Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 28–45

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Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research

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Review

Calderas and magma reservoirs

Katharine V. Cashman a,⁎, Guido Giordano b
a
University of Bristol, UK
b
Universitá Roma Tre, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Large caldera-forming eruptions have long been a focus of both petrological and volcanological studies; petrolo-
Received 4 June 2014 gists have used the eruptive products to probe conditions of magma storage (and thus processes that drive
Accepted 15 September 2014 magma evolution), while volcanologists have used them to study the conditions under which large volumes of
Available online 6 October 2014
magma are transported to, and emplaced on, the Earth's surface. Traditionally, both groups have worked on
the assumption that eruptible magma is stored within a single long-lived melt body. Over the past decade, how-
Keywords:
Explosive eruptions
ever, advances in analytical techniques have provided new views of magma storage regions, many of which pro-
Calderas vide evidence of multiple melt lenses feeding a single eruption, and/or rapid pre-eruptive assembly of large
Magma storage volumes of melt. These new petrological views of magmatic systems have not yet been fully integrated into vol-
Syn-eruptive melt extraction canological perspectives of caldera-forming eruptions. Here we explore the implications of complex magma res-
ervoir configurations for eruption dynamics and caldera formation. We first examine mafic systems, where
stacked-sill models have long been invoked but which rarely produce explosive eruptions. An exception is the
2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull volcano, Iceland, where seismic and petrologic data show that multiple sills at
different depths fed a multi-phase (explosive and effusive) eruption. Extension of this concept to larger mafic
caldera-forming systems suggests a mechanism to explain many of their unusual features, including their
protracted explosivity, spatially variable compositions and pronounced intra-eruptive pauses. We then review
studies of more common intermediate and silicic caldera-forming systems to examine inferred conditions of
magma storage, time scales of melt accumulation, eruption triggers, eruption dynamics and caldera collapse.
By compiling data from large and small, and crystal-rich and crystal-poor, events, we compare eruptions that
are well explained by simple evacuation of a zoned magma chamber (termed the Standard Model by Gualda
and Ghiorso, 2013) to eruptions that are better explained by tapping multiple, rather than single, melt lenses
stored within a largely crystalline mush (which we term complex magma reservoirs). We then discuss the impli-
cations of magma storage within complex, rather than simple, reservoirs for identifying magmatic systems with
the potential to produce large eruptions, and for monitoring eruption progress under conditions where succes-
sive melt lenses may be tapped. We conclude that emerging views of complex magma reservoir configurations
provide exciting opportunities for re-examining volcanological concepts of caldera-forming systems.
© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction — why review calderas? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2. Caldera-forming eruptions: an overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3. Mafic magmatic systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1. Stacked sill models of mafic magmatic systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2. Caldera formation from complex mafic magma reservoirs — an example from Colli Albani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4. Storage and eruption from large silicic systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.1. Pre-eruptive magma storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2. Time scales of magma accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.3. Eruption triggers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.4. Eruption dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.5. Caldera collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5. Implications for recognizing eruption potential of large magmatic systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

⁎ Corresponding author at: University of Bristol, School of Earth Sciences, Bristol BS8 1RJ, UK.
E-mail address: glkvc@bristol.ac.uk (K.V. Cashman).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.09.007
0377-0273/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 28–45 29

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Appendix A. Supplementary data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
41
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

“However, there is a pleasure in recognizing old things from a new point
of view.” Richard Feynman, 1948
1. Introduction — why review calderas?
The importance of studying caldera-forming eruptions cannot be
under-estimated. Caldera-forming eruptions include some of the largest
volcanic events ever to affect the Earth. Many of these have produced
large volumes (N100 km3) of highly evolved crystal-poor melt. As a re-
sult, an enduring paradigm of both igneous petrology and volcanology
has been one of melt accumulation, evolution and eruption from a single
melt-dominated magma chamber. This conceptual metaphor has pro-
vided a framework for petrological models of magma evolution and dif-
ferentiation, and for volcanological models of eruption initiation,
magma withdrawal and caldera collapse (Fig. 1). Key features include:
(1) development of stably zoned magma chambers by crystal fraction-
ation, where crystal-liquid separation is driven by settling of individual
crystals or crystal plumes within a large batch of liquid that cools from
the margins inward; (2) eruption initiation by injection of a vertical
and pressurized dyke, located either in an axisymmetric position or at
the chamber margin; (3) magma withdrawal starting from the top of
the melt lens and propagating downward, as evidenced by deposits
that are reversely zoned in composition and/or pre-eruptive tempera-
ture and pressure; and (4) caldera formation by collapse of an under-
pressured magma chamber after some fraction of magma has been
withdrawn, with the timing of collapse determined by the strength
and thickness of the overlying country rock relative to width of the
magma chamber.
Over the past few decades, however, detailed volcanological, petro-
logical and geophysical studies of individual (intermediate–silicic) mag-
matic systems have shown that (1) magma storage regions are
composed primarily of crystalline mush (crystals plus interstitial liquid;
Fig. 2; e.g., Hildreth, 2004; Hildreth and Wilson, 2007; Lipman, 2007;
Bachmann and Bergantz, 2008; Reid, 2008; Bachmann, 2010; Deering
et al., 2011; Walker et al., 2013; Simon et al., 2014), (2) large melt vol-
umes may be assembled rapidly (Charlier et al., 2005; Wilson and
Charlier, 2009; Druitt et al., 2012; Allan et al., 2013; Gebauer et al.,
2014; Simon et al., 2014; Wotzlaw et al., 2014), (3) caldera-forming

Fig. 2. End member models of caldera-producing magmatic systems. (A) Crystal-poor

Fig. 1. The Standard Model of caldera formation. (A) Stably stratified magma chamber
forms over thousands of years by crystal settling and upward migration of volatiles.
(B) Eruption starts with Plinian activity through a single vent, driven primarily by volatile
exsolution. (C) Evacuation of magma causes under-pressurization and destabilization of
the reservoir. (D) Caldera forms by roof collapse.
(CR), and often zoned, eruptions are fed from a single melt body contained within a
much larger and more crystalline system comprising a crystal mush (~50% crystals) and
surrounding rigid sponge (N65% crystals); modified from Hildreth (2004). (B) Crystal-
rich (CR) eruptions occur by rejuvenation of a near-rigid crystal mush (by input of melt
and/or gas); modified from Bachmann and Bergantz (2006); Huber et al. (2011).
30 K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 28–45
eruptions may be triggered either internally (‘chamber triggered’) or
externally (‘roof triggered’) depending on the tectonic setting, accumu-
lated magma volume and roof aspect ratio (Lindsay et al., 2001; Jellinek
and DePaolo, 2003; de Silva et al., 2006; Gudmundsson, 2008, 2012;
Gottsmann et al., 2009; Gregg et al., 2012), and (4) large eruptions
may tap multiple and distinct melt sources and crystal populations (in-
cluding phenocrysts, antecrysts and xenocrysts, e.g., Maughan et al.,
2002; Ellis et al., 2010; Wright et al., 2011; Allan et al., 2012; Cooper
et al., 2012; Ellis and Wolff, 2012; Vinkler et al., 2012; Gualda and
Ghiorso, 2013; Fig. 3). At the same time, geophysical studies of active
volcanic systems have failed to locate large volumes of crystal-poor
melt (e.g. Iyer et al., 1990; Masturyono et al., 2001; Schilling and
Partzsch, 2001; Sherburn et al., 2003; Zandt et al., 2003; Lees, 2007;
Chu et al., 2010). These observations are difficult to reconcile with a
classical magma chamber model sensu stricto, that is, a single, very
large, long-lived melt-dominated magma chamber (termed the Stan-
dard Model by Gualda and Ghiorso, 2013).
Here we review explosive caldera-forming eruptions and their prod-
ucts, paying particular attention to new conceptual models of complex
magma storage regions. By “complex” we refer to magma reservoirs
comprising multiple melt lenses within a partially to completely crystal-
line framework; such reservoir configurations have been advanced by
recent petrological studies of mafic systems, but are consistent with
emerging views of some silicic systems (e.g., Fig. 3). We take this view
one step further by exploring the implications of complex magma reser-
voir geometries for syn-eruptive melt extraction, eruption dynamics
and caldera collapse. We end by examining the implications of different
magma storage models for hazard assessment, including geophysical
‘prospecting’ for magma reservoirs capable of producing very large
eruptions.
2. Caldera-forming eruptions: an overview
Excellent reviews of magmatic systems that produce large silicic
caldera-forming eruptions are provided by Hildreth (1981, 2004) and
Lipman (2007); here we summarize some pertinent points from these
and related studies. Large (≥100 km3 DRE) silicic eruptions can be clas-
sified by dominant magma type as either crystal-rich (≥ 35%) dacite
(often termed monotonous intermediates, MI) or crystal-poor (≤ 15%)
rhyolite (CPR). Magma within these systems is typically stored in sill-
like bodies, that is, they have horizontal dimensions that greatly exceed
the vertical dimension. Smaller (b 100 km3) caldera-forming eruptions
Fig. 3. Schematic view of the magmatic system that fed the very large (~1200 km3) rhyo-
litic Kidnappers eruption, Mangakino volcano, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand. The
eruption tapped three separate melt bodies distributed laterally along the rift.
Modified from Cooper et al. (2012).
are most commonly associated with stratovolcanoes, where storage re-
gions tend to be vertically elongated.
The very largest eruptions almost always involve MI magma that is
(relatively) homogeneous in both composition and phenocryst content
(Fig. 4A). Resulting ignimbrites are typically composed of ash and bro-
ken crystals, with only scarce pumice clasts (b10%; e.g., Carter et al.,
1986; Bachmann et al., 2002; Gottsmann et al., 2009; Wright et al.,
2011). CPR eruptions, in contrast, initiate with pumice-bearing deposits
of crystal-poor (and often high-SiO2) rhyolite magma that may vary in
both crystallinity and bulk composition throughout the course of an
eruption (e.g., Hildreth, 1981; Deering et al., 2011; Pamukcu et al.,
2013; Fig. 4B). The high-SiO2 rhyolite melt often lacks a counterpart in
correlative plutonic sequences (although there are exceptions,
e.g., Walker et al., 2007), but overlaps the composition of matrix melts
in MI magmas (e.g., Lindsay et al., 2001; Lipman, 2007; Bachmann
et al., 2007; Fig. 4). For this reason, both magma types are inferred to
have a similar origin, with the difference being that MI eruptions evac-
uate the entire (rejuvenated) magma storage region, while CPR erup-
tions are dominated by the (segregated) melt phase (e.g., Bachmann
et al., 2007). Accumulation of rhyolitic residual melt prior to CPR erup-
tions is inferred to occur by crystal settling, compaction and/or filter
pressing of the crystal mush (e.g., Sisson and Bacon, 1999; Bachmann
and Bergantz, 2004; Bea, 2010; Dufek and Bachmann, 2010).
MI and CPR eruptions differ in eruption style and timing of caldera
formation. MI eruptions commonly lack an early Plinian (single vent,
high plume) phase and initiate, instead, with eruption of pyroclastic
density currents from faults along the caldera margin. Where the timing
of caldera collapse can be determined, it is coincident with the start of
the eruption (Sparks et al., 1985; Lindsay et al., 2001; de Silva et al.,
2006; Gregg et al., 2012; Willcock et al., 2013). As a result, associated
distal ash deposits derive mostly (or exclusively) from the co-
ignimbrite plume (e.g., Chesner et al., 1991). CPR eruptions, in contrast,
typically start with a Plinian (high plume) phase, as recorded in wide-
spread and voluminous fall deposits. With time, the vent widens
(often by propagating ring faults) and pyroclastic flows comprise an in-
creasing proportion of the erupted volume. Caldera collapse occurs only
after withdrawal of a critical volume of magma that can be related to the
depth and geometry of the reservoir (e.g., Roche and Druitt, 2001; Geyer
et al., 2006; Geshi et al., 2014).
Smaller caldera-forming eruptions (≤~100 km3) encompass a wide
range of magma compositions and crystallinities (e.g., Hildreth, 1981)
and are typically associated with stratovolcanoes. When classified by
matrix glass (rather than bulk) compositions, these eruptions can be
assigned to one of three groups: rhyolite (SiO2 N 70%), intermediate
(phonolite/trachyte; 55% b SiO2 b 70%), or mafic (ultrapotassic;
SiO2 b 55%; Fig. 4B). These melt compositions are often buffered at
pseudo-invariant points (Fowler et al., 2007; Boari et al., 2009; Gualda
Fig. 4. Bulk rock and matrix glass compositions of CP and CR ignimbrites as a function of
DRE erupted volume. (A) CR data; yellow squares show matrix glass, orange bars show
bulk compositional range. (B) CP data; blue circles show matrix glass composition of ear-
liest erupted magma, blue bars show bulk compositional range. Data sources are listed in
Table S1.
 K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 28–45 31

et al., 2012). By analogy with the larger systems, it is commonly as-
sumed that evolved crystal-poor (CP) magma is segregated into a single
large body prior to eruption, and that late-erupted crystal-rich (CR)
magma is mobilized by recharge melts (e.g., Bacon and Druitt, 1988;
Pallister et al., 1992; Allen, 2001; Bachmann, 2010). When crystal-rich
magmas are erupted early (for example, Pinatubo 1991, Philippines;
Quilotoa 800 ybp, Ecuador), erupted magmas appear similar to larger
MI eruptions in their (general) homogeneity, bulk composition and
high crystallinity (e.g., Polacci et al., 2001; Rosi et al., 2004). Caldera col-
lapse in these systems is attributed to magma withdrawal and under-
pressurization, and may happen at some point during the eruptive se-
quence (e.g., Druitt and Sparks, 1984).
Of the caldera-forming ignimbrite family, the smallest, and in many
ways the oddest, group is that of ultrapotassic (SiO2 b 55%) ignimbrites
found primarily in the Quaternary Roman Magmatic Province (QRMP;
Italy). The QRMP comprises four major caldera complexes that have
produced recurrent eruptions of tephritic to tephri-phonolitic ignim-
brites with DRE (dense rock equivalent) volumes of 1–50 km3 (Fig. 5;
Giordano et al., 2006; Boari et al., 2009; Masotta et al., 2010; Freda
et al., 2011; Vinkler et al., 2012; Acocella et al., 2012). The recurrence
times for caldera-forming eruptions at each caldera complex are 40 to
50 ka, and caldera areas range from 30 to 300 km2. These eruptions
are curious because ultrapotassic magmas have low viscosities
(≤104.5 Pa s, even accounting for up to 30% syn-eruptive crystallization;
Vinkler et al., 2012; Campagnola, 2014) and are therefore susceptible
to gas escape during magma ascent. The eruption sequence of
ultrapotassic ignimbrites is, however, comparable to that of their silicic
counterparts, with an early fallout phase from a central single vent
followed by climactic, syn-collapse highly mobile ignimbrites with asso-
ciated proximal collapse breccias (e.g. Giordano and Dobran, 1994;
Watkins et al., 2002). As is typical for other stratovolcano eruptions,
none of these caldera complexes has undergone post-collapse resur-
gence; instead, post-collapse subsidence, intracaldera volcanism and
sedimentation are common (Giordano et al., 2006; Acocella et al., 2012).
3. Mafic magmatic systems
To explore relations between conditions of magma eruption and
storage, we first briefly review mafic and mafic ultrapotassic magmatic
systems, where both recent observations of eruptions (Tarasewicz et al.,
2012; Carbotte et al., 2013) and detailed petrological (e.g., Marsh, 2013;
Neave et al., 2013) and volcanological (e.g., Brown et al., 2014; Vinkler
et al., 2012) studies all point to syn-eruptive, and sometimes explosive,
tapping of multiple melt lenses stored within complex magma plumb-
ing systems. Geochemical data suggest, moreover, that these melt
lenses may be vertically distributed throughout the crust. In fact, isoto-
pic evidence for crustal assimilation of flood basalt magmas (e.g., Wolff
et al., 2008; Vye-Brown et al., 2013) requires that very large volumes of
mafic melt accumulate within the crust prior to eruption.
3.1. Stacked sill models of mafic magmatic systems
Mafic magmatic systems are commonly envisioned as sequences of
melt lenses or stacked sills within largely to completely crystalline

Fig. 5. The Quaternary Roman Magmatic Province. (A) Main caldera-producing centers. (B) The Colli Albani volcano with the extent of the 355 ka Villa Senni (VSN) caldera-forming erup-
tion unit: black lines = isopachs of the basal scoria fall (shown in yellow); orange = Tufo Lionato pre-collapse ignimbrite; pink = Pozzolanelle climactic ignimbrite. (C) Chemical com-
position of VSN units: orange field = Tufo Lionato (from Freda et al., 1997); pink squares = Pozzolanelle ignimbrite (from Conticelli et al., 2010); purple circles = spatter in caldera
collapse breccia (from Conticelli et al., 2010).
32 K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 28–45
zones (e.g., Marsh, 1996; Annen et al., 2006; Gudmundsson, 2012). Sills
form when repeated magma injections are sufficiently spaced in time to
allow complete cooling between injection events (e.g., Annen et al.,
2006; Burchardt, 2008); melt lenses dominate when new inputs are
added to systems that are still partially molten, or within sills that are
sufficiently thick to allow internal redistribution of melt (e.g., Marsh,
2002, 2013). Variants of stacked sill models have been invoked to ex-
plain the petrologic diversity of mafic magma erupted during individual,
often long-lived, eruptive episodes (e.g., Aarnes et al., 2008; Kelley and
Barton, 2008; Erlund et al., 2010; Dahren et al., 2012; Passmore et al.,
Fig. 6. Time-progressive unloading of a stacked sill sequence beneath Eyjafjallajökull vol-
cano, Iceland, 2010; illustrates response to a downward propagating decompression front
of a partially molten crustal magmatic system.
Redrafted from Tarasewicz et al. (2012).
2012; Neave et al., 2013; van der Zwan et al., 2013). In these conceptual
models, each thermally zoned mafic melt lens evolves by the progres-
sion of a solidification front that is multiply saturated, such that melt
composition is buffered along a eutectic/cotectic. At the same time, crys-
tallization generates highly differentiated melt compositions that may
(1) segregate by compaction at intermediate crystallinities, (2) become
trapped within small pores in regions of high crystallinity (N 70%;
e.g., Dufek and Bachmann, 2010), or (3) segregate into lenses, pockets,
and bulbous masses (Marsh, 2002; Masotta et al., 2012).
The volcanological consequences of stacked sill models have not
been thoroughly explored. Direct evidence for syn-eruptive tapping of
previously intruded sills is provided by precursory and syn-eruptive
geophysical data for the remarkable pattern of downward-
propagating seismicity that accompanied the 2010 Fimmvörðduháls-
Eyjafjallajökull eruption in Iceland (Tarasewicz et al., 2012; Fig. 6). Evi-
dence for at least two sill intrusions in the 1990s (Sigmundsson et al.,
2010) provides support for this interpretation. An important conse-
quence was an eruption that involved several distinct explosive epi-
sodes separated by times of lava effusion; another consequence was
a wide range of erupted compositions and groundmass textures
(e.g., Cioni et al., 2014). This well documented example shows that
melt does not have to be assembled pre-eruptively into a single large
body to contribute to a single eruptive episode, and supports previous
interpretations of individual mafic–intermediate eruptions fed from
complex reservoirs (e.g., Yoshimoto et al., 2004; Roman et al., 2006;
Erlund et al., 2010; de Angelis et al., 2013; Neave et al., 2013). These
data also show that changes in eruptive activity (such as pauses and
transitions between explosions and lava effusion) may reflect not only
conditions of magma transport to the surface (e.g., Melnik et al., 2005)
but also conditions of magma storage, including the over-pressure
maintained within the magma reservoir. For example, pressure within
individual melt lenses may be modulated dynamically by the interplay
between gravitational instability of the solidification front (Marsh,
2002; Humphreys and Holness, 2010), local gas build-up caused by
volatile-saturated crystallization (Tait et al., 1989), changes in melt vol-
ume caused by the balance between crystallization and interstitial melt
segregation (e.g. Sisson and Bacon, 1999; Bachmann and Bergantz,
2004), compressibility of magma with an exsolved volatile phase
(Johnson, 1987; Voight et al., 2010), and/or intrusion of ‘recharge’
melt and/or gas from deeper melt lenses.
3.2. Caldera formation from complex mafic magma reservoirs — an
example from Colli Albani
The Eyjafjallajökull eruption produced a small volume of magma,
was only moderately explosive, and did not produce a caldera. Could a
magma system comprising multiple melt lenses produce a large,
caldera-forming eruption? To address this question we examine the
mafic ultrapotassic volcano Colli Albani (QRMP; Fig. 5), which has pro-
duced several large (30–50 km3) caldera-forming eruptions (Giordano
and the CARG team, 2010). Best characterized is the 355 ka Villa Senni
eruption (VSN; Vinkler et al., 2012; Figs. 5, 7). The architecture of the
VSN deposit is similar to those of many silicic caldera-forming erup-
tions, with a basal fall deposit of 0.3 km3 (all volumes in dense rock
equivalent, or DRE) followed by the N 10 km3 tephri-phonolitic,
crystal-poor Tufo Lionato ignimbrite (VSN1). VSN1 is overlain by the
N20 km3 Pozzolanelle ignimbrite (VSN2), which is tephri-phonolitic to
tephritic in composition and (mostly) crystal-rich (Watkins et al.,
2002). Evidence of caldera collapse can be found in the sudden appear-
ance between VSN1 and VSN2 of an intercalated co-ignimbrite breccia
with up to 30% deep-seated lithics (from ~1 to 6 km depth, including in-
trusives and cumulates). The breccia also contains an isotopically dis-
tinct K-foidite juvenile magma that does not appear elsewhere in the
VSN stratigraphy (Conticelli et al., 2010). The deposit characteristics,
as well as the ubiquitous vapor-phase lithification of the lower VSN1 ig-
nimbrite, suggest that a (short?) hiatus preceded caldera collapse.
 K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 28–45 33

Fig. 7. Stratigraphic and textural characteristics of VSN (compiled from Vinkler et al., 2012); color scheme used is the same as in Fig. 5. Juvenile types (by number) refer to Fig. 8. Reference
lines for vesicularity and vesicle number density (VND) are from Rust and Cashman (2011). Arrow on right hand side labeled f represents the volumetric ratio of pre-collapse and post-
collapse deposits.

One unusual feature of the eruptive deposit relates to the pyroclast
vesicularities, which are generally very low (b~40% bulk, and b ~60%,
melt-referenced; Fig. 7), and contrast with typical crystal-poor silicic
pumice vesicularities of N 70% (e.g., Klug et al., 2002; Gurioli et al.,
2005; Adams et al., 2006; Houghton et al., 2010). At the same time, ves-
icle number densities of ≤ 108 cm3 reach those of other mafic plinian
eruptions (Vinkler et al., 2012). These vesicle characteristics suggest ex-
tensive syn-eruptive outgassing, although concomitant with high rates
of magma decompression. And yet tens of cubic kilometers of low vis-
cosity magma were erupted explosively to form two separate, large-
volume ignimbrites. This apparent conundrum strongly suggests that
volatile exsolution is not necessarily the primary driving force for erup-
tive activity.
At the same time, geochemical examination of the eruptive prod-
ucts shows that extensive (≤ 60%) crystallization of clinopyroxene
and leucite are required to produce Colli Albani magma (Freda
et al., 1997, 2011; Peccerillo, 2005; Boari et al., 2009). This implies
that the bulk of the magma storage system was highly crystalline,
even though both early-erupted (pre-collapse) and very evolved
(syn-collapse foidite) magma are crystal-poor (Fig. 8a, b). Further
support for a largely crystalline magma reservoir can be found in
the ejection of both cognate cumulates and loose cumulate crystals
(up to 35% of mm- to cm-sized leucite, clinopyroxene and biotite;
Fig. 8c, d) during and after caldera collapse. Incorporation of cumu-
late crystals into the erupted melt explains the observed change in
bulk composition from tephri-phonolite to phono-tephrite, and
suggests that progressive disruption of the crystal framework
accompanied caldera collapse. Additionally, eruption of K-foidite in
association with syn-caldera breccias shows that at least one isolat-
ed melt lens was tapped at the time of caldera formation.
The data reviewed above – low pyroclast vesicularity, time gaps,
multiple explosive episodes, variable melt and bulk compositions –
are difficult to reconcile with magma extraction from a single, pressur-
ized, well mixed, melt-dominated magma chamber. Instead, the
eruptive sequence has many elements that suggest involvement of a
complex magma reservoir composed of both laterally and vertically dis-
tributed melt lenses within a variably crystalline mush (Fig. 9). Most im-
portantly, both the explosive nature of the eruptive activity and the
poorly vesicular scoria appear to require sustained overpressures to
drive the eruption. We suggest that a complex magma reservoir can ex-
plain these observations if overpressure is accommodated within indi-
vidual melt lenses (e.g., Bagdassarov and Dorfman, 1998). In this
34 K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 28–45

Fig. 8. Photomicrographs of component types in VSN deposit (labeled by number to correspond with labels in Figs. 6 and 8). (1) Crystal-poor scoria with round vesicles.
(2) Microphenocryst-rich scoria with irregular vesicles. (3) Phenocryst-rich scoria with microcrystalline matrix and highly irregular vesicles. (4) Cognate xenolith containing crystals of
leucite, clinopyroxene and biotite. All images are 3.3 mm across.

scenario, elastic relaxation of the crystalline framework could maintain
a sufficiently high driving pressure to sustain fast withdrawal of even
volatile-poor magma. As a consequence, sustained melt extraction
would not require volatiles to provide the only driving force for erup-
tion. Instead, as for oil or water extraction from an over-pressured res-
ervoir, melt out-flow could be driven initially by release of stored
deformational energy within the (bubble-bearing?) magma, the (visco-
elastic) crystalline parts of the reservoir, and the country rock. Vesicula-
tion triggered by magma ascent and decompression would then
enhance magma ascent, particularly at low pressures. In this complex
magma reservoir model, time gaps reflect modulation of magma with-
drawal by the strength of the crystal framework (Fig. 10), and the
time required for connection of melt lenses to the main conduit
(e.g., Fig. 6).
To summarize, magma storage within a complex melt/mush reser-
voir helps to explain many unusual characteristics of the Villa Senni
eruption, including the stability afforded by distributing, rather than
concentrating melt, the potential for isolated lenses to develop both
high overpressures and highly evolved compositions, and the opportu-
nity for sequential tapping of melt lenses to sustain explosive activity

Fig. 9. Conceptual model for the VSN magma reservoir, which is composed of CP melt lenses within a CR magma matrix. Melt lenses are variably interconnected prior to eruption; during
eruption, isolated melt pockets may be tapped either as intervening septa are ruptured or when intercepted by propagation of the caldera-bounding fault. During eruption, magma flows
initially from within CP lenses, where viscosity is lower, and progressively involves larger portions of the reservoir eventually including the crystal rich framework. The enlarged box to the
left depicts the possible geometry of an upper and a lower solidification front with embedded melt accumulation. Numbers 1 to 4 are the same as the zoned juvenile types in Fig. 7, and
show the inferred original positions of magma parcels erupted sequentially in the Villa Senni ignimbrite succession, from crystal poor type (1) to progressively crystal richer types (2, 3, 4).
 K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 28–45
Fig. 10. Changes in magma strength as a function of melt volume fraction. Dashed lines are
fit to experimental data on the Westerly granite (upper) and Delegate aplite (lower).
Adapted from Rosenberg et al. (2007).
throughout an eruptive sequence. Deposits from the VSN eruption fur-
ther suggest that the timing and style of caldera collapse may be con-
trolled by processes within the reservoir (specifically, failure of parts
of the crystal network), in addition to processes external to the reservoir
(such as the geometry, thickness and mechanical properties of the roof
rock and caldera faults). More broadly, we highlight emerging views of
mafic magma reservoirs as vertically extensive and comprising both
melt-rich and melt-poor (or melt-absent) regions. This view derives
not only from the geophysical, petrologic and volcanologic studies
reviewed above, but also from new thermal models that examine condi-
tions required to develop complex storage regions (e.g., Annen et al.,
2006; Annen, 2011; Solano et al., 2012). More important from a
volcanological perspective, however, are the implications for conditions
leading to, and evolving during, volcanic eruptions from magma
reservoirs that contain multiple and variably connected melt lenses
(e.g., Gudmundsson, 2012).
4. Storage and eruption from large silicic systems
We now address the question of the extent to which complex (melt-
lens-dominated), as compared to simple (single melt body), magma
reservoirs can provide insight into processes that contribute to the
much more common eruptions of intermediate to silicic magmas. Our
goal is not to dismiss the Standard Model, but instead to evaluate the ex-
tent to which emerging, and sometimes conflicting, observations about
very large explosive eruptions can be reconciled by broadening our
views of magmatic systems.
4.1. Pre-eruptive magma storage
Several recent studies of crystal-poor rhyolitic ignimbrites suggest
that multiple, rather than single, melt batches were tapped during indi-
vidual caldera-forming eruptions. Evidence for multiple melt batches is
particularly common in extensional environments such as the Snake
River Plain (US; Ellis et al., 2010; Ellis and Wolff, 2012) and the Taupo
Volcanic Zone (TVZ, New Zealand; Brown et al., 1998; Charlier et al.,
2003; Gravley et al., 2007; Wilson and Charlier, 2009; Bégué et al.,
2014), and demonstrates the importance of crustal forcing on both
magma storage and eruption (e.g., Lindsay et al., 2001; Gottsmann
et al., 2009; Cooper et al., 2012; Allan et al., 2013). Two laterally
displaced (and non-communicating) melt lenses may also have been
tapped during the 600 km3 Bishop Tuff eruption from the Long Valley
caldera (Gualda and Ghiorso, 2013), which lies within a trans-
tensional setting at the eastern edge of the Sierra Nevada and has long
been considered the iconic example of the Standard Model of a single
zoned magma chamber. In all cases, melt lenses are similar in bulk,
but distinct in trace element and isotopic, composition and were stored
35
in laterally extensive (rather than vertically elongated) reservoirs
(e.g., Fig. 3).
Monotonous (crystal-rich) ignimbrites (MI) may also preserve evi-
dence of melt segregation. In fact, although the very name “monoto-
nous” denotes homogeneity, careful examination of some large MI
deposits has shown that these systems may also be spatially heteroge-
neous. The best-documented example is the Lund Tuff (USA), where
studies of individual pumice clasts show that the erupted magma was
inhomogeneous in temperature, phenocryst proportions, and mineral
compositions (Maughan et al., 2002). Compositional heterogeneity has
also been documented in the Cerro Galan ignimbrite, NW Argentina,
where different sectors of the ignimbrite outflow sheet have distinct
compositional characteristics (Francis et al., 1989; Kay et al., 2011),
and compositionally distinct white and gray pumice clasts provide evi-
dence for at least two magmas involved in the eruption (Folkes et al.,
2011; Wright et al., 2011). In fact, discrete evolved melt pockets are in-
ferred even for systems that lack evidence for diverse melt compositions
(e.g., Huber et al., 2012; Willcock et al., 2013).
Compositionally zoned ignimbrites are perhaps most representative
of the Standard Model, in that they are interpreted to record top-down
evacuation of individual magma chambers. They also demonstrate the
fundamental role of mafic magma in providing either heat (to partially
melt roof rocks) or evolved melt (from cooling and crystallization). Ex-
amples of the former include Gran Canaria (Freundt and Schmincke,
1995) and Iceland (Askja, Sigurdsson and Sparks, 1981), where mafic
inputs are hot and water-poor. Examples of the latter are common in
water-rich environments, where (often cooler) crystal-poor silicic
magma overlies hotter (often more crystalline) mafic magma
(e.g., Hildreth, 1981; Bacon and Druitt, 1988; Druitt and Bacon, 1989;
Deering et al., 2011; Pamukcu et al., 2013). As both lower temperatures
and lower PH2O promote crystallization (Blundy and Cashman, 2008;
Cashman and Blundy, 2013), the lower temperature of the dominant
crystal-poor rhyolite requires commensurate zoning in water unless
compositional differences are large. Zoned magmas are particularly
characteristic of (although not unique to) vertically elongated magmat-
ic systems that feed arc stratovolcanoes, perhaps because vertically
elongated (and water-rich) reservoirs are less susceptible to convective
mixing than sill-like melt bodies (e.g., Maughan et al., 2002; Blundy and
Cashman, 2008).
A more unusual example of a zoned magma reservoir is provided by
the Novarupta–Katmai eruption of 1912, which involved 7.5 km3 of
crystal-poor high-silica rhyolite and 5.5 km3 of crystal-rich continuously
zoned dacite to andesite magma. The unusual aspect of the eruption is
not the compositional zonation but the observed caldera collapse at
Mt. Katmai, which lies 10 km from the eruptive vent of Novarupta. De-
tailed studies by Hildreth and Fierstein (2012) demonstrate that the
rhyolite was extracted from the intermediate composition magma and
that extraction and lateral transport of crystal-poor rhyolite from the
storage region beneath Mt. Katmai was necessarily rapid, perhaps oc-
curring during the 5 days of recorded precursory activity. This raises
some interesting questions. First, to what extent does zoning observed
in ignimbrites provide direct evidence of zoning within magma reser-
voirs? Second, how can large amounts of rhyolite melt be extracted
from crystal mush zones both efficiently (without accompanying crys-
tals) and rapidly (in days)? An alternative suggestion is that the rhyolite
magma intruded as an ascending rhyolite dike that intersected the res-
ident intermediate composition magma reservoir under Mount Katmai
(Eichelberger and Izbekov, 2000). Neither model provides a good expla-
nation for the lateral displacement of the eruptive vent from the magma
storage region.
4.2. Time scales of magma accumulation
The time scale of magma accumulation prior to large eruptions has
been the subject of numerous recent studies that apply new diffusion
chronometers to observed crystal zoning patterns. A surprising result
36 K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 28–45
of these studies is the suggestion that large volumes of silicic melt may
accumulate over short (centuries or less) time scales (e.g., Charlier
et al., 2007; Gualda et al., 2012; Allan et al., 2013; Fig. 11). Other studies
describe very short time scales (decades to years or even months) of
late-stage crystallization (e.g., Wark et al., 2007; Saunders et al., 2010;
Druitt et al., 2012; Gualda et al., 2012; Matthews et al., 2012) and/or in-
corporation of xenocrysts (e.g., Gardner et al., 2002) prior to large erup-
tions. Short timescales of magma accumulation are difficult to reconcile
with long times (104–105 years) required for compaction-driven melt
extraction (e.g., McKenzie, 1984; Bachmann and Bergantz, 2004; Dufek
and Bachmann, 2010). An alternative mechanism for segregating silicic
magma invokes formation of melt channels or dikes within more crystal-
line parts of the magma reservoir; melt extraction in this scenario is
driven by either pore pressure response to an anisotropic stress field
(e.g., Eichelberger et al., 2006; Allan et al., 2013) or rapid inter-
connection of isolated melt lenses (e.g., Eichelberger and Izbekov,
2000; Fig. 6). Rapid extraction and shallow accumulation of melt may
also be driven by perturbations of local stress fields surrounding crystal
mush zones. Perturbations could be caused by the arrival of new
magma inputs, gas exsolution (Sisson and Bacon, 1999), or tectonic
stresses (particularly extension related to rifting; Allan et al., 2012).
4.3. Eruption triggers
Critical to understanding caldera-forming eruptions is the consider-
ation of processes that cause a stable melt/mush system to destabilize.
By definition, an eruption starts when the magmatic system becomes
connected to the surface. This connection can be established by
upward-propagating dikes driven by magmatic overpressure (an inter-
nal trigger), or downward-propagating faults generated by thermo-
mechanical instabilities in the roof rocks (an external trigger;
e.g., Gudmundsson, 2008; Gregg et al., 2012). Upward-propagating
dikes are commonly invoked when there is evidence for intrusion of
hotter ‘recharge’ melt (and/or volatile phase). Evidence of magma influx
may be preserved in the form of magmatic inclusions, banded pumice or
multiple pumice populations (e.g., Hildreth, 1981; Pallister et al., 1992;
Polacci et al., 2001; Rosi et al., 2004). Although most easily recognized
when mafic magma is intruded into a silicic system, the intruding
magma may be silicic, in which case it is typically hotter and less
Fig. 11. Time constraints on melt accumulation prior to the Oruanui eruption, Taupo
Volcanic Zone, New Zealand. Orange curve represents the time required to construct the
primary magma reservoir (high-Si rhyolite), using Fe–Mg interdiffusion in orthopyroxene
(opx). Purple curve represents late-stage re-equilibration of opx incorporated into the
main magma body. Green inset curve represents the distribution of opx diffusion ages
within low-Si rhyolite magma, which is interpreted as growth in isolated melt pockets
that were intersected during the eruption.
Complied from Allan et al. (2013)).
evolved than the resident magma in the uppermost part of the system
(Eichelberger et al., 2006; Hildreth and Wilson, 2007; Wright et al.,
2011). The geometry of the magma reservoir may also control both
the extent of interaction of new hotter melt inputs with cooler mush
(e.g., Humphreys et al., 2009) and the interaction of volatiles with the
mush (Wright et al., 2012).
Late-stage disturbances to magmatic systems may also be recorded
as selective crystal dissolution (e.g., feldspar and/or quartz; Bachmann
et al., 2002), phenocryst rim growth (Wark et al., 2007; Saunders
et al., 2010; Druitt et al., 2012; Matthews et al., 2012; Allan et al.,
2013) or microlite formation (Pamukcu et al., 2012). Both dissolution
and phenocryst rim growth are commonly interpreted to reflect intru-
sion of mafic magma into the system; in the latter crystal growth results
from cooling of the mafic input. In the absence of evidence for mafic in-
puts, however, selective dissolution and new crystal growth can also be
explained by changes in PH2O in response to decompression or addition
of volatiles (Bachmann et al., 2002; Wark et al., 2007; Blundy and
Cashman, 2008; Matthews et al., 2012; Cashman and Blundy, 2013). Ev-
idence for volatile transfer underlies the concept of gas sparging, where-
by sufficient heat to unlock crystal networks is transferred by an influx
of volatiles to the system (Bachmann and Bergantz, 2006). The time
scales required for unlocking by heat transfer alone are long and
are similar to those required for melt extraction by compaction
(e.g., Gottsmann et al., 2009). Fluxing with H2O-rich fluids could unlock
crystal networks more rapidly, however, by resorbing anhydrous
phases. Introduction of CO2-rich fluids, in contrast, would promote crys-
tal growth, particularly of feldspar (e.g., Cashman and Blundy, 2013),
thereby strengthening crystal networks.
Early (precursory) phases of eruptive activity provide insight into
conditions required to initiate and sustain an eruption. Interestingly,
many eruptions are preceded by ‘leaks’ from the magma reservoir. Ex-
amples include the eruption of the 200 km3, largely degassed, Pagosa
Peak dacite just before the very Fish Canyon Tuff eruption (FCT;
e.g., Bachmann et al., 2000), the explosive-to-effusive Cleetwood erup-
tion that preceded the c. 50 km3 caldera-forming (zoned) eruption of
Crater Lake, USA by weeks to months (Bacon, 1983; Kamata et al.,
1993), and the small (~ 0.3 km3) explosive eruption that preceded,
probably by months, the 530 km3 (crystal-poor) Oruanui eruption in
New Zealand (Allan et al., 2012). In all three cases, precursory eruptions
clearly tapped the primary magmatic system, and yet did not immedi-
ately trigger the climactic eruption. In both the FCT and Oruanui exam-
ples, precursory activity has been linked to tectonism in the form of
block faulting (FCT) or rifting (Oruanui), with the latter inducing lateral
melt migration from an isolated melt lens. The dynamics of the
Cleetwood eruption have not been explained, although Crater Lake
also lies within an extensional region (Bacon et al., 1999) and may
have been subject to tectonic stressing.
What, then, causes transitions from precursory activity to climactic
eruptions? Interestingly, the crystal-rich FCT preserves evidence of
pre-eruptive crystal breakage interpreted to record rapid decompression
of the magma storage region (and explosive expansion of phenocryst-
hosted melt inclusions) during either the Pagosa Peak eruption or
early ignimbrite eruptions from the southern part of the FCT caldera
(Lipman et al., 1997). Pre-eruptive crystal breakage may have been nec-
essary to fully mobilize magma from the crystal-rich reservoir. Pre-
eruptive crystal breakage may also occur in response to migration of re-
charge melt through overlying crystal mush (e.g., Pallister et al., 1992),
as illustrated by the association of broken crystals with a geochemically
distinct and partially degassed magma in the crystal-rich Cerro Galan ig-
nimbrite (Wright et al., 2011). Heating accompanying melt migration
can also cause crystal rupture by volatile expansion within melt inclu-
sions (Gualda et al., 2004; Bindeman, 2005). Finally, it has been sug-
gested that crystal breakage could be a response to seismic shaking
(Gottsmann et al., 2009). In all cases, physical breakage of the crystal
framework would help to mobilize magma preparatory to the climactic
event.
 K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 28–45 37

4.4. Eruption dynamics
The triggering event can also determine the nature of initial eruptive
activity. For example, very large MI eruptions inferred to be triggered by
roof collapse (e.g., Jellinek and DePaolo, 2003; Gregg et al., 2012; de
Silva and Gregg, 2014) lack an early single vent (Plinian) phase
(e.g., Druitt and Sparks, 1984; Sparks et al., 1985; de Silva et al., 2006;
Cas et al., 2011; Chesner, 2012). They initiate instead with eruption of
poorly expanded pyroclastic density currents along bounding ring faults
(Willcock et al., 2013) that are sustained by very high mass fluxes (Cas
et al., 2011; Lesti et al., 2011). In contrast, (often smaller) eruptions of
crystal-poor magma typically have protracted single vent phases prior
to caldera collapse (e.g., Crater Lake, USA (Bacon, 1983); AD 161
Taupo, New Zealand (Wilson and Walker, 1985); Minoan Santorini,
Greece (Druitt and Bacon, 1989; Sparks and Wilson, 1990); 39 ka
Campanian Ignimbrite, Italy (Rosi et al., 1999)). Initial vents may be
located either on marginal ring faults when eruptions tap large sills
(e.g., Hildreth and Mahood, 1986), or the summits of stratovolcanoes.
In these eruptions, the mass eruption rate probably increases with
time, particularly after caldera collapse, and pressure changes within
the magma reservoir may be preserved in pyroclast textures
(e.g., Bacon, 1983; Klug et al., 2002; Gurioli et al., 2005).
The mode of eruption will also affect the nature of the eruptive prod-
ucts. Ignimbrite deposits from large MI eruptions contain mostly ash
and pervasively shattered individual crystals, with limited abundance
of (often low vesicularity) pumice (e.g., Carter et al., 1986; Bachmann
et al., 2002; Gottsmann et al., 2009; Wright et al., 2011). Shattering of
crystals provides evidence of extensive disruption of magma during ex-
traction from the reservoir (e.g., Maughan et al., 2002). When combined
with the low vesicularity of rare pumice clasts, these textural character-
istics suggest that vesiculation played a limited role in the eruption pro-
cess, which was probably dominated instead by catastrophic
decompression (Gottsmann et al., 2009). This scenario is similar to
that outlined above for Colli Albani. At the same time, large shear strains
may be imposed by magma mobilization along vertically extensive and
horizontally propagating yield surfaces (Karlstrom et al., 2012) and
around subsiding caldera blocks (Kennedy et al., 2008). These processes
would promote extensive syn-eruptive mixing, which could explain the
apparent dichotomy between the broad homogeneity of MI pyroclast
hand samples and the extreme complexity commonly recorded within
phenocryst populations. Alternatively, mobilization of crystal-rich
magma is common in late stage (syn- or post-collapse) eruptive activity
from (inferred) vertically zoned magma reservoirs (e.g., Bacon and
Druitt, 1988; Druitt and Bacon, 1989; Deering et al., 2011; Hildreth
and Fierstein, 2012; Pamukcu et al., 2013), where eruptions are well ex-
plained by the Standard Model of top-down magma withdrawal
(e.g., Bacon and Druitt, 1988; Allen, 2001; Mandeville et al., 2009). In
these examples, however, crystals are not pervasively broken.
The scarcity of pumice clasts in MI ignimbrites makes it difficult to
establish details of magma extraction. Deposits from crystal-poor rhyo-
lite eruptions, in contrast, often produce abundant pumice that allows
individual parcels of magma to be related directly to their pre-
eruptive storage conditions. Most informative are detailed studies of
phenocryst-hosted melt inclusions, which preserve dissolved volatiles
that can be used to estimate entrapment pressures, and major and
trace element compositions that can be used to track magma evolution.
From a volcanological perspective, an interesting observation is that
melt inclusion studies often indicate magma extraction from a large
pressure range, even very early in the eruptive sequence (e.g., Wallace
et al., 1999; Liu et al., 2006; Mangiacapra et al., 2008; Roberge et al.,
2013). One explanation for this could be pre-eruptive mixing of crystals
from throughout the magma storage region. Alternatively, magma
could be extracted from a large depth (pressure) range syn-eruptively
by lateral melt migration to a vertically extensive feeder dike.
The most thoroughly documented example is that of the Bishop Tuff,
where detailed stratigraphic and volcanological studies of the eruptive
deposits (Wilson and Hildreth, 1997) provide exceptional constraints
on both the timing and location of magma extraction from the underly-
ing reservoir (Fig. 12A). Here quartz-hosted melt inclusions record pres-
sures of b100 to N200 MPa throughout the eruption, although a slightly

Fig. 12. Melt inclusion constraints and magma storage and withdrawal of the Bishop Tuff magma, Long Valley. (A) Map of the aerial distribution of Bishop Tuff deposits; right red = Plinian
vent, dark red = ignimbrites erupted from the southeastern margin of the caldera, dark and light blue represent ignimbrites erupted from the northwest and north rim of the caldera,
respectively (modified from Wilson and Hildreth, 1997). (B) Magma storage pressures inferred from melt inclusion data as a function of eruption time. (C) Variations in incompatible
element ratio U/Ce in melt inclusions as a function of eruption time. Colors are coded to the map in (A).
Melt inclusion data from Wallace et al. (1999); Roberge et al. (2013); time constraints from Wilson and Hildreth (1997).
38 K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 28–45
deeper magma level may have been tapped late in the eruption
(Fig. 12B). Phase equilibrium constraints, in contrast, allow both early
and late Bishop magma to span the entire (100–250 MPa) pressure
range (Gualda and Ghiorso, 2013). Here continuous magma extraction
from a large pressure range can be explained by lateral magma supply
to vertically extensive feeder dikes located on the caldera margin
(e.g., Gardner et al., 1991). Horizontally directed melt flow is also sug-
gested by lateral propagation of ring faults during caldera collapse
(Wilson and Hildreth, 1997). Corresponding trace element analyses
show that late (post-collapse) eruptive activity tapped magma that
was both more and less evolved than prior to collapse (Fig. 12C),
which suggests late stage involvement of both less evolved melt lenses
(as also suggested from zircon data; Chamberlain et al., 2014) and more
evolved matrix melt, the latter perhaps extracted during caldera
collapse.
4.5. Caldera collapse
Comprehensive reviews of caldera collapse are provided in Lipman
(1997); Cole et al. (2005); Acocella (2007); Marti et al. (2008). These re-
views focus largely on structural controls on caldera collapse styles, a
topic that is beyond the scope of this review. Instead we explore the re-
lation between melt storage and caldera formation, as indicated by var-
iations in the timing of caldera formation within an eruptive sequence.
Caldera formation after evacuation of substantial magma volumes has
been interpreted as a consequence of under-pressurization of the
magma storage region (Druitt and Sparks, 1984; Scandone, 1990;
Martí, 1991; Branney, 1995; Lipman, 1997; Cole et al., 2005). Caldera
collapse coincident with the onset of eruptive activity, in contrast,
suggests that pressurization and pre-eruptive doming caused by shal-
low magma accumulation may trigger collapse of large calderas
(e.g., Gudmundsson, 2008; Gregg et al., 2012; de Silva and Gregg,
2014). Also important is the tectonic stress field, which can control
the location of caldera-bounding faults (e.g., Holohan et al., 2008a).
Models of caldera collapse (e.g., Roche and Druitt, 2001; Geyer et al.,
2006; Stix and Kobayashi, 2007; Geshi et al., 2014) typically measure
the timing of collapse by f, the fraction of the total (DRE) magma volume
that is erupted prior to the onset of collapse. The value of f can be related
to the roof rock strength and magma chamber aspect ratio (or roof as-
pect ratio R = thickness/width; Roche and Druitt, 2001; Fig. 13). Col-
lapse is assumed to occur when the roof can no longer support the
(under-pressured) magma chamber. Theoretical analysis suggests that
collapse begins earlier (smaller f) for magma chambers that are shallow
and wide compared to those that are deep and narrow; these models
also predict that collapse will be piston-like when R b ~ 1.4, and
Fig. 13. Volume ratio f of pre-collapse to total eruption volume as a function of R, the ratio
of roof thickness to roof area. High f means that caldera collapse was late in the eruptive
sequence, under these conditions it is likely that only part, rather than all, of the magma
reservoir was evacuated. Specific eruptions are labeled.
Modified from Roche and Druitt (2001).
incoherent when R N ~1.4. Conditions of f = 0, that is, where collapse
is synchronous with the start of an eruption, require coupling between
shallow, laterally extensive magma chambers and the overlying roof
rocks (Gregg et al., 2012). Model predictions have been tested experi-
mentally with analogue “magmas” that are withdrawn steadily from
“chambers”. Fluids used in analogue experiments include air (μ =
10−5 Pa s), water (μ = 10− 3 Pa s), and silicone (μ = 104 Pa s), and
thus span a range of viscosities. All experiments, however, investigate
steady withdrawal of fluid from a single (simple) reservoir; caldera for-
mation by fluid extraction from complex reservoirs has not yet been
explored.
Variations in f can be evaluated as a function of both eruption mag-
nitude (DRE volume) and eruption type (crystal-rich [CR] or crystal-
poor [CP]; Fig. 14A; Table S1 in Supplementary material). These data
show that f is small (or 0) in large CR eruptions (e.g., Cerro Galan [CG],
La Pacana [LP] and Fish Canyon Tuff [FCT]), and variable (but non-
zero) in moderate to large CP eruptions (e.g., Long Valley [LV], Taupo
[TP] and Villa Senni [VSN]). Collapse may occur very late (large f) in stra-
tovolcano eruptive sequences (e.g., Vesuvius [VS], Tambora [TMB] and
Aso [AS]), even for CR magma (e.g., Pinatubo [PN]) or substantial
erupted volumes (e.g., AS). This compilation shows that collapse
can occur over a wide range of f for similar total erupted volumes
(i.e., after very different volumes of magma extraction from the reser-
voir), and at similar f for erupted volumes that vary over two orders of
magnitude. Some of this variation can be explained by differences in
magma chamber geometry (R), but the extreme variability must reflect
other controlling factors, including the distribution of melt within a
crystalline reservoir.
To relate f directly to conditions of magma withdrawal requires that
we know the thickness (pressure) of the melt lens evacuated during col-
lapse. If magma is assumed to be withdrawn from a single, sill-like res-
ervoir, and if the surface expression of the caldera can be taken as the
“footprint” of that reservoir, then the total thickness of magma extract-
ed during an eruption can be estimated using the erupted (DRE) volume
and caldera area, a value commonly referred to as the collapse height.
Early studies identified a linear relation between DRE volume and col-
lapse area (Smith, 1979; Spera and Crisp, 1981) that suggested a con-
stant thickness of magma evacuation characterized many collapse
events. This thickness could be related to the tensile strength of the
crust (Walker, 1984; Scandone, 1990). Our re-examination of calculated
collapse heights for all sufficiently well characterized eruptions (120 in
total) in the Collapse Caldera Data Base (Geyer and Marti, 2008;
Table S1; Fig. 14B) shows that many eruptions do have collapse heights
that cluster at a single value ~ 1000 m, although the data are highly
variable. In general, collapse heights ≥ 2000 m are relatively rare and
occur primarily in large CR eruptions, where total evacuation of the
magma reservoir is expected. Calculated collapse heights for many
large (N100 km3) CP eruptions, in contrast, are surprisingly small
(b 1000 m), possibly because the measured caldera areas exceed the
magma reservoir footprint. Where f (and thus the volume of magma
withdrawn prior to caldera collapse) is known (Fig. 14A), the thickness
of magma withdrawn from the reservoir prior to collapse can also be in-
ferred. Eruptions with large f have correspondingly large pre-eruptive
magma extraction depths, with a maximum value of ~ 1000 m (TMB
and Campanian [CMP]). Not surprisingly, eruptions with small f have
small pre-eruptive magma extraction depths (b0.2 km for Aira [AR],
KOS, VSN and Santorini Minoan [SAN]).
The compilation shown in Fig. 14B also provides insight into erup-
tion triggers. The dashed line on the diagram defines a caldera area
A = 100 km2, which has been identified as a thermomechanical bound-
ary that separates eruptions triggered by (external) roof collapse or (in-
ternal) chamber collapse (Gregg et al., 2012; de Silva and Gregg, 2014).
CR eruptions tend to lie above this boundary (in the roof-collapse re-
gion), a placement that is consistent with the observed synchroneity be-
tween eruption initiation and caldera collapse. Data from many CP
eruptions also lie above this line, however, even for eruptions with
 K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 28–45
Fig. 14. Relations between erupted volume (DRE), fraction of magma erupted prior to col-
lapse (f) and inferred collapse height (calculated as erupted volume/caldera area). (A) f vs.
volume; (B) volume vs. inferred collapse height. Symbols are the same in both, with blue
circles CP magma and yellow squares CR magma. Lines in (A) show pre-eruptive DRE vol-
umes (labeled, in km3). Dashed line in (B) shows the contour for a caldera area of 100 km2,
which Gregg et al. (2012) suggest as the bounding limit between chamber-trigged and
roof-triggered (yellow shading) eruptions. Labeled eruptions are as follows: AR = Aira,
AS = Aso, CEB = Ceboruco, CG = Cerro Galan, CL = Crater Lake, CMP = Campanian
(Campi Flegrei), KT = Katmai, KOS = Kos, KRA = Krakatau, LG = La Garita (Fish Canyon
Tuff), LV = Long Valley (Bishop Tuff), NYT = Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (Campi Flegrei),
PN = Pinatubo, SAN = Santorini (Minoan), TMB = Tambora, TP = Taupo (181 AD),
VICO = Vico, VS = Vesuvius (79 AD), VSN = Villa Senni (Colli Albani). All data from
Table S1.
very large f values (e.g., Campanian [CMP] and Aso [AS]) that denote late
stage collapse (which is not consistent with a roof trigger). These dis-
crepancies indicate that caldera area is not the sole control on eruption
triggering, which will also be affected by magma storage depth, reser-
voir configuration, magma input and tectonic triggering (e.g. Lindsay
et al., 2001; Allan et al., 2012). Support for the latter includes the relative
placement of small to moderate (b100 km3) stratovolcano eruptions
(e.g., Tambora [TM], Krakatau [KR] Crater Lake [CL] and Santorini [SN];
A b 100 km2) compared with eruptions of similar sizes in extensional
settings (e.g., Taupo [TP]; A N 100 km2).
Ideally, the entire vertical extent of magma extraction (the drainage
height) should be recorded by the volatile contents of phenocryst-
hosted melt inclusions (Wallace et al., 1999) and/or the stability of phe-
nocryst assemblages (e.g., Hammer et al., 2002; Gualda and Ghiorso,
2013). There are very few caldera-forming eruptions, however, for
which the drainage height is well constrained. An exception is the Bish-
op Tuff, where both melt inclusion and phase equilibria data suggest
magma withdrawal over 130 MPa (~ 5000 m; Fig. 12B). This value
39
exceeds by a factor of 3 the collapse height of 1500 m calculated for
the entire erupted volume (Table S1), and by a factor of ~2 the collapse
height of 2–3 km indicated by analysis of drill core samples taken from
within the caldera (Hildreth and Mahood, 1986). At face value, this dis-
crepancy implies that on average, melt was extracted from less than 1/
2–1/3 of the magma reservoir. Possible explanations for this mismatch
include under-estimation of collapse heights, prior incorporation of
deep crystals (and their melt inclusions) into the eruptible melt lens,
or withdrawal of magma from stacked lenses that comprise only part
of the total magma reservoir (Fig. 15). We prefer the latter explanation,
as data presented in Hildreth (1979) argues against mixing by large-
scale convective overturn of the magmatic system prior to eruption.
If collapse height records the combined thickness of individual melt
lenses and compaction, but not evacuation, of the crystal framework,
and if the structural support provided by the reservoir plays a role in
controlling collapse height, then we would expect the largest discrepan-
cies between caldera collapse heights and magma drainage heights in
CP eruptions that tap complex reservoir geometries, where the strength
of the crystal framework would allow decoupling between melt drain-
age and collapse. By contrast, collapse height and drainage height
should coincide in eruptions that involve complete evacuation of the
reservoir (f = 0). This prediction is supported by data that indicate
that subsidence associated with large volume CR eruptions is typically
3–4 km, consistent with complete evacuation of these crystal-rich
magma reservoirs (Lipman, 1997). In CP eruptions, in contrast, partial
involvement of the crystal framework is suggested by a transition
during and after caldera collapse from initially crystal-poor magma
to crystal-rich magma. The latter often contains both cognate
glomerocrysts and antecrysts with melt inclusions that are more
evolved in composition than the matrix glass (that is, from a cooler, or
more evolved, part of the magma reservoir; Beddoe-Stephens et al.,
1983; Wolff et al., 1999; Charlier et al, 2007; Saunders et al., 2010;
Roberge et al., 2013).
In summary, there is growing evidence that caldera-forming erup-
tions are not all fed by single magma bodies, and that accumulations
of eruptible melt do not necessarily require assembly over long time pe-
riods. Instead, some systems may store melt within multiple sills (with-
in a rigid framework) or lenses (within a crystal mush) that may either
amalgamate into a single melt body shortly before eruption, or may be
tapped syn-eruptively, particularly in extensional environments. In
these complex magma reservoirs, pulsed interconnection of isolated
melt lenses promoted by syn-eruptive depressurization could both pro-
long explosive activity and explain commonly observed hiatuses in
eruptive sequences (e.g., Aramaki, 1984; Allen, 2004; Palladino and
Simei, 2005; Bear et al., 2009; Vinkler et al., 2012), particularly if adjust-
ments within the reservoir are required to mobilize more crystalline
(and viscous) magma to newly formed caldera-bounding fractures.
The internal geometry and properties of a complex magma reservoir
may also bear an unexplored influence on the development of ring
faults (e.g., Kennedy et al., 2004; Holohan et al., 2008b; Burchardt and
Walter, 2010) and extent of collapse in different sectors of a caldera.
In fact, it seems likely that the spatial distribution of melt within a com-
plex reservoir will contribute to the identified spectrum of piston,
downsag, trapdoor and piecemeal collapse styles (e.g., Cole et al.,
2005). Taken together, we suggest that the full range of eruptive condi-
tions (precursors, triggers and eruption dynamics) created by tapping
complex storage regions has yet to be explored, and represents exciting
opportunities for future research.
5. Implications for recognizing eruption potential of large
magmatic systems
Effective volcano monitoring requires identification of systems
capable of producing very large eruptions. For this reason, several
potentially active volcanic regions have been the recent targets of
geophysical surveys to search for large melt bodies. With only a
40 K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 28–45

Fig. 15. Schematic diagram showing magma evacuation from a complex reservoir. (A) Prior to caldera collapse, magma is extracted from melt-dominated lenses throughout the reservoir
(the drainage depth), and magma migration is lateral, as well as vertical. (B) Collapse initiates when sufficient melt has been withdrawn that the strength of the crystal framework is
reduced and the framework itself partially disrupted. Here the collapse height is less than the drainage depth (as seen in many CP eruptions), and the erupted magma often contains
antecrysts from the framework; transition from a single vent to a ring vent phase is often accompanied by a hiatus in eruptive activity. (C) When the crystal mush is completely evacuated
along with any constituent melt lenses, the collapse height equals the drainage height (the case for many MI eruptions).

few exceptions (e.g., Zollo et al., 2008), interpretations of resulting
geophysical images assess melt contents at ≤~30% (e.g., Schilling
and Partzsch, 2001; Zandt et al., 2003; Chu et al., 2010; Luttrell
et al., 2013), a number that appears safely at odds with the ≥ 50%
melt considered necessary for melt to be eruptible (e.g., Bachmann
and Bergantz, 2008). New views of magmatic systems, however,
show that large volumes of melt may accumulate rapidly, and that
multiple magma lenses may be tapped during a single eruptive epi-
sode. Syn-eruption melt extraction from a largely crystalline reser-
voir seems likely for eruptions such as Aso, where a large volume
(~ 200 km3) of magma was erupted under conditions of f N 0.9 but
R b 1 (estimated from reported caldera area of 200 km3 and H2O con-
tents ~ 5–7 wt.% (Kaneko et al., 2007), which places the magma at
depths no greater than 8–10 km, R ~ 0.5–0.67). Also suggestive is ev-
idence (from both melt inclusion and phase equilibria) for magma
extraction over much larger pressure (depth) ranges than the col-
lapse height calculated from erupted volume and caldera area. With-
in this framework, we suggest that magma reservoirs such as those
imaged beneath Yellowstone may actually be capable of producing
a large eruption (e.g., Wotzlaw et al., 2014).
 K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 28–45
Another challenge relates to monitoring complex magmatic sys-
tems. An increasingly important and effective volcano monitoring tech-
nique is measurement of surface deformation, particularly using
satellite-based Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR;
e.g., Sparks et al., 2012; Pyle et al., 2013). Surface deformation over
large, shallow and sill-like magma bodies (that is, those susceptible to
roof triggers) should be substantial; this makes them particularly good
targets for monitoring by InSAR. One complication, however, is that
large magmatic reservoirs often have well-developed active hydrother-
mal systems that may show extensive deformation related to shallow
changes in pore-pressure and water levels (e.g., Chiodini et al., 2003;
Husen et al., 2004; Chang et al., 2007). Pore-pressure-generated defor-
mation signals may either mask or mimic magmatic activity. Surface de-
formation can also provide evidence of deep intrusive activity, such as
that currently ongoing at Uturuncu volcano, Bolivia (e.g., Sparks et al.,
2008), and thus provides a potential tool for tracking long-term migra-
tion of magma inputs at different crustal levels.
Magmatic activity that precedes internally triggered eruptions (that
is, triggers involving intrusion of gas or hot melt from below, or over-
pressurization caused by crystallization and associated gas exsolution)
may be more difficult to recognize. One potential precursor is early
magma leakage from large reservoirs (e.g., Bacon, 1983; Duffield,
1990; Duffield et al., 1990; Hildreth, 2004; Fabbro et al., 2013). An inter-
esting observation is that precursory leaks from large magmatic systems
are often sourced from shallow levels and may produce either unusual
low energy fountains (e.g., Duffield, 1990; Bachmann et al., 2000) or
lava flows (e.g., Bacon, 1983), despite tapping volatile-rich components
of the magmatic system (e.g., Duffield and Dalrymple, 1990; Bacon et al.,
1992; Mandeville et al., 2009). A good illustration of this phenomenon,
and a cautionary tale for event-tree-based hazard analysis, is provided
by the eruptive sequence at Crater Lake, OR (Bacon, 1983). Here a com-
posite eruption (Llao Rock; 1.7 km3 DRE pumice fall and 0.5 km3 DRE
lava flow) tapped the main magma reservoir about 200 years before
caldera formation. Another composite eruption (Cleetwood; 1.5 km3
DRE pumice fall and 0.6 km3 DRE lava flow) preceded the main (caldera-
forming) phase of the eruption by only weeks to months (Kamata
et al., 1993). In both cases, the magma apparently came from the
climactic reservoir (Bacon et al., 1992; Mandeville et al., 2009) and yet
each eruption transitioned from explosive to effusive. Why, then, was
the Cleetwood eruption followed so promptly by a very large
(~ 50 km3 DRE) explosive eruption from the same magmatic system?
One possible explanation is that the precursory eruptions tapped rela-
tively shallow and partially to fully isolated melt lenses within a larger
reservoir. Magma withdrawal from the Cleetwood melt lens could
then have triggered the climactic event by either downward or lateral
propagation of a decompression wave capable of connecting the isolat-
ed lens to the larger reservoir. This scenario illustrates the importance of
developing methods to monitor processes internal to magma reservoirs
(e.g., induced seismicity; Catalli et al., 2013) during, as well as prior to
eruptions, and to distinguish between precursors and the main event
(e.g., Allan et al., 2012).
Summary
It has long been known that caldera-forming eruptions may evacu-
ate large volumes of either crystal-rich or crystal-poor magma
(e.g., Hildreth, 1981). The past ten years have seen a growing number
of studies that relate the chemical and physical conditions in magma
storage regions to the conditions under which different parts of the sys-
tem may be erupted (e.g., Jellinek and dePaolo, 2003; Bachmann and
Bergantz, 2004; Gottsmann et al., 2009; Bachmann, 2010; Allan et al.,
2012; Cooper et al., 2012; Druitt et al., 2012; Ellis and Wolff, 2012;
Gregg et al., 2012; Hildreth and Fierstein, 2012; Huber et al., 2012;
Karlstrom et al., 2012; Gualda and Ghiorso, 2013). Key observations
arising from these studies include: (1) many large eruptions tap multi-
ple melt sources, (2) large melt bodies are probably transient features,
41
(3) crystals carried by the transporting melt have been stored at a
range of pressures and temperatures, and (4) eruptions of crystal-rich
magma are probably driven by roof collapse and fragmented by sudden
decompression (with a limited role for volatile exsolution and expan-
sion). These observations require new models to explain and anticipate
triggering and eruption of magma from complex storage reservoirs.
We address this question by first considering eruptions from mafic
systems, which are commonly modeled as stacked sills. Here both direct
observations and petrologic studies of recently active systems show that
single eruptions may tap multiple melt lenses. One consequence is
pulsatory (and often protracted) eruptive activity and alternation be-
tween explosion and lava effusion; another is eruption of a range of
magma compositions. We extend these modern examples to larger,
caldera-forming eruptions using an example from the ultrapotassic
Quaternary Roman Magmatic Province (QRMP), where we suggest
that apparently contradictory observations of protracted explosivity
and low pyroclast vesicularity can be reconciled if the eruption tapped
a complex reservoir containing multiple melt lenses.
We then turn to the more common, and larger, eruptions of silicic
crystal-poor (CP) and crystal-rich (CR) magma, and review conditions
of magma storage, time scales of melt accumulation, eruption triggers,
eruption dynamics and conditions of caldera collapse. We show where
the Standard Model (single magma chamber) appears consistent with
the nature and stratigraphy of the eruptive products, as well as exam-
ples where a complex (melt-lens-dominated) magma reservoir may
better explain both petrological and volcanological observations. Most
important is the growing evidence that in many systems that erupt (ini-
tially) crystal-poor silicic magma, particularly those in extensional envi-
ronments, melt may be stored within multiple isolated and/or partially
connected lenses. This type of complex storage geometry could provide
a mechanism for rapid assembly of large melt bodies, as well as a local
source of triggering (recharge) magma. In fact, Eichelberger et al.
(2006) extend this concept to suggest that a combination of porous
media and triggered dike flow could allow sufficiently rapid syn-
eruptive melt extraction to feed a silicic Plinian eruption, as we have in-
ferred for the QRMP example. From a hazard perspective, eruptions fed
from complex magma reservoirs may show abrupt changes in eruptive
processes (such as pauses and transitions between explosive and effu-
sive activity) that pose challenges for volcano monitoring and forecast-
ing efforts.
From a heuristic perspective, magma storage in complex, rather than
simple, magma reservoirs resolves several existing paradoxes about
conditions of both pre-eruptive magma storage and syn-eruptive
magma withdrawal and caldera collapse. This perspective also repre-
sents a logical extension of recent attempts to reconcile petrological
views of incremental assembly of plutons with volcanological require-
ments of instantaneous availability of very large melt volumes
(Hildreth, 2004; Bachmann et al., 2007; Lipman, 2007; Walker et al.,
2007). Melt accumulation within, and syn-eruptive extraction from, in-
terconnected melt lenses also alleviates problems related to maintain-
ing large and stable volumes of crystal-poor melt in the upper crust
(Freda et al., 2011; Gualda et al., 2012; Vinkler et al., 2012) and places
within a single coherent framework apparently disparate observations
related to magma extraction and caldera collapse. Finally, such a
model is consistent with geophysical observations that even active
magma storage reservoirs often contain ≤ 30% melt (Zandt et al.,
2003; Chu et al., 2010); the latter observation has important
implications for recognizing the eruption potential of large magma
reservoirs.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the AXA Research Fund through a
Research Professorship to KC and by Regione Lazio (818000-2009-R-
M-R.N.C.T_001) for GG. We are grateful for the very thoughtful reviews
42 K.V. Cashman, G. Giordano / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288 (2014) 28–45
by G. Gualda and S. Burchardt and for the encouragement of the editor
(L. Wilson) to write this review.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.09.007.
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