SURVEYING

Unit – 1 : Session –1 : SLO -1

M.KUMARASMY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,KARUR 1

 Unit 1 -INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

Introduction: Definition, classification of

surveys, Principles of surveying, Plan and map,
Scale.
Chain surveying: Ranging and Chaining, survey
station and survey lines, instruments used for
setting out right angles, obstacles in chaining,
Errors in chain survey.

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 Definition
• Surveying is the art of determining the relative
position of points on ,above or beneath the
surface of the earth by means of direct or
indirect measurement of distance, direction
and elevation.

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 Objective of Surveying
• The object of surveying is to prepare a map or
plan to show the relative positions of the
objects on the surface of the earth. The map or
plan is drawn to some suitable scale.
• It also showsboundaries of districts, states, and
countries too.
• It also includes details of different engineering
features such as buildings, roads, railways,
dams, canals etc.
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Fundamental Principles of Surveying

Two basic principles of surveying are:

• Always work from whole to the part, and
• To locate a new station by at least two
measurements ( Linear or angular) from fixed
reference points.

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Fundamental Principles of Surveying

Always work from whole to the part:

• According to the first principle, the whole
survey area is first enclosed by main stations
(i.e.. Control stations) and main survey lines.
The area is then divided into a number of
divisions by forming well conditioned
triangles.

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Work from Whole to the Part

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 Work from Whole to the Part
• The main survey lines are measured very
accurately with precise survey instruments.
• The remaining sides of the triangle are
measured.The purpose of this method of
working is to control accumulation of errors.
• During measurement, if there is any error, then
it will not affect the whole work, but if the
reverse process is followed then the minor error
in measurement will be magnified.
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 To locate a new station by at least two
measurements
• To locate a new station by at least two
measurements ( Linear or angular) from fixed
reference points.
• According to the second principle the points are
located by linear or angular measurement or by
both in surveying. If two control points are
established first, then a new station can be
located by linear measurement. Let A & B are
control points, a new point C can be established.
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 To locate a new station by at least two
measurements
• Following are the methods of
locating point C from such
reference points A & B.
• The distance AB can be measured
accurately and the relative
positions of the point can be then
plotted on the sheet to some scale.
• (a) Taking linear measurement
from A and B for C.

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 To locate a new station by at least two
measurements
• (b) Taking linear
measurement of
perpendicular from D to C.
• (c) Taking one linear
measurement from B and
one angular measurement as
∕ ABC

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 To locate a new station by at least two
measurements
• (d)Taking two angular
measurement at A & B as
angles / CAB and / ABC.
• (e)Taking one angle at B as
/ ABC and one linear
measurement from A as
AC.

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 Uses of Surveying
The surveying may be used for following
purposes:
• To prepare a topographical map which shows hills,
valleys, rivers, forests, villages, towns etc.
• To prepare a cadastral map which shows the
boundaries of fields,plots,houses an other properties.
• To prepare an engineering map which shows the
position of engineering works such as buildings,
roads, railways, dams, canals.

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 Uses of Surveying
• Toprepare a contour map to know the
topography of the area to find out the best
possible site for roads, railways, bridges,
reservoirs, canals, etc.
• Surveying is also used to prepare military map,
geological map, archaeological map etc.
• For setting out work and transferring details
from the map on the ground.

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 Primary Divisions of Surveying
We know that the shape of earth is spheroidal,
thus the surface is obviously curved.
Surveying is primarily divided into two types
considering the curvature of the earth's surface.
• Plane Surveying
• Geodetic Surveying

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 Primary Divisions of Surveying
Plain Surveying
• The plain surveying is that type of surveying in which earth
surface is considered as a plane and the curvature of the earth
is ignored.
• In such surveying a line joining any two stations is considered
to be straight.
• The triangle formed by any three points is considered as a
plane triangle, and the angles of the triangle are considered as
plain angles.
• Surveying is carried out for a small area of less than 250 km2 .
• It is carried out by local or state agencies like R & B
department, Irrigation department, Railway department.
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 Primary Divisions of Surveying
Geodetic Surveying
• The geodetic Surveying is that type of surveying in
which the curvature of the earth is taken into account.
• It is generally extended over larger areas. The line
joining any two stations is considered as curved line.
• The triangle formed by any three points is considered
to be spherical and the angles of the triangle are
considered to be spherical angles.
• Geodetic surveying is conducted by the survey of
India Department and is carried out for a larger area
exceeding 250 km2

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 Plane Surveying Vs Geodetic Surveying
No. Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying
1 The earth surface is considered The earth surface is considered
as plain Surface. as Curved Surface.

2. The Curvature of the earth is The curvature of earth is taken into

ignored account.
3 Line joining any two stations is The line joining any two stations
considered to be straight is considered as spherical.
4. The triangle formed by any three The Triangle formed by any three points
points is considered as plain is considered as spherical.
5. The angles of triangle are The angles of the triangle are
considered as plain angles. considered as spherical angles.
6. Carried out for a small area < Carried out for a small area > 250 km2
250 km2
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 Classification of Surveying
• Survey can be classified into various categories
depending on methods used and nature of the
field.
• 1.Classification Based on Instruments used
• 2.Classification Based on the object of survey
• 3.Classification Based on the nature of the
Field survey

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1.Classification Based on Instruments used
i. Chain survey
ii. Theodolite Survey
iii. Traverse Survey
iv. Triangulation Survey
v. Tacheometric survey
vi. Plane table Survey
vii. Photogrammetric Survey
viii.Aerial Survey
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 Chain Survey

• This is the simplest

type of surveying in
which only linear
measurements are
made with a chain
or a tape.
• Angular
measurements are
not taken.

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 Theodolite Survey
• Theodolite survey is Designed
for measurement of horizontal
and vertical angles.
• It has wide applicability in laying
of horizontal angles, locating
points on line, prolonging survey
lines, establishing grades,
determining difference in
elevation, setting out of curves,
etc.

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 Traverse Survey
• Traversing survey is that type
of survey in which number
of connected survey lines
form the frame work and
the directions and length of
the survey lines.
• This can be measured with
help of an angle measuring
instrument and tape .
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 Triangulation Survey

• It is one of the primary

objects of land
surveying to
determine the area of
the tract surveyed .
• It is used to determine
the quantitites of
earth work

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 Tacheometric survey
• Tacheometry is a method of
measuring both horizontal
distance and vertical
elevation of a point in the
distance.
• In tachometric survey
,direct measurement of
distances are possible.
• Suitable in case obstacles
like river broken ground.
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 Plane Table Survey

• It is a graphical
method of surveying in
which field works and
plotting both are done
simultaneously.

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 Photogrammetric Survey
• It is the Science and art of
obtaining accurate
measurements using
photographs for various
purpose such as construction
of planimetric and
topographic maps,
classification of soils,
interpretation of geology,
acquisition of military
intelligence.
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 Aerial Survey
• It is branch of
photogrammetry where
in the photographs are
taken by a camera
mounted in an aircraft
flying over the area.
• It is used to develop for
large projects and
military intelligence.
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Classification Based on the object of survey

• Engineering Survey
• Military Survey
• Mine Survey
• Geological Survey
• Archeological Survey

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 Engineering Survey
• This is undertaken for the
determination of
quantities or to afford
sufficient data for the
designing of engineering
works such as roads, and
reservoirs,sewage
disposal or water supply.

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 Military Survey
• It has a very important and
critical applications in the
military.
• Aerial surveys are
conducted for this purpose.
• It is conducted to locate
strategic positions for the
purpose of army operations.

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 Mine Survey
• Mine Survey includes
include both surface and
underground surveys.
• It is conducted for the
exploration of mineral
deposits and to guide
tunneling and other
operations associated
with mining.
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 Geological Survey
• In this both surface and
subsurface surveying are
conducted to locate
different minerals and
rocks.
• In addition, geological
features of the terrain
such as folds and faults
are located.
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 Archaeological Survey
• It is conducted to
locate relics o
antiquity, civilization,
kingdoms,forts,
temples, etc.

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Classification based on nature of Field Survey

• Land Surveying
i. Topographical Surveys
ii. Cadastral Surveys
iii. City Survey
• Marine or Hydrographic Surveying
• Astronomical Surveying

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 Land Surveying
• i. Topographical Surveys
This consist of horizontal and vertical location
of certain points by linear and angular
measurements and is made to determine the
natural features of a country such as rivers,
streams, lakes, woods, hills, etc., and such
artificial features as roads, railways, canals,
towns and villages.

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 Land Surveying
• Cadastral surveys
– Cadastral surveys are made
incident to the fixing of
property lines, the
calculation of, land area, or
the transfer of land property
from one owner to another.
– They are also made to fix
the boundaries of
municipalities and of State
and Federal jurisdictions.

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 Land Surveying
• City Surveying
– They are made in
connection with the
construction of streets,
water supply systems,
sewers and other
works.

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Marine or Hydrographic Surveying
– Marine or hydrographic survey
deals with bodies of water for
purpose of navigation, water
supply, harbor works or for the
determination of mean sea level.
– The work consists in measurement
of discharge of streams, making
topographic survey of shores and
banks, taking and locating
soundings to determine the depth
of water and observing the
fluctuations of the ocean tide.
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 Astronomical Surveying
– The astronomical survey
offers the surveyor means
of determining the absolute
location of any point or the
absolute location and
direction of any line on the
surface of the earth.
– This consists in observations
to the heavenly bodies such
as the sun or any fixed star.
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 Instruments Used in Chaining
• The following instruments are used while chaining.
• Chains
• Tapes
• Arrows
• Ranging rods and offset rods
• Laths & Whites
• Pegs
• Plumb bob
• Line Ranger
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Chains
Various types of chains used in surveying are
• Metric Chain
• Gunter‟s Chain or Surveyor‟s Chain
• Engineer‟s Chain
• Revenue Chain
• Steel Band or band chain

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Metric Chain
• •Normally this chain consists of galvanized mild steel
wire of 4 mm diameter known as link.
• The ends of the links are bent into loop and
connected together by means of three oval rings
which provide the flexibility to the chain and make it
less liable to kinking.
• Both ends of the chain have brass handle with swivel
joint so that the chain can be turned round without
twisting
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• In a metric chain at every one meter interval of
chain, a small brass ring is provided.
• Brass tallies are also provided at every 5.0 m length of chain.
• Each tally has different shape which indicates 5 , 10, 15m from
any one side of the chain, metric chains are available in 20 m
and 30 m length.
• A 20 m chain has 100 links each of 20 cm and 30
m chain has 150 links.
• Length of chain is embossed on the brass handles of the chain.

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Gunter's chain
• A 66 feet long chain consists of 100 links each
of 0.66 ft it is known as Gunter‟s Chain
• Here, 10 sq chain are equal to 1 acre,
• 10 chains= 1 furlong and 8 furlongs = 1 mile
• This chain is suitable for taking length in miles
and areas in acres.

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Engineer‟s Chain
• A 100 ft chain of 100 links each of 1 foot is
• known as Engineer‟s chain.
• Brass tags are fastened at every 10 links.
• This chain is used to measure length in feet
and area in square yards

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• Revenue Chain
• Revenue chain is 33 ft long chain consisting of
16 links.
• This chain is used for distance measurements
in feet & inches for small areas.

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Steel Band or Band Chain
• Steel bands are preferred than chains because
they are more accurate, but the disadvantages is
that they get broken easily and are difficult to
repair in the field.
• They are 20 and 30 m long,12 to 16 mm wide and 0.3
to 0.6 mm thick.
• They are numbered at every metre and divided
by brass studs at every 20 cm
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 Measuring Tapes
• Tapes are used for more accurate measurement.
The tapes are classified based on the materials
of which they are made of such as:
• Cloth or linen tape
• Fibre Tape
• Metallic Tape
• Steel tape
• Invar Tape

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Cloth or linen Tape
• Linen tapes are closely
woven linen and varnished
to resist moisture.
• They are generally 10 m,
20 m, 25 m and 30 m long
in length and 12 to 15 mm
wide.
• They are generally used for
offset measurements.
• These tapes are light and
flexible.

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Fibre Glass Tape
• These tapes are similar to linen and
plastic
coated tapes but these are made of
glass fibre.
• The tapes are quite flexible, strong
and nonconductive.
• These can be used in the vicinity of
electrical equipment.
• These tapes do not stretch or
shrink due to changes in
temperature or moisture.
• These tapes are available in length
of 20 m, 30 m and 50 m length.
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Metallic Tape
• A linen tape reinforced with brass
or copper wires
to prevent stretching or twisting of
fibres is called a
metallic tape.
• As the wires are interwoven and
tape is varnished these wires are
visible to naked eyes.
• This is supplied in a lather case
with a winding device. Each metre
length is divided into ten parts
(decimetres) and each part is
further sub-divided into ten parts.
• It is commonly used for taking
offset in chain surveying.

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Steel Tape
• The steel tape is made of
steel ribbon of width
varying from 6 to 16 mm.
• The commonly available
length are 10 m, 15 m, 20
m, 30 m and 50 m.
• It is graduated in metres,
decimetres, and
centimetres.
• Steel tapes are used for
accurate measurement of
distances.
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Invar Tape
• Invar tape are made of alloy of nickel
36 % and
steel 64 % having very low co-efficient of
thermal expansion.
• These are 6 mm wide and generally
available in length of 30 m, 50m,
100m.
• It is not affected by change of
temperature therefore, it is used when
high degree of precesion is required

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 Arrows
• Arrows are made of tempered steel wire of
diameter 4 mm.
• one end of the arrow is bent into ring of
diameter 50 mm and the other end is
pointed.
• Its overall length is 400 mm.
• Arrows are used for counting the number of
chains
• while measuring a chain line.
• An arrow is inserted into the ground after
every chain length measured on the ground.
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 Ranging Rods and Offset Rods
• Ranging rods are used for ranging some intermediate points on the survey
line. Ranging rods are generally 2 to
• 3 m in length and are painted with alternate bands of black or white or red
and white colour with length of each equalizing 20 cm.
• The location of any survey station can be known from long distances only
by means of ranging rods.
• If the distance is too long, a rod of length 4.0 to 6.0 m is used and is called
ranging pole.
• •The offset rod is similar to ranging rod with the exception that instead of
the flag, a hook is provided at the top for pushing and pulling the chain or
the tape.
• It is also used for measuring small offsets Ranging rods are used for
ranging some intermediate points on the survey line.

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• Ranging rods are generally 2 to 3 m in length and are
painted with alternate bands of black or white or red and
white colour with length of each equalizing 20 cm.
• The location of any survey station can be known from long
distances only by means of ranging rods. If the distance is
too long, a rod of length 4.0 to 6.0 m is used and is called
ranging pole.
• The offset rod is similar to ranging rod with the exception
that instead of the flag, a hook is provided at the top for
pushing and pulling the chain or the tape.
• It is also used for measuring small offsets
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 Laths & Whites
Laths
• Laths are 0.5 to 1.0 m long sticks of soft wood.
• They are sharpened at one end and are painted with white or light
colours.
• They are used as intermediate points while ranging or while crossing
depressions.
Whites
• Whites are the pieces of sharpened thick sticks cut from
• the nearest place in the field.
• One end of the stick is sharpened and the other end is split.
• White papers are inserted in the split to improve the visibility.
• Whites arealso used for the same purpose as laths.
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Pegs are made of timber or
steel and they are
used to mark the position of
the station or
terminal points of a survey
line.
Wooden pegs are 15 cm long
and are driven into the
ground with the help of a
hammer.
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 Plumb Bob
• Plumb-bob is used to transfer points on the
ground.
• It is also used for fixing the instruments
exactly over the station point marked on the
ground by checking the centre of the
instrument whether coincides with the centre
of the peg or station not, by suspending the
plumb-bob exactly at the centre of the
instrument under it.
• Plumb bob is thus used ascentring aid in
theodolites and plane table.
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 Line Ranger
• It is an optical instrument used for locating
a point on a line and hence useful for
ranging.
• It consists of two isosceles prisms placed one
over the other and fixed in an instrument
with handle.
• The diagonals ofthe prisms are silvered so as
to reflect the rays.
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