but complements their properties with ample finely distributed mild steelPrestressing 83 reinforcement, This ‘is indeed efficiently achieved with partial prestressing, ae one needs mild steel reinforcement to satisfy the ultimate load requirements anyway, Everywhere that smali or zero stresses are calculated as existing, a close-meshed network of reinforcement must be provided. The bar or stirrup intervals given in Fig. 4 should not be exceeded thereby. ‘allow.crack width w medium AXTAL 100 150 250 TENSION + general BENDING vertical stirrt te szmpa | 8 [ 100 200 SHEAR + or te * TORSION 45° to 80° stirrups T, 23 MPa. 100 150 250 Fig. 4 Maximum bar or stirrup intervals {mm} without further checking of the crack width {from [7] ; approximately as in {1)) ‘The following is intended as a reference for the minimum ratio of reinforce- ment: min 9 =AslAcjet = Etmd fy with: f,. to be taken from Fig, 5a fy = characteristic strength Ag gy from Fig. Sb 9s} 3:2 a) Tensile strengths fg, [MN/m?] b) Definition of the effective area Ay, of Fig, 5 Minimum reinforcement details (from (1}) 3, PRESTRESSING a For box-girder bridges, the webs should be prestressed longitudinally and the top flange transversely, even for small spans if possible. They thereby become more slender and lighter. The deflections, the crack widths, and the stress Muctuations in the steel under alternating traffic loads are reduced, because the concrete tensile strength is not exceeded until heavy loads are experienced. In ‘The Level of Prestress84 _Dimensioning and Detailing Addition, large tensile forces are handled more efficiently by prestressing ten- dons. Indeed these advantages are not only achieved by a larger prestress force, i.e. by the exclusion of cracks in the concrete in the calculations, One can de- the top of the roadway slab over tho webs and in the bottom of the slat between the webs. On the gther hand, should full prestressing be demanded, one mace place the tendons almost in the middle of the flange and apply a prestressing force that is much too large. Aside from the decidedly better structural behaviour under working loads, es- pecially under restraint conditions (see Section 2.), unnecessarily large com- pression stresses and the resulting extensive creep and difficult-to-control de- 02 04 06 08 10% ° G2 Oa ds ae tow Mig. 6 Required area of reinforcement and safety factor, y, in relation to %, the degree of prostressing: where x-SD___ . Sectional forces producing decompression ‘max 5 max sectional forces The selection of the suitable level of prestress should be given due considera- Hon by the design engineer. Basically, the entire gamut can be naa from mild Steel reinforced concrete to fully prestressed concrete, Because of the greater fone’ particularly in bridges with their exposure to chemical attack in sean form as road salt or seawater, no tensile atresses should ke allowed under re Ronent loading, This applies especially to the top of the roadway slab. It is, however, also from the economical point of view usually better to providePrestressing 85 The usual definitions of the degrees of prestressing provide little information as to the behaviour of the structure and often lead to false judgements as to quality, Important parameters are missing in all definitions, The span length is missing for a determination of expected deflection. The ratio g/q is requi- red for the determination of the range of cyclic stress encountered by the brid- ge reinforcement, The parameters, concrete tensile strength and reinforce- ment bar diameter, are the least that is required to characterize the crack width expected. 3.2 Tendon Profile in the Transverse. Direction 3.2.1 Top Flange , The transverse tendons in the bridge roadway slab should be placed with a spa- cing of s < 0,5 m and as small a radius as possible over the webs. Because vera a era b concrete cover to szliting tension top toee exc reinforcement Iter nonogressne spliting tension [ svironment-cazamm) —_feforeement nin. 4 944 z toe boundary SS produced by "| ‘enchoroge, emperoivre, shrinkage OETAIL a ort ercttent DETAIL b Staggering the tendons, especially in the case of a long contilever ~ clear space tor vibrotor sin zpqeteso4eh onG¢0p) “Sonn edition tong. teint. inthe case of deep webs or concreting in stages ige distonce long. prestessing fe tendon fendoos franaverse Onis ia Fgj--duct dometer ep tendon eccenticity in dict DETAILc Over the webs DETAIL d In the span Fig. 7 Principal reinforcement of a simple box girder85 Dimensioning and Detaling of the shallow depth of the top flange, a high degree of accuracy is required in placing the transverse tendons (Fig. 7). The position and height of the supports for the tendons must be exactly determined. The tendons must be carefully secured so that they are not displaced during the concreting. In most cases the lengths of the prestressing tendons are staggered in the cantilevered por- tion of the top flange by deflecting some of them downwards and anchoring them before they reach the end of the slab (Fig, 7, Detail 2), ‘The top flange should be so prestressed that the permanent loads of g + Py produce no moment in the webs. In Section 4-4 (Fig. 7), calculated tensile stresses due to prestressing at time t = 0 plus self-weight, g, can be allowed in the bottom fiber of the deck Slab such that o> fay, a8 they are reduced at time t = © by the dead load, go, plus the live load, q, and no aggressive road salt environment is to be expected in the inside of the box girder. Extremely large transverse tensile stresses occur in the top and bottom flanges of cable-stayed bridges (Fig. 8) for which the flanges must be nearly concen- trically prestressed. When the bridge section is suspended from both sides by cables however, this favourable influence reduces the need in most cases for @ box-girder section to that for a deck slab stiffened by transverse and longita- dinal ribs. hanger reinforcement for Zp Fequired —— tension === compression WITH CENTERLINE CABLES — wonsvere trate stesses usually neghgibne Gee alsorig. 19) Fig. 8 Transverse tension in the flanges of cable-stayed bridgesPrestressing 87 3.2.2 Prestressing of the webs Only in special cases for very heavily loaded webs such as when a parallel~ girder bridge has a bottom flange that is extremely heavy or is even’required to carry vehicle loads is a prestressing of the webs to be recommended (Fig. 9). To simplify the construction, the prestressing tendons in the webs should be placed vertically if possible. They must be grouted from below. 3,2, Bottom Flange The bottom flange is only transversely prestressed when it must handle vehicle loads, concentrated transfer of forces (see Section 3.4), or large transverse tensile stresses due to lateral distor- tions induced by the longitudinal pre- stressing tendons. In the first case, the tendons are placed as for the case = of a beam fixed at both ends (Fig. 9); in the other two, they are located con- centrically. Fig. 9 Prestressing tendon profile in a heavily loaded flange 3.3 Tendon Profile in the Longitudinal Direction Depending upon the construction method selected, quite special requirements emerge for the anchorages and couplings of the prestressing tendons. There- fore, no statements can be made here which are valid for all cases. ‘The longitudinal tendons should be placed in the top and bottom flanges 3f at all possible (see Section 3.3.2), a6 they greatly weaken the slender webs (Section 3.3.1). 3.3.1 In the Webs ‘The longitudinal prestressing tendons in the webs are generally placed such that their profile follows the shape of the bending moment diagram due to dead toads (Fig, 10), In the case of bridges with a curved alignment, the outside web ig given a higher prestress or the tendons are placed at a greater eccentricity jn order to counteract the torsional moments. The curvature of the tendons in plan should be given due consideration in this case. AWN Se a Se Sue YB . VE 05 %i he fate og anti) 0) anchoring Gt end of supersirucloe 1) cauping & overtop Fig. 10 Prestressing tendons in the web+ 88 Dimensioning and Detailing The anchorages of the tendons should be spaced as widely apart as their anchor cones permit at the bridge ends (Fig, 10a) and should be spread as far as possi- ble at the coupling points (Figs. 10b and 22a), The radius R of the prestressing tendons over the inner supports should on the one hand be as small as possible in order to convey the forces due to profile curvature directly into the support. On the other hand, this produces a rapid reduction in the longitudinal direction of the distance z from the compressive force in the concrete to the line of action of the tension force, the inner lever arm, With a large radius,however, tensile forces are produced in the lower fibre by the prestressing. ‘The draped longitudinai prestressing tendons should be complemented if possible by straight longitudinal tendons that amply overlap the points of zero bending moment but in any case with mild steel reinforcement that extend either at least 1.5 d beyond the calculated points of zero bending moment or if possible over the inner support. In case the tendons are deflected up at the end of the super- structure, the end support reaction must be carefully and safely diverted into the inclined compressive strut of the web by mild steel reinforcement duly ex- tended over the support (sce also Fig. 24a). For the design of the prestreseing tendon profile, its influence on the statically indeterminate bending moment M', as well as on M, = M°+M!, are shown in Fig, 11 for a 2-span beam, P pop factors Mp (kNm] tendon profile rodivs| exit or xil| Mb forest i 204-1 Riml Joe, Joty fag] EkNm) * = 0,6 0,09 4 430-P 0,27d osss | 267 |0.10] 0.46/06 | 0,70 -P a02-P 0.096 - 9; 145° P 93,3 10.20/04 ]06 | 0,55 -P - 0,98 =P 1.61. P 10,0 Jo05 ]o25 Joe | 1,01 -P - 0,80 -P eo | - | - | = 118-F-068-R, —_——L Fig. 11 Influence on of the prestressing tendon profile for a 2-span beam with 1/d ~18; ?P positive: Pye PPrestrassing 89 For those tendons placed in the web, the minimum allowable spacing of Fig. 12 applies as long as no other conditions are made for the particular tendons employed. ‘The prestressing ducts must be properly secured such that a sufficiontly large space is left for the placing and compacting of the concrete. avoid it possible. for often voids occur underneath the ducts bel minsOmm of Oy. min 50mm or i+ better 15-45, better 15-945 Fig. 12 Minimum spacings for duets (from [10], approx. as in (1]) ‘As the grout posseeses a smaller compressive strength than'the concrete and - as the duct is unfortunately often incompletely filled with the grout, the reduc- tion in the effective section due to the ducts should be considered in order to avoid failure of the web in compression, The reduced width of the web is, for ungrouted ducts, bred = Bo - Bduct 8nd, for fully grouted ducts, byeg* bo - 0.5 guct (from [1] ). With a duct diameter of Payor 0.2 web width, the higher localized compressive stresses remain within acceptable limits in the rest of the concrete cross-section according to [9] (Fig. 13a), According to [1], Pauet should be less than 0,125 - by. The forced flow of the web compressive stresses around the duct causes tranaverse tensile stresses which can lead to cracks in the concrete (Fig. 13b). Especially if the tendons are sharply bent in addition, stirrups of reinforcement mats (Fig. 14) may be necessary to avoid splitting of the concrete, yngrouted duct ior fly grouted ducts, the trons~ verse tensile stresses are smoller) —. tension =--- compression TET a) compressive stresses (according to the _b) transverse tensile stresses elastic theory) in the rest of the cross~ due to an ungrouted duct section, as related to the ratio of re- duction of the concrete section of the web a/b (from [9}) Fig. 13 Stresses in a web with duct90 Diriensioning and Detailing mot reinforcement tension transverse over a =-=- compression the tendon Fig. 14 Danger of concrete splitting along tendons in the web In order to avoid greatly weakened cross-sections due to ducts, the prestres- sing tendons can be concentrated along the sides of the webs and deflected at vertical ribs. This method will remain limited to very large bridges, however, It has the disadvantage that only after concreting the entire bridge can the brid. ge be prestressed [10] . 3.3.2 In the op and Bottom Flanges In very large box-girder bridges the longitudinal prestressing tendons are pre- ferably placed exclusively in the top and bottom flanges in order to keep the width of the webs small, This also applies to the construction phases of such construction methods as the cantilever method and the incremental launching method. In the case of cantilever construction, the tendons run straight through (Fig. 16) and the cross-section is increased in thickness at the coupling points. CROSS-SECTION LONGITUDINAL SECTION . RISES RSs 1 PLAN top flange Pay attention to the forces due to Profile curvature (transverse tension)! PLAN bottom flange Fig. 15 Prestressing tondon profiles in the top and bottom flanges for the cantilever method (from { 11] }Prostressing 1 PLAN bottom flange SECTION A-A constructitn joint Fig. 16 Prestressing tendons in the bottom flenge of an incrementally laun- ched bridge; similar details for the top flange (from [10]) If some tendona are left unbonded in the construction phase, this should be considered in the design.For this reason, it is important that the tendons be carefully grouted at the completion of construction. Without grouting there is no bond between the tendons and the concrete, and the load-carrying characteristics are altered. 3.4 Transfer of Concentrated Prestress Forces ‘The transfer of concentrated forces influences only a particular zone whose dimensions can be estimated according to the principle of de St. Vénant. It is to be recommended that a strut model with tension and compression members be developed for this zone which is oriented to correspond with the lines of principal stresses according to the elastic theory (12, 13] as determined for the particular statical and geometrical boundary conditions. Using this model and satisfying equilibrium, the magnitude of the forces in its members can be determined, The mild steel reinforcement for the tensile forces determined in this manner should be amply selected and finely distributed in order to limit the strains to be expected. This is economically acceptable since this rein- forcement comprises only a small portion of the entire reinforcement required, It is, however, important that the reinforcement be placed in the proper posi- tion. Figures 17 and 18 portray two examples. Details of this method and other examples can be found in[ 24}, In the case of anchorages within the superstructure as in Figure 18, or as in Fig. 7, Detail b for the transverse prestreasing tendons of the top flange, it is not necessary to design the hanger reinforcement for the elastically caleu- lated forces (e.g. Zg, Zg in Fig. 18), The redistribution of the inner forces from the soft tension members to the stiff compression members may be taken into account here. In[ 15Jit is recommended that a grid of reinforcement be added to the reinforcement at the anchorage with A, = 0.25 P/allow.a,. This can be reduced for the case of favourable compressive stresses ¢, produced by continuous prestressing tendons to red A, * (0,26. P-5-0,° A, /allow. o,. anchorage)Dimensioning and Detalting hoy Su te al Be. IND « peas LEX, | Te oP ieee Enis ET Seat eter Srgenet! He |r lo Fig. 17 Prestress tranafer into the web at an end support (from [14/} _F30 t 3 web Wickness 1 : = b) Coupling concreted c)Coupling with compressible gasket Fig. 21 Longitudinal stresses in a coupling joint, portrayed on an end-loaded plate with one tendonDimensioning of the Top and Bottom Flanges 95 4 t se from Lenser, — ‘racks ecross the bottom flange ‘ond in the joint with the web from 0, ur to. too small. dp a) Spreading the coupled tendons b) Tendon concentration leads over the entire depth of the web to cracking Fig, 22 Coupling joints with tendons in the webs LONGITUDINAL SECTION CROSS-SECTION B-B Bt oupler top tonge LLL RV SECTION A-A ge coupling of tendon Inthe Bottom tlonge Fig. 23 Coupling of tendons threaded through the web after hardening of the concrete for the incremental launching method; horizontal limit to the thickness of the anchorage block because of the inner formwork traveler (from [10]} Should the tendons be required only at the end of the construction stage and should they therefore be threaded through at completion of the superstructure, then inside anchorage blocks are needed at the position of overlap of the ten- dons (Fig. 23). 4, DIMENSIONING OF THE TOP AND BOTTOM FLANGES ‘The principal reinforcement is shown in Fig, 7. Normally the transverse rein- forcement is placed orthggonal to the longitudinal reinforcement, In the case of skewed bridges or those sharply curved in the horizontal, it can be more econo- mical to place the main reinforcement along the lines of the principal tensile stresses. The amount of reinforcement required when deviating from the direc- tion of the principal tensile stresses can be determined according to [18] orf 19). In designing the flange between the webs for partial loading in the longitudinal direction, it can be advantageous to make use of the fact that the flange supports itself through arching action against the cantilevered portion of the flange,95 Dimensioning and Datailing thereby creating compression stresses in the transverse direction [20]. Even if one does not exploit the arching effect, the cantilevered portions should be Provided with robust edge reinforcement at their ends (Fig. 7, Detail a). The connection of the top or bottom flange with the web should be determined from equilibrium conditions by means of a complete strut model which includes the webs as well (Fig, 24), With the transverse bending moments,m normally occurring in the flange simultaneously, its design can be based upon Section 5. 1, Fig. 27. cl At the end support i DIAL an intermedicte. support Fig. 24 Flow of forces (strut model near the support of a box-girder bridge ; from [21] [14} )Dimensioning and Reinforcement of the Webs 97 5, DIMENSIONING AND REINFORCEMENT OF THE WEBS 5.1 Dimensioning for Shear, Torsion and Transverse Bending ‘The webs of a box girder must not only handle shear but also torsion and trans- verse bending, According to[ 1], the "refined method" should be used to cal- culate the tension and compression strut forces occurring in the webs due to combined shear and torsion. The inclinations © (between 30° and 60°) of the web compression struts of the truss with parallel chords and the inclinations a (90° in most cases), of the web tension ties, i,e, the stirrups,are thereby selec- ted and their forees determined (Fig, 25). In checking the web compression stresses, the cross-sectional reduction of the webs by the prestressing ducta should be considered, especially for slender webs (see Section 3.3, 1), base lengihs fr the . forces in the wabs. 8 for 0 simple truss fg *F snBleal® + cota} ‘compression chord ¥ Jcompression forces in the web tension chord 2 =H-Llete-cta! Rime “ae Ficgre of shear tension forces [aienps. “E"SeTatearOoctar |f sees, o! inthe webs Tams all en Ze Ms tps "age? amen Al” acon Fig. 25 Definitions and forces in a parallel chord truss for bending and shear In the case of a simultaneous combination with a torsional moment,My, the equations of Fig, 25 should contain instead of V the value V*= V+T, with Te My 2/(2 Ay), If, as in the case of bridges constructed with the cantilever method, the com- pression chord is inclined, smaller tensile forces are produced for the deter- mination of the stirrups; but larger forces occur in the tension chord (Fig. 26). Up until now the stirrups were designed for Veg = V - M/z- tanB and the larger tensile force in the chord was not considered, as it was safely covered by the usual staggoring rules. To be consistent, however, the tension chord forces of Fig, 26 should be considered.98 Dimensioning and Detailing ze lawl t-cl8-ton ov. cot 8] ky Sv? ; Feat on bate | ST monn [etna] Yee Pine oe lt tonp ] HEIDE Ziygupgt Oe BH tor Fig. 26 Forces for the case of an inclined compression chord (from [22]) ‘The design of the web for trenaverse bending has up until now normally been carried out separately for shear and for torsion,and the reinforcement for each has been fully superimposed. However, by projecting the compression mem- bers out of the plane of the truss, the truss can take a certain amount of trans- verse bending without additional reinforcement. This, however, leads to high concrete compression stresses in the contained compression member at web begin, XN Bex Loven fforst-n8,, eo 82248, GiBox- girder web looded b) Tronsverse bending cl interaction d)Reference with Vand m in the wed, general diagram moment case ™o Fig. 27 Design for shear V and transverse bending m (from [23}) in [23] an interaction diagram with simplified assumptions is introduced (Figs. 2'7b and c) that allows a design for combined m and t . For the given shear stresstand ¢ = 0.5,(By = Br,), the largest transverse bending moment that can be handled without additional reinforcement is given below. This equa- tion is also valid for ¢> 0.5 (the selected reinforcement distribution, where = By/R and R = total force taken by the stirrups = By + Bg, * Zetirrups). im, Re BE T/tmax +25 -1)-B/b]Dimensioning and Reinforcement of the Webs 99 If for large transverse bending moments (¢+1) the actual moment a is greater than Mg" ‘DCR/s , the web width must be increased, Failure in compression is excluded if Ag . Fy < s- (b-b)+ fad y. a * 5,2 Web Reinforcement The principal reinforcement is shown in Fig. 7, For details see Fig..28 below, re en eR o bearing Sheatse ty al distance meosyred from here not from here 2) Upper region of the web b) Position of bearings (see also Fig. 7, Detailc) and reinforcement in the lower region of the web Fig. 28 Web reinforcement details In order to avoid spalling at the support, the bottom flange should be designed as shown in Fig. 28 b. ‘The stirrups are mostly vertical, Only for extremely large shear or torsion are they inclined,or the webs are prestressed (Fig. 9). ELEVATION CROSS-SECTION bearing Le inclined stirrups. on xk #3h stroyer vertical stirrups Foyer tongitu- layer inlined sirups N reint. {hooks placed longitudinal incl: Fig. 29 Special case of inclined stirrups and vertical reinforcement for large shear (from [10] )100 Dimensioning and Detaling 6, TRANSVERSE DIAPHRAGMS The reactions at the supports of box-girder bridges cannot be directly intro- duced into the webs in most cases and can also not be carried by means of transverse bending of the bottom flange (Fig, 30). In addition, often room bet- ween the bridge bearings must be provided for hydraulic jacks needed to re- place the bearings at a later time. The transverse diaphragm, which is favou- rable in stabilizing the cross-section under torsion anyway, can be used in solving this problem as well, The forces in the diaphragm can be simply de- termined with the truss analogy, whereby the transition between the truss of the diaphragm and that of the web (Fig. 24) must be maintained without a break (Figs. 31 to 35). With sufficient frame stiffness the torsional moment can be handled without a diaphragm bearing Fig. 30 Box girder without a transverse diaphragm with the bearings directly underneath the webs 7 daphioge into tbe ve ol Forces acting longitudinally b] Strut model 1c] Strut model 2 Fig. 31 Strut models in the region of the transverse diaphragm — tension ‘compression Fig. 32 Strut models for single columnsTransverse Diaphragms 101 Fig. 33 Forces at the abutment n secnon 1A r open gap : transverse ; reinforcement Fig. 34 Transverse diaphragm reinforcement w a a) Side support b) Middle support (Lahn-Bridge Limburg) Fig. 35 Detailing the hang-up reinforcement402 _Dimensioning and Detailing 7, ABUTMENTS, PIERS AND FOUNDATIONS while in the design phase, the abutment block-oute and connecting reinforce- rent to the roadway deck slab and pedestrian slabs can be properly planned in the construction sequence, ~ Allow for sufficient space on the pier cap for the Placement of jacks to replace the bridge bearings, - Carefully follow the transfer of forces from the superstructure into the Pier cap (Fig. 36) and from the base of the Pier into the foundation, ~ In earthquake regions connect the piers, superstructure, end foundations together so that they act as a unit under tensile forces. — tension =~ compression PSL D DA forzy | bj Fig. 36 Force transfer into the pier The following applies to the foundations: ~ Select ample foundation slab thicknesses in order to avoid stirrups or bent-up reinforcement if possible. ~ For pile foundations strive to achieve a continuous force flow from the Pier into the piles (see Fig. I, 65 a),Bridge Bearings 103 8. BRIDGE BEARINGS 8.1 Bearing Types Aside from the bridge expansion joints (see Section 9), the bridge bearings are the most sensitive elements of the entire bridge. Therefore only tested and ppproved bearings may be used. They must be carofully eclected according to the magnitude of the anticipated loads and the required rotation and movement to be accommodated by them. They can be of steel (Fig. 37a) tn the form of pad eat, bearing or of an elastomeric polymer in the form of a plain elastomer pad or a steel and elastomer laminated pad bearing (Fig, 37b) oc in the form of a pot bearing (Fig. 87¢), an extensively used form today. Not to be for- Bolten is the conerete hinge (Fig, 37d), which is completely maintenance-free and long-lasting. Bridge bearings are comprehensively handled in [24] , CL Sees 0} Roller bearing 5) Lominated ‘elastomeric padcntned {1 Neoprene pol sliding bearing 1 Concrete hinge, oecommadating rotation in one dieclion bul no movement Pig. 37 Examples of bridge bearing types 8 Installation and tenance For the installation, inspection, and maintenance of the bearings the following points should be kept in mind: ~ Bearings function properly only if installed accurately as to elevation, incli- nation, and orientation (Fig. 38). > Plug instead of grout the gap between the bearing and the support > The bearings must be well protected from corrosion, Use non-rusting bolts, ~ The bearings should be accessible and capable of being replaced104 Dimensioning and Detailing clamping nut bearing plate nS ‘=. damp mortar * plug hammered oduct % into place the . Ye elevation (A . 4 bolf “sheath an bolt set out £ with template oY ond: goncreted Pig, 88 Adjust the bearing on concreted bolts with the set nuts and then hammer in the damp mortar plug (from'[ 10] ) 8.3 Design of Bearings ‘The bridge bearings must handle vertical and horizontal forces, rotation, and movement. In addition to the vertical forces acting on the bearings from the superstructure and the horizontal forces due to wind and vehicle braking, con- sideration must especially be given to fixed bearings with regard to forces re- sulting from inclined columns (Fig, 39). LaJAlL due to temperature Fig. 39 Forces on bearings due to inclined columns ‘The expected bearing movements and rotations must be determined very care- fully in conjunction with the construction sequence (Fig. 40) and should always be increased by an appropriate factor of safety. The movements depend upon the distance between the bearing under consideration and the fixed point, The causes of such movements can be summarized as follows: ~ shrinkage ¢,% 0,2 % Pp - prestress; elastic portion: ¢,” et An’ BE : seeds Plastic portion: 6.1 = @a: Gy 2 = oa) - temperature eyp "aq | AT with aT = + 35°C, proceeding from a construction = 1075 temperature of + 10°C (depen- or ding upon the country)Bridga Bearings ° 105 © © © © © N, xed Yixed point fixed “for constr. section | at end of sty, section construction: construction section 1 section 2 Lt. GD esse noe presernshntoy, —-Q teneraire nnd | cmos ot be HA bo a coe ey) am ie wa, JAT, 2-60" qu ‘creeplin 2 ports| PR Ba, Ae 8) teoprcnan ee " wsoprote [= y Ly ain a -® —-+— « Fig. 40 Sequence of bearing movements at support C and the determination of the expected movement; Bridge constructed in sections with a change in the position of the fixed point (from [25}) For a bridge with curved alignment, the direction of the movements due to the individual influences varies (Fig. 41). In order to simplify the bearing and expansion joint details, the movements should only be allowed to occur tan- gentially to the bridge, whereby the free movements of Fig. 41 must be cance- led by the restraint stress resultants (see Fig. I, 56). ESS \, [=srintoge ong tenpeotore | ong. rstrosng fe 0 cin tom etre Fe eee ty : S rR ge itera .& errs ers) Death -e) wr jafter fe Fp eed Pot a ° » arte esa Ty Fig. 41 Curved bridge movements (from [261 }108. Dimonsioning and Detailing 9, BRIDGE FINISHES ‘The bridge expansion joints, the roadway surfacing, the guard rails, and the drainage system should be carefully designed and constructed, as they consi-- derably influence the quality and life of a bridge, Seemingly minor defects, such as an improperly sealed roadway surface, can lead to extensive damages, i.e, corrosion of the reinforcement in this example, 9.1 Expansion Joints Expansion joints are necessary where longitudinal and gradient differences bet- ween bridge sections or between the bridge and the abutment must be compen- sated. They are the most important wearing components of the bridge and the most perceptible mark of quality for the driver of a vehicle, That is why cost should not be a factor of consideration here, Because of the heavy loadings en- countered by them, the following points should be observed: - The joint should be built robust and as nearly watertight as possible. - ‘The best and most durable should be selected. - The joint should be carefully mounted, - The joint should be installed exactly on the level with the roadway surface, Fig, 42 shows an expansion joint example for each of the cases of small, me- dium, and large movement accomodation. super- P10 min PETE gn 25 FE 20 max_obutment 2 f Tl BA 4 ey: RRR iGrictal RRR Wires SRG 300 300 ‘onchor 920 «250 —e ff — a) Joint for small movements b) Joint for medium movements (up to 30 mm} {90 to 180 mm) transverse conection c) Joint for very large movements (up to 3 000 mm) Fig. 42 Expansion joints (from { 10] )Bridge Finishes 101 9.2 Bridge Railing ‘The design of the bridge guard railing as well as the necessary distance bet- ween the roadway, guard rail, and railing are normally standardized and vary from country to country (Fig. 43). bituminous concrete osphatt seoling membrane bonding agent mastic soho ‘pervious polymer mambrane mineralizet Fig. 43 Bridge railing and roadway surfacing (German standard detail, from [10] or [27]) Roadway Surface Particular problems in bridge construction, encountered mainly in countries which frequently employ road salt, are the sealing of the top slab against cor- rosion and the roadway surfacing, On the one hand, the capillary water in the conerete must be able to escape, and on the other hand, aggressive water must not be allowed to reach the structural concrete. That is the reason for placing a sealing membrane on top of the structural concrete (Fig. 43). The roadway surfacing serving as protection for the sealant, should be as durable, strong, and impermeable as possible. The wearing surface must also be non- skidding and abrasion-resistant. Asphalt and bituminous concrete have pro- ven themselves as materials to be recommended (Fig. 43). Concrete surfa- cing is only suitable for countries not experiencing frost and only with a cover to the top reinforcement of at least 40 mm and a reinforcement that limits the crack widths to 0,1 mm. Drainage Sufficient transverse gradient should be provided (see Section I, 4.3.3) so that the rainwater flows naturally towards the sides of the roadway and is carried away at an appropriate distance from the piers and abutmente (Fig. 44), In the case that vehicle traffic areas are located underneath the bridge, the water should be carried away through the piers or abutments into the drainage net- work as shown in Fig, 45 and 46 according to a carefully designed drainage plan, Under no circumstances may the water be allowed to collect in the box- girder, ‘The necessary number of drain inlets depends upon the longitudinal gradient of the bridge. The collection area for a normal drain inlet with a pipe of 150 mm diameter should be smaller than 400 m?. Intervals are thereby arrived at of from 5 m (0,2 % longitudinal gradient) to a maximum of 25 m (1 % gra- dient). The longitudinal gradient of the drain must be at least 5%.408 Dimensioning and Detailing minimum thickness t> 330mm Pig. 44 Bridge drain inlet with Fig. 45 Bridge drain inlet with vertical drain and disperser side drain Me a ” Fig. 46 Drainage within the box girder 10, LITERATURE CEn/FIP, Model Code for Concrete Structures: 1878 ee ore inet ee nlructures hyporstatiqes, rapport géabra: CEB, Eulalia tnformetton Ne. + oo ee oe Shion for elmplified design haut ches of eompeHbuity: CEM, Pollan tnformation 105: 3976 THOR UAE'S cumcLER, W,: Planlecne Berecinongamsthoden: Verlnungemasuntron, ETH Zach. AP 3 UURLIMAN, Br! Plastic analyois of reinforced concrete beame: TABSE Colloquium Kopentiagen, Inrodsctory Report: 1973, wants aman, C., MULLER, A: Punto aptrimontle do cmpartemeat dex dae cote or sais sme EE Ee Mt aon ion iheron du laillt toe plac ISEACO Mo, 88-4, Laceanne; 1078 2 LRN EaR Togensden an Betonbrocken ~ Ureashen und Abit; Boton- nd Stehbetonbat, Hel 2: Verio "W. rnat & Sohn, Barling 1979 a BACHNUAMA NY Pedivelne Voreportng: Exfanrungen in der Senwelz und Fragen der Bemeshung: Beton und Saheln bron Woft 2: Veriog W, Ernst & Sohn, Berlin: 1900 ox eS RSTO SS "ivngtnignlt ut enctgen Drvck von Brockentagen, die Auren Nalrshre geechwcht ‘ind: Techn, Univeratist Braunsehwetg; 1978 to ueowittions f: Worlesuraen ber Mossivoas, ‘Te ¢; Springer Veriog, Berlin-Meigelberg New Yor enna Tees ter tele vovbeu, ein bovanctee Bauverfahren (tr Sparaonbriskon: Potash WU, Pinstervalder, Dywaag Wanchens 1973 12 SANGIOUS, Ml Toupliugerafte am Endauflager vorgespannter Betonbalks ‘Berlin: 1061 13 KAMIEGLMER. 3., SCHNEIDER, J. Arbeitmmnteringo for dle Berachnong vorgsepsnater Konetruktionss, ‘Ra-Verlag, Rappevswil: 1974 14 SCHLMGH, 92, WEISCHEDE, D.: Manual for Detailing of Con 38 BIBL, 5, IVARYL, G.: Innenverauierung von Sponncliedern jeriin: 1973 te SounREt 27 annungeumtogorungeninfoigeseiiabbangigen Detonverhaltens In Koppert sbectny ers ise MBS” Maer apa aekar Beton. v, stahivetonbea, Helt &, Verlag W. Exnat & Sohn, Berlin; ‘973 ty aun a ORLA. Bee Beltray nav Ermliung dee Speshungen in Kopocttogen faldncine soe, Oren oT og COMER B netosbrdken, Beton us Staklbetonbav, Hatt 12, Verlag W. Eenat & Sohn, Bove ta mati ttatendes Senne pogorniee Aomehrungenetze belleiger Rlenung ln Fiacentragrerken ave Stanieton: arin Sianmanion, Hef 20; Verieg W. Ernat & Sonn, Berlin, 1972 2 Sa enekscng von Flachentrogorken; Beton~ u. Stanibetonbon, W. 7:2204 22 RUT, Be Zur Date 2 a tn aurehtaufendén Stanibotoplaten: Beton v,Stabetanbas, Heft 1 6125 158 2 SCHLAICHL, 3: Gewplpewtlioot oy Qrerblogung in Druck und Zaplanachen Yor Stanbetonblken: evs Berleht Nr: 0, (und Kepotraktion, ETH Zirfehs 1978 SUCHINGER, P| Torsion, Blegung und Schub In Stahibetonh eipt ace lantitates for Bavateik und Kenatruktion, ETH Zarich; 1975, 23 THORLIMARN, D.: Serboomensung bel Querbiegone: Sch 3h ROOERT, H.. GROTE, J., KAUSCHKE, W.: Lager im Bauwe Te RAMLWES,KsLagerung und Lager von DauverkeesBetankalender:Veriag W Fe ane akeubau 1, Vorlesengamanuskript, Abt 1. Bauingentourwesen, PTH Zorich: 1079 3) RGNOPEGEM.d “BmiteChungetendensen im Fahrbannanfoe von Betonbrtsl igemelnschatl der Bitumen-lndasteie eV, ,Homburg3078 javtechath, Meft 2; Verlag W. Exart & Soha, Structurer: CRB-ulltiy ip Vorberolton Se ora Hah Merlag We Ett & Sob,