562
Movable
Extruder
Cooling Tank
Can Be
Vacuum or No
Vacuum
Figure 49.2 Schematic of equipment used in profile extrusion.
Figure 49.2 shows a profile line with an extruder,
cooling tank, puller, movable saw to cut the product,
and product packaging. The cooling tank can be
a vacuum calibration tank or a cooling tank without
vacuum, depending on the profile being produced.
The movable saw can be replaced with an on-demand
rotary cutter or guillotine cutter; as with the cali-
bration and sizing tank, the cutter required depends
on the profile size and the material.
We will now cover the equipment used in profile
extrusion and its operation from the die through the
end of the line.
49.1 Die
One of the keys to successful profile extrusion is
combining of good profile cross-sectional designs
with a good die design. Frequently, die designing for
profile extrusion is done using trial and error methods
in-house by the company producing the profile.
A good die designer can machine the correct die
shape to produce the specified profile in three to four
die cuttings or modifications, whereas an inexperi-
enced die designer may have to machine seven to
eight dies to obtain the desired profile. Some
companies specialize in computer-aided die designs
based on computer modeling. With the desired
profile cross-section defined, the rheological param-
eters (viscosity versus shear rate, extension modulus,
Figure 49.3 Comparison of
profiles with uniform versus Poor
nonuniform cross-sections. Designs
Good
Designs
E XTRUSION
Saw
Stack
Product
Puller
and flow modulus) for the resin and the throughput
rate, computer programs can design the die cross-
section required, while predicting the pressure drops,
melt temperature, and flow profiles within the die.
The die has to be properly designed to have
a uniform flow and pressure drops in all the legs of
the profile. Improperly designed dies can lead to
severe warpage problems associated with the
profiles. Higher polymer flow rates in one section of
the die compared to that in another will result in
different molecular orientations. This causes
different shrinkage characteristics from one section
to the other. The melt temperature in all channels
needs to be similar to prevent one profile section from
being hotter than another. This can lead to differential
cooling outside the die and differential shrinkage and
warpage. Another factor that can lead to warpage in
the final part is different molecular packing in one
part of the die versus that in another part, attributed to
a higher die pressure in one area compared to that in
another. Part areas with a higher molecular packing
produce less shrinkage compared to that in other part
sections. These factors are normally grouped under
a general heading of internal stresses in the final part.
Nonuniform internal stresses can cause warpage in
the final profile because the shrinkage is different
between one profile section relative to another.
Polymer melt pressure and flow in the various die
sections can be kept constant through uniform wall
thickness and proper design. Figure 49.3 shows some
49: P ROFILE E XTRUSION 563

different cross-sections with two different geome- Sink

tries, one being preferred over the other. In all cases,
the preferred geometry has a uniform wall thickness
around the entire part. Depending on the profile,
a constant wall thickness over the entire part is not Profile
always possible. The resistance to flow in a die Desired with
channel is given by Eqn (49.1): Profile Sink

DP
R ¼ (49.1)
hQ
Die Profile to
where Compensate for
Sink
R ¼ Resistance to flow
DP ¼ Pressure drop
h ¼ Melt viscosity Figure 49.4 Effect of sink and die modification to
Q ¼ Volumetric throughput rate eliminate sink.

Since the volumetric throughput of the different a rib that is readily visible. Figure 49.4 shows
channels has to be constant to prevent warpage, a T-type profile and the corresponding sink mark.
Q1 ¼ Q2 ¼ Q3 ¼ . Qn. If the melt temperature is the Elimination of the sink mark in the final part is
same and the shear rates are similar, the melt accomplished by making the area opposite the rib
viscosity in the different channels will be the same. slightly thicker, so that with shrinkage it has the same
This leaves the pressure drop to balance the resis- thickness as the rest of the profile does. The profiles
tance in each section or leg of the die. The pressure shown in Figures 49.3 and 49.4 should have radii on
drop is calculated from Eqn (49.2): all the inner angles. In addition, the die profile shown
in Figure 49.4 has to be cut differently than the part
profile to get flat sections on each leg. Stress relax-
2sl
DP ¼ (49.2) ation as the polymer molecules exit the die land area
h and are no longer bound by the die causes the
extrudate to swell. This extrudate swell phenomenon
where
is commonly and incorrectly called die swell.
Extrudate swell, discussed previously in Part 1, is
s ¼ Shear stress ¼ force/area
attributed to the elastic portion of the viscoelastic
l ¼ Channel length
behavior that makes the polymer want to spring back
h ¼ Channel height.
after the polymer exits the die. In the die land area,
the polymer flow simulates the plug flow in a pipe,
If the cross-sectional area of each output section or
where the polymer velocity at the wall is zero. After
leg is the same, the pressure drop in each leg will be
the polymer exits the die, the velocity profile is the
identical, assuming that the rest of the die has
same at the surface as it is in the center. This is shown
a uniform melt flow. To change the flow resistance in
in Figure 49.5. Extrudate swell requires the die to be
different legs, the land length is modified, making it
cut differently than the actual profile desired.
longer in thicker profile sections and shorter in
thinner profile sections to produce equivalent pres-
sure drops. If it is possible, it is better to maintain
a uniform wall thickness in all areas of the profile.
Sink marks opposite ribs are eliminated with a part
design. Sink is caused by shrinkage. Extruded
profiles with thicker cross-sectional areas shrink
more due to the higher mass than do adjoining
thinner areas. This creates an imperfection opposite Figure 49.5 Extrudate swell as polymer exits die.
564
Die
Figure 49.6 Die configuration to produce a square
profile.
Figure 49.6 shows the profile that occurs when
a square exit is used and the die configuration needed
to produce a square profile.
A proper die design is required to produce uniform
parts at high rates without warpage. Design criteria
include the following:

Thicker walls require more time for cooling,
leading to lower production rates. Calculate
the wall thickness required based on the pro-
duct performance requirements. The ideal wall
thickness is approximately 0.03e0.12 in.
(0.7e3.0 mm).

Wall thickness can be reduced and can still
provide the same stiffness with the incorporation
of ribs on the back side or the use of corrugated
structures.

Uneven wall thicknesses lead to an uneven flow
in the die and differential profile cooling that can
lead to warpage, bow, and twist in the final part.
If more than one wall thickness is present in the
part, make a gradual transition from one wall
thickness to the next.

Ribs lead to sink marks caused by the extra mass
and the polymer shrinkage. Eliminating sink
marks can be accomplished by building the
profile up opposite the rib or making the rib
smaller so that there is less material. In any
event, generous radii between the rib and the
rest of the parts are required to provide the
necessary strength.

All inner and outer corners need to be designed
with proper radii, eliminating sharp corners.
Sharp corners generate high stress areas that
can cause premature part failure.

Eliminate through holes in the profile wherever
possible; these are expensive from both a tooling
E XTRUSION
perspective and the potential need for vacuum
sizing. It is better to have through holes in
a profile than uneven wall thicknesses. Uneven
walls can lead to more significant processing
problems.
A profile die is attached to the extruder with an
adapter that funnels the melt to a die cross-section
that is slightly larger than the profile cross-section.
Three die designs are used, depending on the
production run length and the polymer being
processed:

Flat back

Semistreamlined

Streamlined
Flat back dies are used for low-volume or proto-
type runs that last four to six hours. A flat back die is
a flat plate with the desired profile cut into its center
and mounted to a round tube that conveys the molten
polymer from the extruder. The die plate is flat on the
side facing the extruder and is bolted directly onto the
tube comprising the die body. The disadvantages
associated with a flat plate die are dead spaces in the
die body around the front plate, where molten poly-
mer can stagnate and degrade, and poor flow patterns
within the die body. A semistreamlined die, shown in
Figure 49.7, has a tapered channel in the die body
Flat Plate Die
Recess for
Breaker Die Face
Plate Polymer
Melt
Channel
Profile
Figure 49.7 Semistreamlined die.
that compresses the polymer flow as it approaches the
die plate. Although dead and stagnate places are still
present, the area where polymer degradation can
occur is greatly reduced. The best die has a stream-
lined polymer melt channel that leads directly to the
land area with no dead spots for polymer stagnation
and degradation. There is no dead space within the
die where polymer can hang up or stagnate and
degrade over time. The die is designed to produce
a uniform flow velocity in all the channels with less
extrudate swell and melt fracture. Streamlined dies
49: P ROFILE E XTRUSION 565

are used in long production runs where polymer best way to establish the land length is to provide
cannot be allowed to degrade. Obviously, semi- sufficient land to generate 1000e1500 psi across the
streamlined dies are somewhere between the two die land.
extremes. Some dies are made with inserts allowing Drawdown ratio is the draw between the die and
different shapes or slight modifications of a basic the final shape. As polymer exits the die, it is drawn
profile to be made more easily. by the puller and shaped by a sizing device to
Key factors in die design are the land length and produce the desired shape. The draw determines the
the drawdown ratio. The land length is defined as the final molecular orientation in the part and the product
uniform flow channel just prior to the die exit. The performance. Higher draw ratios yield higher prop-
land lengths within the die determine the flow resis- erties in the machine direction and lower properties
tance for the different profile sections or channels. in the transverse direction. With a specific cross-
Thinner profile sections require less land length than section, the throughput rate is matched to one puller
do thicker sections in the profile to produce the same speed to produce the desired profile dimensions.
flow resistance. Longer land lengths are used to Increasing or decreasing the puller speed results in
produce profiles with a higher gloss. The proper land the part being too small or too large. Table 49.1
length depends on the die gap, the orifice area, flow provides some drawdown ratio guidelines. The
rates, melt viscosity, and the optimum pressure for drawdown ratio in a particular operation depends on
the die and extruder. Just selecting the land length as the profile and the performance criteria. Since most
some multiple of the gap (assume 10, 20, or 30 times profile dies do not have adjustable lips, the cutting of
the gap) ignores the factors that are critical in a given the die determines the draw. If a different draw is
die and profile. Die land lengths are recommended by required to obtain the correct profile, a new die
resin manufacturers, and some guidelines are generally has to be cut. This is one reason why three
provided in Table 49.1 [1]. These should be consid- or four dies may be cut to produce the correct profile
ered as guidelines only, as each die is different. The dimensions and a final part that meets all the
customer specifications.
Die temperature control is another key variable
Table 49.1 Recommended Drawdown Ratios and affecting the profile and uniformity. The die has to
Land Lengths have uniform heat to provide a uniform melt
viscosity across the entire profile. Large profiles may
Die Land
require insulation around the die to maintain uniform
Material Length* Drawdown, %
die temperature. The die face may be a large area
LDPE 15:1 30 with only a single heater band around the outside
MDPE 15:1 25 edge to maintain the temperature. Changes in die
HDPE 15:1 20 temperature affect the melt temperature, with high
temperatures producing lower melt viscosities.
PP 15:1 30
Many profile dies are required due to the large
PPVC 15:1 5e25 variety of cross-sections produced. Compared to
UPVC 20:1 4e10 other extrusion processes, there are more tricks to the
GPS 20:1 8e20 trade and art involved, rather than science, in profile
extrusion. In addition to the many profiles and resins
ABS 25:1 25 used in profile extrusion, the process is further
Nylon 6,6 20:1 15e20 complicated by adding regrind or using regrind for
Nylon 6 20:1 20 the entire profile. Regrind is used to extend the resin
PC 10:1 15e25
in many applications. Figure 49.8 shows an Amer-
Ò
ican Maplan Corporation [2] single screw extruder
Noryl 20:1 25e40 producing tubing with a secondary extruder adding
LDPE, low-density polyethylene; HDPE, high-density polyethylene; a stripe to the tube and a calibration tank to properly
PP, polypropylene; ABS, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene; PC, size the tube.
polycarbonate; PPVC, plasticized polyvinyl chloride; UPVC,
Die construction is usually made of 4140, 420, or
unplasticized polyvinyl chloride; MDPE, medium density poly-
ethylene; GPS, general purpose styrene 17-4 PH steel. All the three steels have a similar
*Land length to thickness ratio. Rockwell hardness, but 4140 has a poor corrosion
566
Figure 49.8 American Maplan Feed Hopper Extruder 2
profile coextrusion line with
tubing die, stripper extruder, and
vacuum sizing tank.
Vacuum
Sizing Tank
Screen Changer
resistance, with 420 having excellent corrosion
resistance and 17-4 PH falling in the middle. 4140
and 420 can be hardened by heat treating and
quenching. 17-4 PH is not practical for applications
>600  F (316  C) because it gets embrittled. For
high gloss finish, the die land area is highly polished
or can be chrome or nickel plated. Polishing to a very
low microroughness or plating with chrome or nickel
leads to extra expenses.
49.2 Calibration and Cooling Tank
Cooling and sizing or calibration is used to set the
part dimensions while preventing the part from
warping and twisting. Part fixtures or sizing depends
on the part complexity. The simplest setup has
adjustable metal fingers shaping the soft polymer as it
exits the die, with fans blowing air on the profile to
cool it. The profile may be supported by wood forms
or by a metal rack. Although this is the simplest way
to cool a profile, it is also the most inaccurate,
producing profiles with very low dimensional toler-
ances. For thermoplastics generally, more intricate
sizing fixtures or calibrators are used with complex
shapes in calibration tanks. The sizing unit may be
a long metal fixture containing the desired profile
shape where the molten polymer is pulled through
and allowed to solidify, possibly in a water environ-
ment. As the part exits the die, it passes through
a small air space and into the sizing unit or calibrator
where it is cooled with air or water spray, flooded
with water, or goes through a metal calibrator with
circulating water and a heat exchanger to freeze or
solidify the part to its final dimensions.
E XTRUSION
Profile Die to Produce
a Tube with a Second
Single
Extruder to Add a
Screw
Stripe
Extruder
Automatic
Air cooling can be used for simple shapes where
tolerances are relatively unimportant. Metal fingers
and jigs are used to bend or shape the profile to the
desired configuration. One advantage of air cooling is
that it is relatively slow; consequently, there is
sufficient time to alter the profile with jigs to freeze it
in the desired configuration. This is a quick approach
to use with small simple profiles that do not have
critical dimensions, such as thin flat stock, vertical
blinds, U- or T-shaped profile. The most important
criteria in these applications are a uniform melt
temperature, good melt strength, and uniform cooling
around the entire part. Air is directed onto the profile
with adjustable position nozzles mounted at the
beginning of the cooling section as the profile exits
the die. Uniform cooling is required to eliminate
warpage and twisting associated with differential
shrinkage. Assuming the flow from the die is uniform
and the profile is not being dragged across a surface
in the cooling operation, profile bowing, or twisting
is frequently caused by nonuniform cooling. The
profile will bend or cup toward the hot surface or the
side that cooled last. This fact helps identify the
causes and the proper corrective actions to take in
modifying the cooling operation.
Water cooling begins when the profile enters
a bath below the water level and enters a fixture to
size and hold the profile during cooling. The profile
may pass through a ring spraying water on all sides
simultaneously or water nozzles prior to entering the
water tank. Water cooling is very efficient, is good for
short runs, and may suffer in repeatability between
short runs, depending on the fixture quality, its
location, and the operator skill. Options available are
49: P ROFILE E XTRUSION
the tank length; the number of chambers in the tank;
whether the water is applied in the form of a mist or
spray, flood, or a combination of both in different
parts of the chamber; temperature of the water (hot or
cold); self-contained recirculation systems; and heat
exchanger.
A more sophisticated cooling system is vacuum
sizing or calibration under water, where a hollow
profile, whether round or square, exits the die and
enters a sizing or calibration unit in an underwater
vacuum tank. The water acts as a lubricant in the
calibrator. Lower vacuum pressure enables the air in
the hollow profile to expand uniformly outward until
it comes into contact with the sizing sleeve or cali-
brator to produce the desired external dimension.
Vacuum sizing units may have several compartments
where the vacuum level can be adjusted, and the
water can either surround the profile or be sprayed on
it at different temperatures. Normally, the highest
vacuum is in the first compartment, where the poly-
mer is being expanded to the maximum amount as
the surface skin forms. Initially, the profile will be
larger than the final dimensional requirements to
accommodate the polymer shrinkage as the polymer
cools completely to room temperature. Figure 49.9
shows a vacuum sizing tank produced by Boston
Matthews [3]. All tanks are fitted with lifters and
adjustments allowing the tank to be moved horizon-
tally toward or away from the profile as it exits the
die. The profile enters the tank passing down through
the various compartments and exiting through the
opposite end after it has been solidified in the correct
cross-section. Options available on most sizing tanks
567
include heat exchanger, full spray cooling compart-
ments, water circulation system, multiple compart-
ments, vacuum pumps, additional vacuum or water
manifolds to attach external calibration units for
initial sizing, additional vacuum and water ports that
can be connected to calibrators inside the vacuum
tank, and uniform water or spray temperature.
Dry vacuum calibration is used to size complex,
rigid shapes requiring a high dimensional precision
and accuracy, such as window profiles. One or more
calibrators or sizing fixtures are used with
a secondary spray cooling tank. Enough heat is
dissipated in the calibrator to hold the profile
dimensions after exiting the calibrator, even though
additional profile shrinkage occurs as the profile
cools to room temperature. Calibrators can be made
of aluminum, steel, or stainless steel. Cast aluminum
calibrators may have steel inserts machined to the
desired profile shape to extend the wear life of the
calibrator. Aluminum is inexpensive and easy to
machine, but the wear surface has to be hardened to
extend its life. If a calibrator is going to be used in
high-volume production, stainless steel is the mate-
rial of choice. The calibrator surfaces can be highly
polished or chrome or nickel plated to improve the
Figure 49.9 A vacuum sizing tank
produced by Boston Matthews.
Source: Boston Matthews, Incorporated,
36 Oak Street, Norwood, NJ.
profile surface. One of the most important factors is
the calibrator length. It has to be sufficiently long to
provide enough cooling to hold the dimensions while
running at high throughput rates. Once the profile
exits the calibrator, it is cooled further with water
spray. For cooling, the calibrator body has water
channels to circulate water through the calibrator and
a heat exchanger to remove the heat from the
568
circulating water. The calibrator may also contain
vacuum connections where a vacuum source can be
connected to the calibrator to expand hollow profiles.
The calibrator can be mounted on a calibration
table where the water and vacuum lines are con-
nected to the calibrator. After exiting the cali-
brator, the profile may pass through an additional
cooling tank. Alternatively, the calibrator may be
placed on a table that is in the first calibration tank
section. The hoses and vacuum lines are connected
to the calibrator with the lines going to a manifold
that can be quickly connected and disconnected
through individual couplings. Manifold systems
with individual flow control valves and vacuum
gauges with quick disconnect couplings allow
calibrator tooling to be changed quickly. Most
calibration tables have their own self-contained
vacuum system and water recirculation system
with heat exchanger to provide both uniform
vacuum and constant water temperature and flow.
Figure 49.10 shows the water and vacuum mani-
Figure 49.10 An ESI vacuum sizing
tank.
Source: Extrusion Services, Incorporated,
850 Moe Drive, Akron, OH.
folds on the calibration table prior to the spray unit
that is enclosed in a tank. The equipment in
Figure 49.10 is supplied by Extrusion Services
Incorporated (ESI) [4]. The first part of the unit is
where the dry calibrator is located, with water and
vacuum lines going from the manifold on the
calibrator table to the tooling. In the second part of
the tank, a water spray or additional calibrators are
used to fix the part geometry as the profile is being
cooled to room temperature.
E XTRUSION
The calibration table can be moved up or down, or
from side to side, to align the calibrator with the
extrusion die and the downstream equipment. A good
calibration table is required with high-tolerance parts
to guarantee that the profile meets the final dimension
specifications. The process should not be speed
limited by the calibration unit length or its ability to
hold dimensions. Although the calibration unit is
expensive in comparison to the extruder, die, and raw
materials, it is a relatively inexpensive part of the
production line. Profile rate limitation by either
cooling capacity or the ability to hold dimensions
established by the calibrator is a problem that is
normally easily corrected. At high rates, the cali-
brator in complex profiles may be 5 ft long, or
multiple calibrators with different cooling along the
way may be required to produce a suitable profile at
high throughput rates in good yield. Calibrators may
operate at slightly lower throughput rates compared
to either sizing units or air cooling because of the
higher friction between the calibrator surface and the
moving profile. This is more than compensated for
with improved dimensional precision.
Conair [5] has introduced supercold nitrogen gas
to cool parts more rapidly in less space than water
does. Since cooling is quicker, line speeds can be
increased and calibrators and cooling tanks short-
ened. Liquid nitrogen is converted to a chilled gas,
and it is circulated around the profile at rates up to
2000 cfm. The liquid nitrogen itself never comes into
contact with the hot extruded profile, preventing
49: P ROFILE E XTRUSION 569

thermal shock from altering the material perfor-
mance. Liquid nitrogen is converted to gas when it
enters the cooling chamber, expanding rapidly to
replace any room air. The chilled nitrogen gas is
circulated with a high-velocity blower around the
extrudate, producing turbulent air flow, aiding the
heat transfer from the extruded profile. Temperatures
in the cooling zones can be controlled between 300
and 75  F (184 to 24  C). Multiple cooling zones
can be used during calibration and cooling to opti-
mize the process efficiency. Nitrogen cooling has
been successfully used to cool window, fence, and
tubing profiles in less space at higher throughput
rates.
Since all thermoplastics shrink on cooling, the die
has to be properly cut and the calibrator properly
sized to allow for shrinkage as the product cools to
room temperature. Additional shrinkage occurs with
cooling and postcrystallization if the profile is not
completely cooled down to room temperature before
it is cut. Shrinkage is balanced with the drawdown to
ensure the correct dimensions in the final part.

Cellular polyurethane has very high abrasion
resistance.
Other belt materials are available; belts need to be
fit to the application. Belts are available with varying
hardness, abrasion resistance, and coefficient of fric-
tion or gripping abilities. Pullers come in widths and
lengths ranging from 4.5 to 12 in. (114e305 mm) and
from 2.5 to 12 ft (760e3050 mm), respectively. The
belt size required depends on the profile dimensions,
with larger, wider profiles requiring wider and longer
caterpillar belts. Longer puller lengths allow the
profile to be gripped with less pressure, minimizing
profile distortion while still providing enough pulling
power to pull the profile uniformly through the cali-
brator and sizing fixtures. Figure 49.11 shows a puller

49.3 Puller
The puller or haul-off unit pulls the product from
the die through the calibrator or sizing tank at
a constant rate with the correct drawdown ratio to
produce the proper dimensions. Caterpillar-type
pullers come with a wide selection of belt materials
and styles for different profiles. Pressure applied by
the puller has to pull the profile at uniform speed
regardless of the tension created by the calibration
process, without crushing or distorting the profile in
any way. Flat belts are used with flexible profiles,
rigid profiles where sophisticated calibrators are not
required, and tubing. Various belt materials have
different properties:

Natural gum rubber used for smooth extrudates

where a high grip surface is required.

Cellular neoprene provides a good gripping
surface where high abrasion resistance is
required.

Silicone rubber that has good high temperature
resistance.

EPDM is good for high temperature resistance.

Latex rubber has good frictional characteristics.

Solid neoprene is hard with good resiliency and
is nonmarking.
Figure 49.11 Conair puller.
Source: The Conair Group, One Conair Drive, Pittsburgh, PA.
with a flat belt produced by Conair [6]. Custom
profilers prefer to use belt pullers due to their flexi-
bility and ease of operation.
The motor and drive control are related to cost, the
speed range required, and the ability of the drive to