THEODOLITE TRAVERSING

The Theodolite:
The theodolite is the most intricate and accurate instrument used for measurement of
horizontal and vertical angles. It consists of a telescope by means of which distant objects can
be sighted. The telescope has two distinct motions one in the horizontal plane and the other in
the vertical plane, the former being measured on a graduated horizontal circle by means of a
set of verniers, and the latter on a graduated vertical circle by two verniers, and the latter on a
graduated vertical circle by two verniers. It can also be used for various other purposes such
as laying off horizontal angles, locating points on a line, prolonging survey lines, establishing
grades, determining differences in elevation, etc.
Theodolites are primarily classified as
(i) Transit and
(ii) Non-transit
There are three main types, viz.
(i) The Transit,
(ii) The plain or Y- and
(iii) The Everest.
A theodolite is called a transit theodolite, when its telescope can be revolved through
a complete revolution about its horizontal axis in a vertical plane.
The first type is transiting and the other two are non-transiting. The transit type is
largely used, while the other two types have now become obsolete.
Theodolites are also classed as (i) vernier theodolites, and (ii) micrometer
theodolites, according as verniers or micrometers are fitted to read the graduated circles.
Theodolites are made of various sizes varying from 8 cm to 25 cm, the diameter of the
graduated circle on the lower plate defining the size.
8 cm to 12 cm instruments are used for general survey and engineering work, while
14 cm to 25 cm instruments are used for triangulation work.

The Transit Theodolite:-

A transit theodolite or simply a transit essentially consists of the following fig;
(i) The Levelling Head: It may consist of (i) two circular plates called parallel plates
kept at a fixed distance apart by a ball and socket arrangement and four screws called
levelling or foot screws, or (ii) a tribrach plate with three arms, each carrying a levelling
screw.
 The lower parallel plate has a central aperture through which a plumb bob may be
suspended. The upper parallel plate or the tribrach is supported by means of four or three
levelling screws by which the instrument may be levelled.
In the case of four-screw instruments there is uneven distribution of pressure on the
screws and consequently, the wear of the screws is excessive. For stability three points of
support are sufficient. Besides, the three-screw instruments can be more quickly levelled.
Hence the three-screw type is preferred.
In the modern instruments the shifting head is provided to centre the instrument
quickly and accurately. It consists of two plates movable relatively to each other and to the
tripod head. By this arrangement the whole instrument can be rotated through a small
horizontal distance relatively to the tripod.
(2) The Two Spindles: There are two spindles or axes (also called centre) one inside
the other. The outer axis is hollow and its interior is ground conical to fit the central vertical
axis, called the inner axis, which is solid and conical. It is essential that the two axes should
be co-axial, i.e. have a common axis which forms the vertical axis of the instrument.
(3) The Lower Plate: The outer axis is attached to the lower plate, also called the
scale plate, having its edge bevelled. The edge (or limb) is silvered (i.e. covered with silver)
and graduated from 0 to 360 in a clockwise direction. The horizontal circle may be graduated
to (i) degrees and half-degrees, (ii) degrees and thirds of a degree, or (iii) degrees and sixths
of a degree, depending upon the size of the instrument, e,g. 10 cm, 12 cm. etc. The lower
plate is provided with a clamp and tangent or slow motion screw. By means of which it can
be fixed accurately at any desired position. When the clamp screw is tightened, the lower
plate is fixed to the upper tribrach (or parallel plate) and on turning the tangent screw, the
lower plate and with it the upper part of the instrument are rotated slightly.

(4) The Upper Plate: The upper plate, also called the vernier plate, is attached to the
inner axis. A clamp and tangent or slow motion screw are provided for the purpose of
accurately fixing the vernier plate to the scale plate. When both plates are clamped, and the
vernier plate be loosened, the instrument can be revolved about the inner axis, before either
of the tangent screw is turned, the corresponding clamp must be tightened. The upper plate
carries two verniers with magnifiers placed 180° apart (in large instruments three verniers
placed 120° apart) for reading horizontal angles to one minute or 20°.

The vernier plate complete with the standards and telescope is sometimes called the
alidade of the theodolite.

(5) The Level Tubes: Two spirit levels called the plate levels placed at right angles to
each other are fixed on the upper surface of the vernier plate for levelling the instrument. Of
the two plate levels, one is parallel to the horizontal axis.

(6) The Standards: Two uprights called standard or A frames (resembling the letter
A in shape) stand upon the vernier plate to support the horizontal axis.

(7) The Compass: The compass box may be either of a circular form or of a trough
type. The former is mounted on the vernier plate between the standards, while the latter is
either attached to the underside of the scale or lower plate, or screwed to one of the standards.
Modern theodolites are fitted with a compass of the tubular type and it is screwed to one of
the standards.

(8) The Telescope: The telescope is rigidly fixed at the centre of and at right angles to
the horizontal axis.

(9) The Vertical Circle: The vertical circle is rigidly attached to the telescope and
moves with it. It is silvered and is usually divided into four quadrants, but in some
instruments it is graduated continuously clockwise from 0° to 360°. The graduations in each
quadrant are numbered from 0°to 90° in opposite directions from the two zeros placed at the
ends of the horizontal diameter of the vertical circle so that the line joining the zeros placed at
the ends of the horizontal diameter of the vertical circle so that the line joining the zeros is
parallel to the line of collimation of the telescope when it is horizontal. The subdivisions of
the vertical circle are similar to those of the horizontal. By means of the vertical circle clamp
and tangent screw, the telescope and with it the vertical circle can be accurately set up at any
desired position in a vertical plane.

(10) The Index Bar (or T Frame): The index bar is T-shaped and centred on the
horizontal axis of the telescope in front of the vertical circle. It carries two verniers at the
extremities of its horizontal arms or limbs called the index arm. The vertical leg called the
clipping arm is provided with a fork and two screws called the clip or clipping screws at its
lower extremity. By means of these screws, it is secured to a piece of metal projecting from
the cross bar of either A support. The index arm and the clipping arm are together known as
the T frame. A long sensitive bubble tube called the altitude or azimuthal bubble tube is
attached to the top of the frame. It can be centred by means of the clip screws. In some
instruments it is set on the top of the telescope.
The manner in which these features are embodied in the theodolite is illustrated
diagrammatically in figure.
The Plumb Bob: To centre the instrument exactly over a station mark, a plumb-bob
is suspended from the hook fitted to the bottom of the central vertical axis.
The Compass: The compass fitted on theodolites may be
(i) The circular box compass,
(ii) The trough compass, or
(iii) The tubular compass.
(i) The circular box compass consists of (i) a circular box in the centre of which is
balanced the magnetic needle of the edge bar type, and (ii) a graduated circle fixed to the box
on which approximate bearings are read. The graduations are numbered counter-clockwise
from the zero placed at the north end of the needle. It is fitted in the centre of the vernier
plate between the standards, and the line joining the N, and S, graduations is parallel to the
line of collimation.
(ii) figure shows the trough compass which consists of a long narrow rectangular
box(or trough) about 150 x 30 x 20 mm having a needle of 125 mm in length at its centre, the
needle being balanced upon a steel pivot. Inside the box and at its ends s fixed level with the
needle, a small flat curved scale of only a few degrees (about 5°) on each side of the zero the
direction of the magnetic meridian is defined when the ends of the needle are opposite the
zeros.
It is usually attached to the underside of the lower plate, being slid into the grooves
on the plate. In this case the line joining the zeros of the scales is parallel to the line of
collimation only when the verniers of the horizontal circle are set to 0° and 180°.In some
instruments the trough compass is fixed to one of the standards. In this case the line joining
the zeros of the scales is parallel to the line of collimation.
(iii)Tubular compass: The tubular compass consists of (i) a magnetic needle fitted
inside a cylindrical metal tube, the north end of which carries a pointer, and (ii) a circular
glass disc fitted in the end of the tube facing the pointer. On the disc are etched two fine
vertical parallel lines.
The direction of the magnetic meridian is defined when the pointer is exactly
midway between the two vertical lines.
Tripod: The theodolite is supported on a tripod when on use. The tripod consists of
three legs, which may be solid or framed for lightness. The solid led tripod is commonly
used. The legs are usually made of mahogany (sometimes of yellow pine for lightness) and
fitted at their lower ends with pointed steel shoes in order that they may be firmly pressed
into the ground. They are fixed to the tripod head by means of hinged joints which can be
tightened when there is ant slackness in the joints. It is absolutely necessary that the tripod
should be rigid. If there is any looseness in the joints, it will disturb the position of the
instrument and lead to inaccurate work. The tripod head carries at its upper surface an
external screw to which the internal screw of the instrument may be fitted. When the tripod is
not in use, the cap is screwed to protect the external screw from injury.
The following terms should be well understood when manipulating a transit
theodolite:
Centering: It means setting the theodolite exactly over a station mark. It can be
done by means of a plumb bob suspended from a small hook attached to the underside of the
vertical axis of the theodolite.
Transiting: (Also termed as Plunging or Reversing): By transiting is meant the
process of turning the telescope over its supporting axis (horizontal axis) through 180° in a
vertical plane, thus bringing it upside down and making it point exactly in the opposite
direction.
Face Left: When the vertical circle of the instrument is on the left of the observer
when taking a reading, the position is called face left.
Face Right: When the vertical circle of the instrument is on the right of the
observer, the position is called face right.
Face Left (F.L.) observation: It is an observation of tan angle (horizontal or
vertical0 made with the “face’ of the vertical circle on the left of the observer.
 Face Right (F. R.) observation: An observation made with the “face’ of the vertical
circle on the right of the observer is called a face right observation.
Swinging the telescope: It means turning the telescope in a horizontal plane. A
swing is called right or left, according as the telescope is rotated clockwise or counter-
clockwise.
Telescope Normal: It implies “Bubble up” and the “face” of the vertical circle left. It
is also called Telescope Direct.
Telescope Inverted: It means “Bubble down” and the “face” of the vertical circle
right. It is also called Telescope Reversed.
Changing Face: It is the operation of bringing the vertical circle to the right of the
observer, if originally it is to the left, and vice versa.
There are two ways of changing face:
(i) In the case of a transit instrument, t can be done by revolving the telescope
through 180° in a vertical plane (i.e. on its horizontal axis0 and through 180° in a horizontal
plane.
(ii) In the case of a non-transit instrument, it can ne done by lifting the telescope from
its supports, and reversing the telescope and replacing it in its supports. The eyepiece end of
the telescope should be brought to its original position, by revolving the telescope in azimuth
(i.e. in a horizontal plane). This method is also applicable in the case of a transit instrument.
If observations are taken with both faces, the errors due to imperfect adjustment of
the instrument, viz. (i) the line of collimation not being at right angles to the trunnion axis,
(ii) the horizontal axis (trunnion axis) not being perpendicular to the vertical axis, and (iii) the
line of collimation not being parallel to the axis of the axis of the altitude level or telescope
level, are eliminated.
Changing Pivots: To change the pivots, lift the telescope from its supports, rotate the
instrument through 180° horizontally, thus reversing the positions of the pivots and replace
the telescope in its supports.
Line of Collimation: The line of collimation, also called the line of sight, is the
imaginary line joining the intersection of the cross-hairs of the diaphragm to the optical
centre of the object glass and its continuation.
It may be noted that the intersection of the cross-hairs is the index by means of which
we bisect the objects.
Axis of Telescope: The axis of the telescope is the line joining he optical centre of the
object glass to the centre of the eyepiece.
Axis of Level Tube: The axis of the level or bubble tube is the straight line tangential
to the longitudinal curve of the level tube at the centre of the tube. It is also called the bubble
line.
Vertical Axis: The vertical axis is the axis about which the telescope can be rotated in a
horizontal plane.
 Horizontal axis: The horizontal axis is the axis about which the telescope can be
rotated in a vertical plane. It is also called the trunnion axis or transverse axis.
The fundamental lines of a transit are:
(1) The vertical axis.
(2) The axis of plate levels.
(3) The line of collimation (also called the line of sight)
(4) The horizontal axis (also called the trunnion or transverse axis).
(5) The bubble line of the altitude (or azimuthal) level or telescope level.

The Surveying Telescope

There are two types of the surveying telescope of levels and theodolites, viz.
(1) External Focusing or draw tube, and
(2) Internal Focussing.
The first type is used in the older types of levels and theodolites, while the latter is
used in modern instruments.
(1) The External Focussing Telescope:
The Principal parts of the telescope are (a) the body, (b) the object glass or
objective, (c) the eye-piece, and (d) the diaphragm. The subsidiary parts consist of (i) the ray
shade of dust cap, (ii) the rack and pinion arrangement actuated by a focussing screw,
(iii) the diaphragm screws to support the diaphragm ring, and (iv) the stops for cutting off
extraneous light. The main disadvantage of this type is the greater lengths for a given power.
(2) The Internal Focussing Telescope:
It mainly differs from the above type in that the slide carries a double concave
lens, which is moved by the focussing screw and that the objective is fixed in the end of the
telescope tube. Otherwise its arrangement is similar to that of the first type. The main
advantages of this type are (i) that the interior of the telescope is free from dust and moisture,
since both the ends are closed, (ii) that is well balanced, and (iii) that the errors due to faculty
construction are much less serious than those in the first type. The main disadvantage is
reduction in brilliancy of the image owing to an additional lens.
(a) The Body: It consists of two tubes one of which slides within the other. The tube
that is moved in and out by means of a focussing screw is called the slide or focussing tube.
In some instruments the slide carries the objective and the outer tube carries the diaphragm
and the eye-piece while in others the slide carries the eye-piece and diaphragm, the objective
being mounted on the outer tube. It is essential that the movement of the slide should be
axial, smooth, and free.
(b) The Object Glass or Objective: It is invariably a compound lens consisting of
(i) an outer double convex lens of hard crown glass and (ii) an inner concave-convex lens of
dense flint glass. The two serious optical defects, viz spherical aberration and chromatic
aberration are nearly eliminated by the combination of these two lenses. This lens is called an
achromatic lens. The image of the object formed in the plane of the cross-hairs by the
objective is real and inverted.
(c) The Eye Piece: The object of the eye-piece is to magnify both the image and the
cross-hairs. There are two types of the eye-piece, viz. (1) non erecting and (2) erecting. The
former is the most commonly used type for surveying telescopes.
(1) The Non-erecting or Inverting Eye-piece: It is the Ramsden or positive eye-
piece. It is composed of two equal plano-convex lenses called an eye lens, and a field lens
with their convex surfaces turned towards one another, at a distance of two-thirds the focal
length of either lens. It is placed at a distance equal to one-fourth the focal length of either
lens from the diaphragm. The inverted image formed by the objective though magnified,
appears still inverted the telescope is upside down (inverted). This is the only disadvantage of
this type of the eye-piece. It possesses two advantages, viz. (i) that the object is more
brilliantly illuminated, and (ii) that the telescope is shorter.
(2) The Erecting Eye-piece: It consists of four plano convex lenses, viz, (a) an eye
lens, (b) a field lens, (c) an amplifying lens and (d) an objects lens. It re inverts the image
of the object so that the object is viewed in its normal position. The disadvantage is loss of
light owing to two additional lenses.
Diagonal Eye-piece: It is of the Ramsden type. Between the two lenses, a
reflecting prism or a mirror is fitted at an angle of 45º with the axis of the telescope. By this
arrangement objects can be viewed in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the telescope. It
is very useful for astronomical work and for observing high terrestrial objects when the
telescope is greatly inclined.
(d) The Diaphragm: The diaphragm consists of a brass ring called the cross-hair
ring carrying cross-hairs. The cross-hairs appear magnified when viewed through the eye-
piece and must, therefore, be very fine. The cross-hairs fastened to the ring may be (i) spider
webs, (ii) lines on glass, (ii) very fine platinum wires, and (iv) platinum-iridium points.
The cross-hair ring is held I place by four capstan-headed screws, which pass through smooth
holes in the telescope tube. The holes are unthreaded and a little larger than the screws, so
that when the screws are loose, the whole ring may be rotated slightly be moving the capstan
heads simultaneously. The diaphragm may be moved vertically (upward or downward) by
means of two vertical screws, loosening one screw and tightening the opposite one. Similarly,
it may be moved horizontally (sideways) by means of two horizontal screws. It may be noted
that (i) one screw must be loosened before the opposite one is tightened otherwise the
diaphragm cannot move, (ii) the diaphragm is drawn towards the tightened screw, and (iii)
the diaphragm is moved vertical or horizontally without screw, and (iii) the diaphragm is
moved vertically or horizontally without turning it. This type of diaphragm called the floating
diaphragm is fitted in the telescopes of theodolites and certain makes of levels. In the
majority of levels, however, the cross-hair ring is held in place by means of two vertical
screws only and can be moved vertically by slackening one screw and tightening the opposite
one. This type of diaphragm shown in figure is called the slide diaphragm.
 Figure shows the different arrangements of cross-hair or lines of which 1, 3, and
4 are used in levels. The horizontal hair is used to read the staff and the two vertical hairs
enable the surveyor to see if the staff is vertical laterally. Most telescopes are also equipped
with two additional horizontal hairs called the stadia hairs or substance lines one below and
the other above the horizontal hair and equidistant from it to determine distances by stadia. 2,
5, 6, 7, and 8 are generally used in theodolites.

Sensitiveness: The sensitiveness or sensitivity of a level tube means its capacity of

showing small angular movements of the tube vertically. It depends upon the radius of
curvature of the tube which may vary from 10 to 300 m. The larger the radius of curvature,
the greater the sensitiveness (or the longer the bubble, the more sensitive it is). The
sensitiveness is sometimes expressed in terms of the radius of curvature, but it is more
usually expressed in terms of the angle through which the axis of the level tube must be tilted
to cause the bubble to move through one division of the scale, (i.e. the angular value of one
division), or in terms of the angle subtended at the centre by an arc of one division of the
scale. When so expressed, the sensitiveness varies inversely as the number of seconds.
The angular value of one 2 mm division of the tube may vary from 8to 45
seconds, depending upon the type of the instrument. For example, the sensitiveness of the
spirit levels fitted to the levels varies from 20 to 30 seconds; that of the plate levels from 40
to 45 seconds, and that of the altitude level from 8 to 20 seconds.
Temporary Adjustments of Theodolite
The adjustments of a theodolite may be divided into two classes: (i) Temporary
and (ii) Permanent. The former are the adjustments which have the to be made at every set
up of the instrument and preparatory to taking observations with the instrument; while the
latter establish fixed relationships between the fundamental lines of the instrument and are
essential for accuracy of observations. They remain permanent for a considerable length of
time.
There are three temporary adjustments of a theodolite: (1) Setting up to the
theodolite over a station; (2) Levelling up; and (3) Elimination of parallax.
Setting up: This includes two operations, viz. (a) centering a theodolite over a station, and
(b) approximately levelling it by tripod legs only. By centering of a theodolite over a station
is meant the setting of the centre over a station mark such as a tack or wire nail in a station
peg. This can be done by means of a plumb bob suspended from the hook and the chain
beneath the centre of the instrument. To do this,
(i) Place the instrument over the station by spreading the legs of the tripod well
apart, keeping the telescope at a convenient height, the plumb bob approximately over the
station mark, and the levelling head (or the tribrach sprang) approximately level.
(ii) Lift the instrument bodily without disturbing the relative positions of the legs
and move it until the plumb non hang about 2 cm above and within about 1 cm or less
horizontally of the station mark.
 (iii) Move each leg radially as well as circumferentially so as to bring the plumb
bob exactly over the station mark and to approximately level the instrument. Press the legs
firmly into the ground.
It may be noted that moving the leg radially shifts the plumb bob in the direction of
the leg without seriously affecting the plate levels, while moving it circumferentially or
sideways tilts the instrument considerably without seriously disturbing the plumb bob. Much
time is save, if the instrument is nearly levelled by means of the tripod legs. If the instrument
has s shifting head it is first roughly set over the station mark by moving the legs of the tripod
and is the moved in the required direction by means of the shifting head until the plumb bob
is exactly over the station mark. The plumb should hang about 2 or 3 mm above the station
mark when the shifting head is used. On a hillside, place two legs downhill and one leg up
hill to ensure greater stability.
Levelling up: Having centered and approximately levelled the instrument, it is accurately
levelled with reference to the plate levels by means of levelling (or foot) screws so that the
vertical axis shall be truly vertical. To level the instrument,
(i) turn the instrument about either of its axes until the longer plate level is parallel
to any pair of levelling screws; the other plate level will then be parallel to the line joining the
third screw and the midpoint of the line joining the first pair. In the case of a four-screw
levelling head, each of the two plate levels will be parallel to a pair of diagonally opposite
levelling screws. Figure illustrate this operation in the two cases respectively.
(ii) Bring the bubble to the centre of its run by turning both screws uniformly. The
two screws should be grasped between the thumbs and forefingers and turned so that the
thumbs move either towards each other or away from each other.
(iii) Similarly, bring the other bubble to the centre of the run by turning the third
levelling screw or the other pair of levelling screws.
(iv) Repeat the process until finally both bubbles are exactly centred.
Now rotate the instrument about the vertical axis through a complete revolution. Each
bubble will now remain in the centre of its run, provided the plate levels are in correct
adjustment. The vertical axis will be then truly vertical.
For greater accuracy the instrument should be levelled with reference to the altitude
level fixed either on the index arm or on the telescope, since it is more sensitive than the plate
bubble. To do this,
(i) first level the instrument by the plate levels. Set the vertical circle vernier to zero
by means of the vertical circle clamp and tangent screw. Turn the telescope so that the
altitude level is parallel to the line joining a pair of levelling (or foot). Bring the bubble to the
centre of its fun by means of these screws.
(ii) Unclamp the vernier plate. Turn the telescope through 90° and bring the bubble
exactly to its mid-position by the third levelling screw. Repeat until the bubble remains
central in these two positions.
(iii) Bring the altitude over the third levelling screw. Turn, the telescope through
180°. If the bubble is no longer central correct half its deviation by the clip screws and the
other half by the third levelling screw. Turn the telescope through 90° so that it is parallel to
the other two foot screws, and by means of these screws, bring the bubble exactly to the
centre of its run. The bubble should now traverse in any position. If not, repeat the whole
process until the bubble traverses as the telescope is rotated about the vertical axis.
+ In the case of instrument having no clip screw fitting, the telescope bubble may be
brought half-way back by the vertical circle tangent screw. Since the vertical vernier is
displaced, read the vernier and record it. This reading is known as the Index error.
Elimination of Parallax: Accurate work is impossible if parallax is not eliminated. To
eliminate it, the image formed by the objective, must lie in the plane of the cross-hairs. It is
done in two steps. (1) by focussing the eye-piece, and (2) by focussing the object glass.
(a) Focussing the Eye-Piece: The object of focussing the eye-piece is to make cross-hairs
distinct and clear. Point the telescope towards the sky or hold a sheet of white paper in front
of the object glass, and move the eye-piece in and out until the cross-hairs are seen quite
distinctly and clearly (appear sharp and black).
(b) Focussing the object Glass: The object of focussing object glass is to bring the image of
the object formed by the object glass in the plane of the cross-hairs. Otherwise there will be
an apparent movement of the image relatively to the cross-hairs when the observer moves his
eye, the apparent movement being called the parallax. To eliminate it, direct the telescope
towards the object and turn the focussing screw until the image appears clear and sharp (i.e.
in sharp focus) when it lies in the plane of the cross-hairs. It must be noted that the correct
position of the eye-piece depend sonly upon the eyesight of the observer. It is however,
necessary to move the objective by using the focussing screw for each distance sighted, i.e.
whenever the distance of the object from the instrument is changed.
It should be remembered that (i) if the object sighted is farther away the distance
between the objective and the cross-hairs is less; while is the object sighted is nearer, the
distance between the objective and the cross-hairs is greater; (ii) for long sights the
movement of the objective is small irrespective of the distance, while for short sights it is
considerable for a comparatively small change is distance.

Measurement of Angles
To Measure a Horizontal Angle:
To measure the horizontal angle AOB,
(1) Set up the instrument over O as previously described and level it accurately.

(2) Set the vernier A to the zero (usually marked 360°) of the horizontal circle. To do
this, loosen the upper clamp, turn the upper plate until the index (the arrow) of the vernier A
nearly coincides with the zero of the horizontal circle. Clamp both plates together with the
upper clamp, and by turning the upper slow motion or tangent screw, bring the two zeros into
exact coincidence. This may be judged by observing the divisions on each side of the zero
and noting that they are symmetrically placed with respect to the coinciding lines. Both plates
being clamped, the instrument will now revolve upon the lower motion (the outer axis).
 (3) Loosen the lower clamp. Turn the instrument and direct the telescope
approximately to the left-hand signal (A) by sighting over the top of the telescope. Tighten
the lower clamp and bisect A exactly by using the lower slow motion screw. The point of
intersection of the horizontal and vertical cross-hairs should be brought into exact
coincidence with the station mark whenever possible by means of the vertical circle clamp ad
tangent screw. Otherwise the vertical cross-hair should be brought exactly on the lower
portion of the arrow or the ranging rod marking the station in order to minimise the error due
to non-vertically of the signal.

(4) Check the setting of the vernier A to detect the error caused by turning the wrong
tangent screw. Read the vernier B and record both vernier readings.

(5) Unclamp the upper or vernier plate and turn the telescope clockwise until the line
of sight is set nearly on the right ha d signal (b). Tighten the upper clamp and by turning the
upper tangent screw, bisect B exactly. It may be noted that during this movement of the
telescope, the lower clamp and the lower slow motion or tangent screw are untouched.
(6) Read both verniers. The reading of the vernier A which was initially set at 360º
gives the value of the angle AOB directly and the other vernier B by deducting 180º. The
mean of the two vernier readings (after deducting 180º from the reading on vernier B) gives
the value of the required angle AOB. Both verniers should always be read (i) to detect the
mistake in reading the vernier A, and (ii) to eliminate errors of eccentricity of centres and
verniers.
(7) Change the face of the instrument and repeat the whole process. The mean of the
two vernier readings gives the second value of the angle.
On all important work, face left and face right observations should be made to
eliminate the errors due to imperfect adjustments of the instrument. The mean of the tow
observations gives the value of the required angle free from all instrumental errors.
It may be noted that the vernier A is initially set to the zero of the circle for
convenience only. It may be set at any other reading which should be noted. The difference
between the initial and final readings of the vernier A will give the value of the required
angle.
To Measure a Horizontal Angle by Repetition: For very accurate work the method
of repetition is used. In this method the angle is added several times mechanically, and the
value of the angle s obtained by dividing the accumulated reading by the number of
repetitions. In repeating the angle several times, the verneir A is kept clamper each time at the
previous reading when the backsight is taken. The method of repetition consists in measuring
the angle clockwise any desired normal and the other half with the telescope inverted. By this
means, angles can be determined to a finer degree of accuracy than that obtainable with the
least count of the vernier.
Note: It should not be supposed that any desired degree of accuracy can be obtained
by making a very large number of repetition on account of the systematic error introduced by
the clamping apparatus. There is, therefore, no advantage in increasing the number of
observations beyond a certain limit. Three repetitions with the telescope normal and three
with telescope inverted are quite sufficient for anything except very precise work.
 To measure the horizontal angle AOB by the method of repetition proceed as follows;
(1) Set up the instrument over O and level it accurately. (The face of the instrument
should be left and the telescope in the normal position).
(2) Set the vernier A to 360º. Loosen the lower clamp, direct the telescope to the left-
hand station (A); and bisect A exactly by using the lower clamp and lower tangent screw.
(3) Check the reading of the vernier A to see that no slip has occurred, and read the
other vernier B.
(4) Unclamp the upper (or vernier) plate, turn the telescope clockwise and bisect the
right-hand station (B) exactly by using the upper clamp and upper slow motion screw.
(5) Read both verniers. The object of reading the verniers is to obtain the approximate
value of the angle. Suppose the mean reading is 60º 2’.
(6) Leaving the verniers unchanged unclamp the lower plate and turn the telescope
clockwise until the station A is again bisected accurately, using the lower clamp and lower
tangent screw. Check the vernier readings which must be the same as before.
(7) Release the upper plate, turn the telescope clock-wise and again bisect the station
B exactly using the upper clamp and its slow motion screw. The verniers will now read twice
the value of the angle.
(8) Repeat the process until the angle is repeated the required number of times
(usually).
(9) Read both verniers. The final reading after a repetition should be n (60º 2’). Add
360º for every complete revolution to the final reading and divide the sum by the number of
repetition. The result gives the correct value of the angle AOB.
(10) Change face. (The telescope will now the inverted and the face will be right).
Repeat the whole series of observations in exactly the same manner.
The average of the two values of the angle thus obtained gives a very precise value of
the angle (AOB).
By this procedure the following errors are eliminated or minimised.
(1) The errors due to the eccentricity of the centres and of the verniers are eliminated
by reading both verniers and averaging the readings.
(2) The errors due to the imperfect adjustment of the line of collimation and the
horizontal axis of the telescope are eliminated by face left and face right observations.
(3) The error of graduation are minimised by measuring the angle on different parts of
the circle.
(4) The errors in the pointings tend to compensate each other and the remaining error
is minimised by the division.
It must be remembered that the error due to dislevelment of the bubble cannot be
eliminated. It can, however, be minimised by care in levelling the instrument.
 To measure Horizontal Angles by Reiteration:
Reiteration is another method of measuring horizontal angles with high precision. It is
less tedious and is generally preferred when several angles are measured at a station. In this
method several angles are measured successively, and finally the horizon is closed. i.e. the
angle between the last station is measured. The final reading of the leading vernier (vernier
A) should be the same as its initial reading. If not, the dispcrepancy is equally distributed
among all the measured angles.
Suppose it is required to measure the angles AOB, BOC and COD.
(1) Set up the instrument over O and level it correctly.
(2) Set the vernier A to zero.
(3)Direct the telescope to some well-defined object P or say, the station point A,
which is known as the ‘Referring Object” and bisect it accurately by using the lower clamp
and lower tangent screw. Note the vernier readings.
(4) Loosen the upper plate and turn the telescope clockwise until the point B is
exactly bisect by turning the upper tangent screw. Read both verniers. The mean of the two
vernier readings will give the value of the angle AOB.

(5) Similarly, bisect C and D successively, reading both verniers at each bisection.

(6) Finally close the horizon by sighting the referring object (P) or the station point A.

(7) The vernier A should now end 360º. If not, note the reading and find the error (due
to slip, etc.). It may be noted that the lower clamp and lower tangent screw remain untouched
during the revolution of the telescope.

(8) If the error be small, it is equally distributed among the several observed angles. If
large, the readings should be discarded and a new set taken.

Notes:

(i) The theodolite should be turned clock-wise from the back station to the forward
stations.

(ii) Bring the cross-wise into exact coincidence with the signal from left to right with
the upper tangent screw.

(iii) The mean of the vernier readings is taken in each case, and the differences
between these means will give the required values of the angles.

To take the second set,

(1) Change face, i.e. transit the telescope so that it is upside down and swing it through
180º, so that if the vertical circle of the instrument be on the left of the observer
before reversing face, it will be on the right after doing so (or vice versa), to eliminate
the effect of the instrumental errors.
(2) Set the vernier A to 60º or 90º.

(3) Again measure the angles in the same manner by turning the telescope this time in a
counter-clockwise direction to compensate for slip and errors due to twistingof the
instrument. Bring the cross-hairs into exact coincidence with the signal from right to
left, with the upper slow motion screw to eliminate the effects of back lash. Read both
verniers at each bisection.

(4) Further procedure is the same as in the first set.

(5) The mean of the two results is taken as the true value.

To Measure a Vertical Angle: A vertical angle is the angle between the inclined line of
sight and the horizontal. Since the vertical angle to a point is measured from the horizontal
plane passing through the horizontal (or trunnion) axis of the instrument, it may be an angle
of elevation (+ angle) or an angle of depression (- angle) according as the point is above or
below the horizontal plane.

To measure the vertical angle of an object A at a station O.

(1) Set up the instrument over O and level it accurately with reference to the altitude
bubble.

(2) Set the zero of the vertical vernier exactly to the zero of the vertical circle by
means of the vertical circle clamp and tangent screw.

(3) Bring the bubble of the altitude level to centre of its run by means of clip screws.
The line of collimation is thus made horizontal, while the vernier reads zero.

(4) Loosen the vertical circle clamp and direct the telescope towards the object a when
it is sighted approximately, clamp the vertical circle and bisect A exactly (the
horizontal cross-hair set exactly on A) by turning the tangent screw.

(5) Read both verniers. The mean of the two readings gives the value of the required
angle.

(6) Change the face of the instrument and repeat the process. The mean of the two
vernier readings gives the second value of the required angle.

The average of the two values thus obtained, gives the value of the required angle
which is free instrumental error.

To measure the vertical angle between two points A and B.

(1) bisect A as before, and note the reading on the vertical circle.

(2) Similarly, bisect B and note the reading on the vertical circle.

(3) The sum or difference of these readings will give the value of the angle between A
and B according as one of the points is above and the other below the horizontal plane
 (in which case reading will be above and the other below the zero), or both points are
on the same side of the horizontal plane. (i.e. both above or both below the horizontal
plane, in which case both readings will be above or below the zero).

Traverse Survey with Theodolite

In theodolite traversing, the field work consisting of (i) reconnaissance, (ii) selection,
marking, and referencing of station, (iii) running of survey lines, (iv) picking up of the detail,
and (v)booking of field notes is much the same as for compass traversing. For linear
measurements, the steel tape is generally used.

The methods by which the relative directions of the lines of a traverse may be
determined are:

(I) By the measurement of angles between successive lines.

(II) By the direct observation of bearings of the lines.

The former is generally used for long traverses, or where high precision is required,
while the latter is used for short traverses where great precision is not required, and for
topographical surveys.

In the first method the angles between successive lines are measured, and the bearing
of the initial line observed. The bearings of the remaining lines are then calculated from the
observed earing and the measured angle.

The angle measured at the different stations may be (1) included angles, (2) direct
angles or angles to the right, and (3) deflection angle.

1. Direct Observation of Angles

(1) Traversing by the Method of Included Angles:

This method is chiefly used in land surveying. Where great accuracy is required, it is
invariably used as the angles can be measured by the method of repetition in any desired
degree of precision. In this method the bearing of the initial line, and the included angles
measured are either interior or exterior according as the traverse is run in counter-clockwise
direction or in a clockwise direction as in figure. It is, however, customary to run a closed
traverse in a counter-clockwise direction.

Procedure: In running the traverse ABCDERGH, the theodolite is set up over the first station
A and the bearing of the line AB is observed as already explained. The angle H A B is then
measured by taking a backsight on the preceding station H and a foresight on the forward
station B, turning the telescope clockwise. Both verniers are then read. The mean on the two
vernier readings gives the required angle HAB. Face left and face right observations should
be made to eliminate the instrumental errors. The theodolite is then moved to each of the
successive stations B, C etc., and the angles ABC, BCD, etc., are measured in a similar
manner. The lines AB, BC, etc., are measured with the tape or chain, and the offsets
necessary to locate the boundary and other details are taken in the usual way and recorded in
the field book. Where great accuracy is required, the angles should be measured by repetition
(three repetitions with the telescope normal and three with the telescope inverted) as already
described. The angular observations are recorded in the tabular form as given below.

Locating Details: On nearly all theodolite surveys, especially, in city surveys, the details such
as the frontages of buildings, distant and inaccessible objects, etc., are located from transverse
lines with the transit and tape. The following angular methods are in most common use:

(i) Locating by Angle and Distance from Transit Station: In this method the transit is
set up at the given transit station A, and the angles between the traverse line AB and the corners
of the building such as a, b, etc. are measured, and the corresponding distances Aa, Ab, etc.,
are measured as shown in figure. Curves of large radii or irregular curves are located by angles
and distances as is figure. For each angle two points as 1, 1’,; 2, 2’;etc are located by measuring
the distances A1, A1’; A2, A2’; etc., from the transit station A.
(ii) Locating by Angle and Distances from Another Station: This method is useful
when the direct measurement of the distance from the transit station at which the angle in the
object is measured, is not possible owing to some intervening obstacle. In such a case, the
transit is set up at another station B, and the angle between the traverse line Ab and the corner
f of the building is observed, and the distance Bf is measured as in figure.
(iii) Locating by Angles from Two Stations: Figure illustrate the method of locating
distant or inaccessible objects visible from as least two transit stations. The transit is setup at
the transit A and the angle to the object such as t is measured. Similarly, the angle to t is
measured to another transit station B. It may be noted that in this method no linear
measurements except those of the traverse lines are required.
(2) Traversing by the Method of Direct Angles: This method is mostly used on open
traverses. To run an open traverse shown in figure, the theodolite is set up at the starting station
A and the bearing of the line AB is observed. The theodolite is then moved to B. With the
vernier A set to zero, a backsight is taken on the preceding station A. Unclamping the upper
plate and turning the telescope clockwise, a foresight is taken on the following station C, and
both verniers are read. The mean of the vernier readings gives the required angle ABC. The
other angles are read in a like manner. The traverse angles are checked by doubling as
explained. The lines AB, BC, etc. are chained and the necessary offsets taken in the usual way.
(3) Traversing by the Method of Deflection Angles: This method is chiefly employed on
open traverses. It is most suitable when the survey lines make small deflection angles with each
other as in case of surveys for roads, railways, canals, and pipe lines
Suppose it is required to run a traverse from the station A as in figure. The theodolite
is set up at the station A and he bearing of the line AB is observed. The instrument is then
moved to station B and a backsight is taken on A with the vernier A set to zero. The telescope
is then transited and a foresight is taken on C by releasing the upper plate and turning the
telescope clockwise. Both verniers are then read, and the mean of these readings gives the
deflection angle of BC from AB. The direction of its measurement is carefully noted in the
field book thus, α1 R. Theodolite is then set up at each of in the successive station C, D, E,
etc., and the deflection angles are observed as already described, and recorded in the field
book. The routine of running survey lines and offsetting is the same as already explained.
 It must be remembered that in this method the deflection angles are measured to the
right (clockwise) or to the left (anticlockwise) of the back line produced and the direction of
their measurement must be very carefully noted in the field book. To eliminate errors of
adjustment and possible mistakes, the angles are usually doubled as already explained.

2. Direct Observation of Bearing

Traversing by the Needle Method: There are three methods of observing bearings directly
in the field:
(a) Direct method in which the telescope is transmitted.
(b) Direct method in which the telescope is not transmitted.
(c) Back Bearing Method.

(a) First Method:

(1) Set up the theodolite at A and level it., Set the vernier A to zero. Point the
telescope to the magnetic north as indicated by the needle of the trough compass by using the
lower clamp and tangent screw.
(2) Loosen the upper clamp and sight B exactly by the upper clamp and tangent
screw, and read the vernier A which gives the bearing of AB, say 55º. The bearing of the last
line is also observed and noted as a check, if the traverse is closed.
(3) Move the instrument and set it up at B. See that the vernier A still reads the
bearing of AB, i.e., 55º. If the reading differs due to slip of the plates during transfer of the
instrument, correct the reading with the upper tangent screw.
(4) Using the lower clamp and tangent screw, backsight on A.
(5) Transit the telescope. On transiting the telescope, the line of sight is directed along
AB produced and the vernier A still reads the bearing of AB. Hence the instrument is
correctly oriented. Release the upper clamp, turn the telescope, and bisect C exactly by means
of the clamp and tangent screw.
(6) Read the vernier A. This reading equals the bearing of BC, say 110º.
(7) With the vernier A clamped at 110º, transfer the instrument to C and repeat the
process.
As a check upon the accuracy of work in a closed traverse, the back bearing of the last
line, say NA is observed at the first station A and its forward nearing taken at the last station,
say N must differ exactly by 180º.
It is well to note here the following points:

(1) The telescope is inverted for alternate backsights and foresights. Thus, for a
foresight from A to B and a back sight from B to A, the telescope is normal, for a foresight
from B to C and a backsight from C to B, the telescope in inverted; for a foresight from C to D
and a backsight from D to C, the telescope is again normal, and so on.
 (2) The line of sight (or collimation) must be in perfect adjustment, i.e. exactly
perpendicular to the horizontal (or trunnion) axis of the transit. If not, the inner included angles
will be too small alternately. Thus suppose the line of sight is a little to the left of the
longitudinal axis of the telescope when the telescope is normal and the error is α then,

(a) The inner included angle at B will be too small by 2α; that at C too large by 2α that
at D too small by 2α; and so on; and vice versa.

(b) The bearings of alternative lines are correct. Thus the observed bearing of BC will
be too small 2α; that of CD correct; and so on; and vice versa.

(3) The total displacement of the last point of the traverse will be roughly equal to
perimeter of the traverse x sin α, if the sides of the traverse are nearly equal.

(4) This method is to be preferred for an unclosed or open traverse, as the distortion is
small and remains undetected.

Alternative method: The routine is exactly similar except that at each station the
telescope is transmitted before a back-sight is taken on the preceding station.

The following points should be noted;

(1) The telescope is in its normal position for each foresight, and inverted for each
backsight. Thus the foresight from A to B is taken with the telescope normal, and the backsight
from B to A with the telescope normal and the backsight from C to B with the telescope
inverted, and so on.

(2) The line of sight must be exactly perpendicular to the horizontal axis. Otherwise a
constant angular error is introduced at each station.

If not, (a) the inner included angle at each stations will be too large by 2α.

(b) Assuming the bearing of AB to be correct, the bearing of BC is too large by 2α, that
of CD by 4α, and so on.

(3) The total angular error in a closed traverse will be N x 2 α, where N is the number
of the sides of the traverse.

(4) The total displacement of the last point of the traverse will be approximately equal
to perimeter x 2 sin α.

(5) This method is preferable for a closed traverse even though the distortion is greater,
as (i) the total angular error can be obtained by finding the difference between the actual sum
of the angles and their theoretical sum, or by finding the difference of the bearings of the last
line as observed at the first and the stations, and (ii) the error can be accurately adjusted by
disturbing it equally among all the angles.

(b) Second Method: The procedure is similar to that followed in the first method
except that the telescope at B is not transited after the backsight is taken on A, but rotated in a
horizontal plane to bisect C. The orientation at B being 180º out, a correction of 180º has to be
applied to the reading of the vernier A taken at B. Add 180º if the reading is less than 180º, and
subtract 180º if the reading is greater than 180º. At C the orientation is 360º out and is, therefore,
correct. Hence there is no need to apply the correction of 180º. This correction is necessary
only at the even instrument stations, I.e., 2nd, 4th, 6th etc.,

Instead of applying the correction of 180º, opposite verniers are read alternatively.
Thus, at A the vernier A is read; at B vernier B is read; at C the vernier A is read; and at D, the
vernier B is read, and so on.

However, it is more convenient to read one vernier A throughout to guard against

confusion, and apply the 180º correction than to read opposite verniers alternatively.

It may be noted that in this method the telescope is rotated in a horizontal plane to take
foresight on the forward station. This method is preferable in the case of a non-transit
instrument such as the Y or Everest theodolite, or in the case of the transit instrument when it
is in poor adjustment.

(c) Back Bearing Method:

(1) Set up the instrument at A and level it. Observe the fore bearing of the line AB.

(2) Move the instrument, and set it up at B and level it.

(3) Set the vernier A to the back bearing of AB.

(4) With the vernier A kept clamped at the reading, backsight on A by using the lower
clamp and tangent screw. As the vernier A is set to the back bearing of AB, and the line
of sight is directed along BA, the instrument is correctly oriented.

(5) Loosen then upper clamp and rotate the telescope in a horizontal plane until it is directed
to C. By using the upper clamp and tangent screw, bisect C exactly.
(6) Read the vernier A, which gives the bearing of BC.
(7) Repeat the process at each of the subsequent stations.
It may be remembered that I this method (i) the vernier A is set to the back bearing of
the preceding line at each station, for orientation before a backsight is taken on the preceding
station, and (ii) the telescope is never transited, but simply rotated horizontally for taking a
foresight on the forward station.
In respect of speed there is little difference between the three methods, while in point
of accuracy, method 2 and 3 are satisfactory. The first method, though mechanical, is liable to
errors caused by imperfect adjustment of the line of collimation.
Sources of Error in Theodolite Work: The sources of error in the theodolite observations
may be classified as: (1) instrumental; (2) personal (or observational), and (3) natural.
Instrumental Errors: The instrumental errors are due to (i) imperfect adjustments of
the instrument, and (ii) structural defects in the instrument. The adjustments of a theodolite
being very delicate, perfect adjustment of the instrument is not possible in spite of utmost
care taken in making the adjustments. Consequently, very small errors remain unadjusted and
these are called residual errors. It is, therefore, essential to conduct the field work in such a
manner that the effects of the residual errors of adjustment are eliminated. The following are
the errors due to imperfect adjustment of the instrument.
(i) Error due to non-adjustment of plate levels: When the plate bubbles, which are not
perpendicular to the vertical axis’ are centred, the vertical axis of the instrument will not be
truly vertical, and errors will be introduced in the measurements of both horizontal and
vertical angles. As a result the horizontal circle is inclined. Hence angles are measured in an
inclined plane and not in a horizontal plane. The error is serious when horizontal angles
between points at considerably different elevations are to be measured. The error may be
minimised by levelling the instrument carefully with reference to the altitude bubble or the
telescope bubble.
(ii) Error due to the line of collimation not being perpendicular to the horizontal axis:
If the line of collimation is not perpendicular to the horizontal axis, it will not revolve in a
plane, but will trace out the surface of a cone instead of a plane when the telescope is
revolved on the horizontal axis. (i.e. raised or lowered). The trace of the intersection of the
conical surface with the vertical plane containing the point sighted will be hyperbolic. As a
result of this error, horizontal angles when measured between points at widely different
elevations will be in error. In figure suppose the angle between two points P and Q is being
measured and P is considerably higher than Q. P is the point to which a sight is take from A
and α the vertical angle to P. P1 a point vertically below P, and Q are assumed to be at the
same level as the horizontal axis. Suppose the cross hairs are a little on the left of the axis.
Then if the telescope is lowered down after bisecting P, the hyperbola traced out will cut the
horizontal plane P1Q, in a point P2 to the right of P1, shown in the figure. Thus the measured
angle will be that between P2 and Q and instead of the true horizontal angle between P1 and
Q and is therefore, too small. The error (e) thus introduced is given by e=β sec α, where β is
the error in collimation and α is the vertical angle to P. On changing face of the instrument,
the telescope becomes inverted and the cross hairs are now on the right of the axis. The
hyperbola will now cut the plane P1Q in a point P3 to the left of P1. Consequently the
measurement angle will be that between P2 and Q and is, therefore, too large. However, the
correct angle between P1 and Q may be obtained by averaging the two observed values. A
similar error (e’=β sec α) is introduced in the direction of the inclined sight AQ, α’ being the
vertical angle Q. The total error involved in the measurement of the angle between P and Q
is, therefore, equal to β (sec α – sec α’). It is evident that the error is zero when α= α’ or both
α and α’ are each equal to zero, i.e., when both sights are at the same altitude (P and Q are at
the same level), or horizontal. It may be noted that the error may be eliminated by taking the
mean of the observed values. The error introduced in the measurement of vertical angles is
negligible in ordinary observations.
(iii) Error due to the horizontal axis not being Perpendicular to vertical axis: If the
horizontal axis is not perpendicular to the vertical axis, the line of collimation will not
revolve in a vertical plane as the telescope is raised or lowered. The resulting angular error
affects both horizontal and vertical angles, and depends upon (i) the inclination of the
horizontal axis to the perpendicular to the vertical axis, and (ii) the vertical angle to the point
sighted. The error is considerable when points between which horizontal angles are to be
measured are at very different elevations. The magnetic of the error may be obtained thus.
In figure, P is the point to which a sight is taken from A. α is the observed vertical
angle to P, β is the inclination of the horizontal axis to the perpendicular to the vertical axis
(error in the horizontal axis). P1 is the point vertically below P. AP2 is the direction of AP or
AP1 wrongly recorded by the horizontal circle. (The horizontal line of sight has to be placed
along AP2 in order to bisect P when the telescope is raised.) Then the angular error in
direction = e =the angle P1AP2.
P1P2
Now Tan α = --------; but P1P2 = PP1tan β
AP1
and PP1 = AP1 tan α.
AP1 tan α tan β
Tan e = ------------------------- = tan β tan α.
AP1
Or
If the vertical angle to Q be α’, the angular error indirection β = e’ = β tan α’
Whence, the error in the horizontal angle PAQ = e – e’ = β (tan α – tan α’), with due
regard to the signs.
It is obvious that no error is introduced, if the two points between which horizontal
angle is to be measured, are at the same level. This error is more serious in its effect upon
horizontal angles than the preceding one.
The error is eliminated by making double face observations of the angles and by
taking the mean of the two values.
iv) Errors due to non-parallelism of the axis of the telescope level and the line of
collimation: If the line of collimation is not parallel so the axis of the telescope bubble, the
zero line of the vertical verniers is not a true line of reference and consequently, an error is
introduced in the measurement of vertical angles. The error is eliminated by taking the mean
of two observations of the required angle, one with the telescope normal and the other with
telescope inverted.
(iv) Errors due to eccentricity of centres (the inner and outer axis.): If the centre of
the vernier plate does not coincide with the centre of the graduated circle, the angle read on
either vernier will be incorrect. In figure o is the centre of the graduated circle and o’ the
centre of the vernier plate, d is the position of the verniers when a backsight is taken, and b its
position when the telescope turned through an angle do’b. The arc db measures the angle dob
and not the true angle do’b.
Now do’b = deb - o’do and deb’ = dob + o’bo
 ⸫ do’b = dob + o’bo – o’do
Similarly co’a = coa + o’co – o’ao.
But o’do = o’co; o’bo = o’ao, do’b = co’a.
⸫ Adding the two equations, we get
2do’b = dob + coa
Or do’b – ½ (dob + coa)
i.e. the true angle is the mean of the valued given by the verniers. The error is
eliminated by reading both verniers and averaging the two values.
(vi) Error due to eccentricity of verniers: This error arises when the zeros of the
veriers are not at ends of the same diameter. The verniers are eccentric, if there is a constant
difference other than 180º between their readings taken on different parts on the graduated
circle. The error is eliminated by reading both verniers and taking the mean of the two values.
(vii) Errors of graduations: This error arises when the graduations on the scales are
not exactly equidistant. The error is minimised by measuring the angle several times on
different parts of the horizontal circle and taking the mean of several observations.
(viii) If the vertical hair is not exactly vertical and straight, the part of the vertical hair
nearer the horizontal hair should be used in bisecting a signal.
Personal Errors: The personal errors include: (1) errors of manipulation, and (2)
errors in sighting and reading.
(1) Errors in Manipulation: They include:
(i) inaccurate centering: This error is introduced in all angles measured at a given
station, if the centre of the instrument is not exactly over the station. The magnitude of the
error depends upon (i) the error of centering, (ii) the length of the sight, and (iii) the position
of the instrument with respect to the station and the object sighted. Thus in figure, if the
centre of the instrument is over C’ instead of over the station point C, the angle AC’B will be
measured instead of the required angle ACB. Now ACB = AC’B – α – β.where α and
β are angles subtended by CC’ is at right angles to CA. Similarly the value of β is maximum
when CC’ is perpendicular to CB. In this case
CC’ CC’
tan α = ---------- and tan β = ---------, in which CC’ is the error of centering. If the
CA CB’
Centre of the instrument is over C”.

ACB = AC’B + α + β.

It is well to examine the nature and extent of the due to inaccurate centering for all
possible positions of the instrument. Referring to figure, C represents station point which it is
desired to measure the angle between A and B. If the instrument is not correctly centered, the
centre of the instrument may full anywhere within the circle drawn with C as a centre and the
maximum displacement of the centre of the instrument as a radius. Ca, C2, C3 and C4
represent the centre of the instrument in the sectors aCb, b1Ca1, aCb1 and BCa1 respectively.
The nature and amount of error, and also the value of the required angle aare given in the
following table, o being the observed angle.
No error will be introduced if, A, B, B and the centre of the instrument (C5) are
concyclic.
It will be noticed that the error due to defective centering varies inversely as the
lengths of the sights. Great care must, therefore, be taken in setting up the instrument exactly
over the station mark when the sights are short. A convenient relation to remember is that the
error in a sight is about 1’, when the error of centering is 1 cm and the length of sight is 36 m.
It is about 3’ when the error of centering is about 1 cm and the length of sight is 12 m. The
error is reduced to a negligible amount by carefully setting up the instrument over the station
mark.
(ii) Inaccurate levelling: This produces a serious error in horizontal angles when the
points sighted are at very different levels. The effect of this similar to that of the error due to
non adjustment of the plate levels. If the points sighted are nearly at the same level the error
is small. The error due to dislevelment of the bubble cannot be eliminated, but can be
minimised by levelling the instrument carefully, using the long sensitive telescope bubble (or
the altitude bubble).
(iii) Slip: The error due to slip may occur, if the instrument is not firmly secured to
the tripod head, or the shifting head is not properly clamped, or the lower clamp is not
sufficiently tightened. As a result of this error, the orientation of the instrument is disturbed
and the observations are in error.
(iv) Manipulation of wrong tangent secre: This is a common mistake on the part of
the beginner. If the upper tangent screw is turned in taking a backsight, the mistake can be
detected by checking the vernier reading before taking a foresight. But if the lower tangent
screw is turned in taking a foresight the mistake cannot be discovered. The mistake is avoided
by care in using proper tangent screws. Always use the lower tangent screw for a backsight
and the upper tangent screw for a foresight.
(2) Errors in sighting and Reading: (a) Inaccurate bisection of the point observed to: The
error from this source may arise when it is not possible to bisect the tack in the centre of the
station peg owing to an intervening bush, high ground, low compound wall. Etc. In such a
case, only the upper part of the ranging rod held at the station is visible. Care should
therefore, be taken to bisect the lowest point visible. Using the point intersection of the cross-
hairs. On short sights, the point pencil or the plumb line may be used instead of a ranging rod.
The error varies inversely with the length of sight, and its magnitude may ne obtained from
the relationship previously given (Vide error due to inaccurate centering).
(b) Non vertically of ranging rod: This is a common source of error when the upper
part of a ranging rod has to e sighted owing to intervening obstacles. The error€ is inversely
proportional to the length of sight and is given by the relation;
 Error of vertically
Tan e = ----------------------------------------
Length of sight
To guard against this error, the rod should ne held exactly vertical and the lowest
point visible should be bisected.
(c) Displacement of ranging rod or peg: A similar error is introduced when the
ranging rod is not erected exactly at the station. The effect of the error is the same as that of
the error due to non verticality of the rod. The error is eliminated by accurately fixing the rod
above the station point. The station peg may get displaced without the movement against this
error, the instrument stations should be chosen on firm ground and the pegs driven firmly into
the ground.
(d) Parallax: This error is caused by imperfect focussing: To eliminate parallax, the
eye-piece and object glass should be properly focussed.
(e) Other errors: They are (i) mistakes in setting the verrnier. (ii) mistakes in reading
the scales and the verniers, (iii0 mistakes in reading wrong verniers, and (iv) mistakes due to
booking of the readings. These errors can be avoided by habitual checks and precautions.
Natural errors: These errors are caused by (i) wind producing viberation of the
instrument, (ii) high temperature producing irregular refraction, (iii) the sun shinning on the
instrument, (iv) unequal expansion of the various parts of the instrument, and (v) unequal
settlement of the tripod.
Accurate work cannot be done in a high wind or on hot sunny days. Precise work is
usually done under the most favourable atmospheric conditions. In work of ordinary
precision, the natural errors are negligible.
Latitude (L) is North or positive when measured northward or upward, and is styled
as northing. When measured southward or down ward, it is South or negative, and is called
southing.
Similarly, departure(D) is East or positive when measured eastwards or to the right,
and is known as easting, while it is West or negative when measured westward or to the left,
and is called westing.
Hence, Northing = North latitude.
Southing = South latitude L.
Easting = East departure + D.
Westing = Westt departure - D.
To find the latitude of a line, multiply the length of the line by the cosine of the
reduced bearing; and to find its departure, multiply the length of the line by the sine of its
reduced bearing . Latitude of a line l cos θ. Departure of l line sin θ
l = the length of the line. θ= the reduced bearing of a line.
 The reduced bearing of a line determines, the signs of its latitude departure, the
first letter N or S of the bearing defining sign of the latitude and the last line E or W, m the
sign of the departure. If the bearing of a line is given as W.C.B. the following table may be
referred to, to determine the signs of latitude and departure.
Adjustment of Closed Traverse
Error of Closure: In any closed traverse the algebraic sum of the latitudes (∑L)
should equal zero, and the algebraic sum of the departures (∑D) should equal zero, provided
the work is correct. In other words, the sum of the north latitudes (Northings) should ne equal
to the sum of south latitudes (southings) and the sum of the east departures (Eastings) should
ne equal to the sum of the west departures (Westings).
But owing to errors in the