A New Predictive Direct Torque Control for
Vernier Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor
Based on Duty Ratio Modulation
Fengxiang Chen, Ronghai Qu*, Senior Member, IEEE, Jian Li, Member, IEEE, Dawei Li, Hanxiao
Lu, Yuting Gao, and Lifan Xiao
ΦAbstract – This paper proposes a novel predictive duty
ratio modulated direct torque control (DTC) for vernier
permanent magnet synchronous motor drive to reduce the
torque and flux ripples caused by hardware delay. Compared
with DTC, conventional duty ratio modulated DTC (DDTC) can
significantly reduce the torque and flux ripples, while hardware
delay still deteriorates the performance of DDTC. This paper
analyzes the influence of hardware delay in detail and solves
this problem by the prediction of torque and flux. This
predictive DDTC (PDDTC) can maintain the dynamic response
of DDTC and eliminate the effect of hardware delay to get
better performance. To verify the validity of the proposed
method, the simulated and experimental results of DDTC
without hardware delay, considering hardware delay and
PDDTC are presented.
Index Terms—Direct torque control (DTC), duty ratio
modulation (DRM), prediction, hardware delay, permanent
magnet synchronous motor (PMSM).
I. INTRODUCTION
P ERMANENT-MAGNET synchronous machines (PMS-
Ms) are of great concern in the past few decades
because of their high efficiency, high-torque/inertia
ratio, and good dynamic performance [1], [2]. Several
control strategies have been applied in PMSMs, such as
field-oriented control (FOC) and direct torque control (DTC).
Compared to FOC, DTC provides fast dynamic response due
to its simple control structure, e.g., absence of rotational
coordinate transformatio-n, space-vector pulse width
modulation, and inner current regulators [3]-[4]. However,
with the use of hysteresis comparators, conventional DTC
suffers from large torque and flux ripples and variable
switching frequency.
During the past few decades, numerous improved
methods have been used to solve those problems which are
mentioned above. Among them, incorporating space-vector
modulation (SVM) into DTC is a commonly used scheme,
which can reduce torque and flux ripples by the suitable
commanded voltage vector and achieve a fixed switching
frequency [5]-[7].
Recently, predictive control attracts the interest of the
researchers for its high-performance control [8]-[9]. This
kind of approach is to achieve the best state that minimizes
the cost function in a control cycle. Similar to conventional
Manuscript received April 15, 2016.
The authors are with the School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei Province, China (e-
mail: cfx_1989@163.com; ronghaiqu@hust.edu.cn; jianli@hust.edu.cn).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available
online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
l-))) 
DTC, only one voltage vector is used in a control cycle,
which leads to an increase of the torque and flux ripples
[10]-[11].
Another category is to introduce the duty ratio modulation
into conventional DTC, which is named DDTC [12]-[13].
The duration of the selected active voltage vector is adjusted
by inserting the zero voltage vector to reduce the torque and
flux ripples. The key point of this method is to determine the
duty ratio.
In this paper, a novel predictive DDTC (PDDTC) is
proposed to reduce the torque and flux ripples due to
hardware delay. The rest of this paper is organized as
follows. Section II illustrates the vernier PMSM (VPMSM)
model and the relationship of the voltage vectors and motor
torque. Section III presents the basic principle of DDTC,
introducing a simple DDTC method in [13] based on
minimal torque ripple RMS value method. In Section IV, the
effect of hardware delay (HD) has been analyzed in detail
and addressed by the prediction of torque and flux. Section
V presents the system diagram of PDDTC and the
comparative evaluation based on various criteria of DDTC
without HD, considering HD, and PDDTC. The
experimental results have been shown in Section VI. The
paper is concluded with a summary in Section VII.
II. MODEL OF VERNIER PMSM
A. Vernier PMSM Equations
For VPMSM, the pole pairs of the stator is different from
the pole pairs of the rotor due to its characteristic operating
principle. According to the electrical angular frequency of
the working magnetic field, the pole pairs of the rotor are
adopted as the pole pairs in the VPMSM model. Then the
mathematical model of VPMSM is the same as PMSM. In
this paper, the stationary reference frame is used for
analyzing the DTC method. Therefore, the stator voltage
equation of the VPMSM can be derived as
d
us = Rs is + ψ s (1)
dt
where us=[uĮ uȕ]T, is=[iĮ iȕ]T, and Ȍs=[ȌĮ Ȍȕ]T, us is the stator
voltage, is is the stator current, Ȍs is the stator linkage flux,
and Rs is the stator resistance. Then, the stator-flux equation
in the stationary reference frame can be expressed as
ψ s = Ls is + ψ r (2)
where Ȍr is the rotor flux and Ls is the stator self-inductance.
The electromagnetic torque Te in the stationary frame can be
expressed in terms of Ȍs and is as

 dtsp
Winding
Te

Rotor Te*
tsp

Shaft Stator ktsp (k+1)tsp

Fig. 2. Minimal torque ripple RMS value method for duty determination.
vector can regulate the torque, while the amplitude of the
PM
voltage vector is fixed due to the dc bus voltage.
When the motor torque is below the reference value,
applying appropriate voltage vector increases the torque
during the sampling period. In this case, zero voltage vector
can reduce the torque, which can remarkably decrease the
Fig. 1. The ansoft model of vernier PMSM. torque ripple by introducing it at the right moment. In
3 another case, the motor torque exceeds the reference torque,
pnψ s ⊗ is
Te = (3) zero voltage vector is usually to reduce the torque more
2
where pn is the number of pole pairs. moderate than the other voltage vector, which can also
decrease the torque ripple to some extent. Therefore, the key
B. Relationship of the Voltage Vectors and Motor Torque point is how to decide the duty ratio of the active vector.
In order to analysis the changing progress of torque
B. Classical Duty Determination Methods
caused by the voltage vector, the relationship of the voltage
vectors and motor torque has got to be analytically derived. There are three classical methods to decide the duty ratio
From (1) and (2), we can get of the active voltage vector. Method I aims to make the
di torque equal to the reference torque at the end of the cycle
Ls s = us − Rs is − jωψ r (4) [14]-[15]. Method II is to make the mean value of the torque
dt equal to the reference toque during the whole period [16]-
where Ȧ is the electrical angular frequency. The variation [17]. Method III aims to make the torque ripple RMS value
trend of the torque can be obtained by the differentiation of to be minimal for the entire cycle [18]. This paper uses
(3) Method III to decide the duty ratio, as shown in Fig. 2. And
dTe 3 § dψ s di · the principle is expressed as
= pn ¨ ⊗ is + s ⊗ψ s ¸ (5)
dt 2 © dt dt ¹ 1 ( k +1)tsp 2

³ ( Te − Te* ) dt → min (8)

Substitute (1), (2), and (4) into (5), the torque differentiation tsp sp
kt

equation including the voltage vector can be got where tsp is the sampling period. Supposing the torque is
dT 3 3 smaller than the reference torque, then the rising slope s1
Ls e = − RsTe − pnωψ r :ψ s + pnψ r ⊗ us
dt 2 2 (6) caused by the active voltage vector and the falling slope s2
= ΔTe1 + ΔTe 2 + ΔTe 3 due to zero voltage vector can be calculated by (6) and (7),
It is found out that equation (6) contains three parts. The first respectively. Because of a tiny sampling interval, slopes s1
part ǻTe1 is always negative and in proportion to Te; the and s2 can be regarded as constants. Therefore, under the
second part is also negative and proportional to Ȧ; the last condition of minimal torque ripple RMS value, the duty ratio
one depends on the voltage vector according to the is the only variable in (8), which can be solved as
requirement of torque control. When zero voltage vector 2 (Te* − T0 ) − s2 tsp
dtsp = (9)
works, the equation (6) can be simplified as 2 s1 − s2
dT 3 where Te* represents the reference torque, T0 means the
Ls e = − RsTe − pωψ r :ψ s (7)
dt 2 initial value of torque at kth sampling instant, and d indicates
It is obvious that zero voltage vector always reduces the the duty ratio of the active vector.
torque. In [13], for further simplification, the equation (9) can be
decomposed as
III. BASIC PRINCIPLE OF DDTC Te* − T0 − s2 tsp Te* − T0 − s2
d= = + (10)
A. Basic Principle ( s1 − s2 ) tsp ( s1 − s2 ) tsp s1 − s2
In conventional DTC, the selection of voltage vector from As (s1-s2) is fixed to be constant for reducing the
the switching table is always working during the whole parameter dependence. In addition, s2 is considered to be
period. This can lead to large flux and torque ripples when proportional to flux error. Then, the duty ratio can be
the amplitude of the flux and torque errors are small. From regained as in [13]
(6), it shows that adjusting the time duration of the voltage


 d
duty calculation

¹r* + Te* + ¦T
PI
us SABC (k) One SABC (k-1)
¹r ˉ Te(k+1) ˉ Swit ching
PWM step VSI PM SM
¦  table
MTPA  s* + delay

 s(k+1) ˉ
UDC
UDC
©¸
SABC (k-1) IABC
Te(k+1)  s(k+1) & Te(k+1)  s(k)  s(k) & Is(k) UDC
 s(k+1) prediction Is(k) calculation SABC (k-2)

Fig. 4. The system diagram of proposed PDDTC.

module that uses the current and voltage vector measured at
i(k) measured
(a) kth sampling instant to predict the torque and stator flux at
v(k) applied Te*
(k+1)th sampling instant. Compared the predictive torque
and stator flux with the reference torque and stator flux, the
k k+1 k+2 volta-ge vector, applied at (k+1)th sampling instant, can be
decided by the DDTC method. The stator flux at kth
Te*
(b) v(k) applied
sampling instant has already been obtained before the
i(k) measured
prediction module. Then, the predictive stator flux at (k+1)th
sampling instant can be calculated as
JG JG G G
k k+1 k+2 ψ s ( k + 1) = ψ s ( k ) + ª¬u s ( k − 1) − Rs i s ( k ) º¼ × tsp (12)
Te(k+1) predicted The permanent flux vector at kth sampling instant can be got
(c) i(k) measured ¸s(k+1) predicted by the flux equation
v(k-1) measured v(k) applied Te* JG JG G
ψ r ( k ) = ψ s ( k ) − Ls i s ( k ) (13)
Then the permanent flux vector at (k+1)th sampling instant,
k k+1 k+2 by considering the position variation, can be simplified as
JG JG JG
Fig. 3. The schematic diagram of sampling instants. (a) Ideal case. (b) Real ψ r ( k + 1) = ψ r ( k ) × e jωtsp ≈ (1 + jωtsp )ψ r ( k ) (14)
case without prediction. (c) Real case with prediction.
The current at (k+1)th sampling instant can be gained as
E Eψ T * − T0 ψ s* −ψ 0 G 1 JG JG
d= T + = e + (11) i s ( k + 1) = ª¬ψ s ( k + 1) −ψ r ( k + 1) º¼ (15)
CT Cψ CT Cψ Ls
where ȥs* is the reference value of stator flux, ȥ0 is the initial The predictive torque at (k+1)th sampling instant can be
value of stator flux at the kth sampling instant, and CT and Cȥ obtained by the torque equation
are two positive constants for regulating the duty ratio of 3 JG G
active voltage vector. Te ( k + 1) = pnψ s ( k + 1) ⊗ i s ( k + 1)
2
(16)
3 JG 1 JG
IV. ANALYSIS OF HARDWARE DELAY AND PREDICTION OF = − pnψ s ( k + 1) ⊗ ψ r ( k + 1)
2 Ls
TORQUE AND FLUX
Then, the torque differentiation is rewritten as
HD really exists in the digital implementation system,
dT 3 JG JG
which can deteriorate the performance of the drive system, Ls e = − RsTe ( k + 1) − pnωψ r ( k + 1) :ψ s ( k + 1)
while it is usually ignored in the simulation. HD can be dt 2 (17)
explained in Fig. 3. 3 JG G
+ pnψ r ( k + 1) ⊗ u s ( k )
As shown in Fig. 3, the ideal case is that the voltage 2
vector, calculated based on the current measured at kth The duty ratio of the active voltage vector is decided
sampling instant, is applied at kth sampling instant. But the based on (17) after the prediction module.
real case is that the selective voltage vector is used at (k+1)th
sampling instant with a delay of one switching period. This V. PROPOSED PREDICTIVE DDTC AND SIMULATION
one switching period delay leads to the difference between RESULTS
the actual used voltage vector and the theoretical calculating The system diagram of proposed PDDTC is shown as Fig.
value and worsens the performance of motor drive. 4. The calculation of Ȍs(k) and Is(k) is based on the voltage
To solve this problem, this paper introduces a prediction measured at (k-1)th sampling instant and the current measur-


 TABLE I 0.22 0.22
MOTOR AND CONTROL SYSTEM PARAMETERS

Ψs(Wb)

Ψs(Wb)
0.2 0.2
Motor parameters Value
0.18 0.18
Number of pole pairs 10 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66
t(s) t(s)
Permanent-magnet flux [Wb] 0.169
Stator resistance [ȍ] 0.8595 12 12

T e(Nm)

T e(Nm)
Stator inductance [mH] 23.22 10 10

Rated speed [r/min] 500 8 8

Rated torque [N·m] 20 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66
t(s) t(s)
Rated line-to-line voltage [V] 108.4
5 5
DC-link voltage [V] 187

isa(A)

isa(A)
0 0
Sampling time [ȝs] 100
Torque constant gain in PDDTC method [N·m] 2 -5 -5
0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66
Flux constant gain in PDDTC method [Wb] 0.1 t(s) t(s)

(a) (b)
0.22 0.22
Fig. 6. Steady-state performance of DDTC; (a) no hardware delay, (b)
Ψs(Wb)

Ψs(Wb)

0.2 0.2 consid-ering hardware delay.

0.18 0.18 0.22

0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66

Ψs(Wb)
t(s) t(s) 0.2

12 12
0.18
Te(Nm)

Te(Nm)

10 10 0.6 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.66

t(s)
8 8
0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 12
Te(Nm)

t(s) t(s) 10
5 5 8
isa(A)

isa(A)

0.6 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.66

0 0
t(s)
-5 -5
5
0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66
isa(A)

t(s) t(s) 0

(a) (b) -5
0.6 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.66
Fig. 5. Steady-state performance of DTC; (a) no hardware delay, (b)
t(s)
consider-ing hardware delay.
ed at kth sampling instant, respectively. And then prediction Fig. 7. Steady-state response of PDDTC, considering hardware delay.
of Ȍs(k+1) and Te(k+1) is based on Ȍs(k), Is(k), and the Figs. 5-7. In these figures, the sampling time is equal to 100
voltage measured at kth sampling instant. Meanwhile Te* can ȝs. As shown in Fig. 5, HD of one switching period has a
be got by the torque adjustor, namely a PI regulator. And Ȍs* great influence on the simulation results of DTC. The flux
can be obtained according to Te* by the maximum torque per and torque ripples of the model considering HD roughly
ampere method. increase to the double of that in the model without HD.
Then, the torque and flux errors according to Te(k+1), Te*, In Fig. 6, the effect of one switching period delay for
Ȍs(k+1), and Ȍs* are used to choose the voltage vector at DDTC is almost the same as that in Fig. 5. Compared Fig. 7
(k+1)th sampling instant and decide its duty ratio. In order to with Fig. 6, the influence of HD for PDDTC is eliminated by
consider the delay influence of one switching period, a introducing the prediction of flux and torque, namely the
module of one-step delay has been placed after the PWM flux and torque ripples caused by HD have been significantly
generator to imitate the delay in actual digital reduced. It is found that, in this paper, torque and flux
implementation system. While this HD is usually neglected ripples are calculated according to the following equations:
in conventional simulation system, which can lead to the N
1
simulation results slightly different from the experimental
¦ (T ( i ) − T )
2
Trip = e e − av (18)
results. N i =1
The parameters of motor and control system are listed in
1 N
¦ (ψ s ( i ) −ψ s − av )
2
Table I. And the validity of the proposed method is studied ψ rip = (19)
using the MATLAB/Simulink software. N i =1
where N is the number of samples, and Te-av and Ȍs-av are the
A. Steady-State Operation average values of the torque and flux, respectively. In
The steady-state performance of the DTC, DDTC, and addition, the average switching frequency is calculated as in
PDDTC methods at 300 rpm (60% of the rated speed) with a [19]:
10 Nm load torque (50% of the rated torque) is shown in


 0.2 0.2
Ψs(Wb)

Ψs(Wb)

nr(rpm)
200

0.15 0.15 0
0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
t(s) t(s) t(s)

20
10 10
Te(Nm)

Te(Nm)

T e(Nm)
5 5 10
0 0 0
0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
t(s) t(s) t(s)
5 5
5
isa(A)

isa(A)

isa(A)
0 0 0
-5
-5 -5
0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
t(s) t(s) t(s)

(a) (b) Fig. 11. Start-up response of DDTC, considering hardware delay.
Fig. 8. Transient-state response of DDTC; (a) no hardware delay, (b)
considering hardware delay.

nr(rpm)
200

0.2
Ψs(Wb)

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
t(s)
0.15
0.6 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.66 20
t(s)
T e(Nm)

10
10
T e(Nm)

0
5 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0 t(s)
0.6 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.66
t(s) 5
isa(A)

5 0
-5
isa(A)

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
-5 t(s)
0.6 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.66
t(s) Fig. 12. Start-up response of PDDTC, considering hardware delay.

Fig. 9. Transient-state response of PDDTC, considering hardware delay. 20

Te(Nm)

10
nr(rpm)

200 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(a) -3
0 x 10
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
20
t(s)
Te(Nm)

20 10
Te(Nm)

10 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(b) -3
0 x 10
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
t(s) 20
T e(Nm)

10
5
isa(A)

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-5
(c) -3
x 10
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
t(s) t(s)
Fig. 13. Zoomed torque response in the start-up test; (a) DDTC, no
Fig. 10. Start-up response of DDTC, no hardware delay.
hardware delay, (b) DDTC, considering hardware delay, (c) PDDTC,
f ave = M / K / 0.02 (20) considering hardware delay.

where M is the total switching instants of all the inverter legs B. Transient-State Operation
during a fixed period, e. g., 20ms in this paper, and K is the
In Fig. 8, it is noted that HD has little influence on the
total number of the inverter switches.
speed of DDTC flux and torque response, except for the
larger flux and torque ripples. Compared Fig. 9 with Fig. 8,



Fig. 14. Experimental setup of the testing systems.
PDDTC method can obviously reduce the flux and torque
ripples caused by HD.
C. Start-up Response
The start-up response of DDTC without HD is shown in
Fig. 10. Compared Fig. 10 with Fig. 11 considering HD, it
finds that the torque ripple obviously increases because of
HD. The current in Fig. 11 is also more distorted than that in
Fig. 10. By using PDDTC method as shown in Fig. 12, the
torque ripple caused by HD can be eliminated.
The zoomed torque responses of Figs. 10-12 are shown in
Fig. 13. It is noted that HD makes the speed of torque
response a little slower for DDTC method, meanwhile
bringing about a little shock and overshoot. While PDDTC
method can eliminate the shock and overshoot caused by HD
resulting in tinily slower speed of the torque response in Fig.
13.
VI. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The proposed PDDTC for VPMSM was further experime-
ntally verified by a two-level inverter, as shown in Fig. 14.
And the result was compared with that obtained from DDTC
without HD and considering HD. The real-time algorithm
coding using the C language was implemented towards a
DSP 28335 control board. A three-phase intelligent power
module was used for the inverter. A 2500-pulse incremental
encoder was used to obtain the rotor speed of the VPMSM.
The load torque was provided by a magnetic powder brake
which was controlled by the tension controller. The torque
and speed of VPMSM were measured by the torque and
speed sensor and observed by the torque and speed measurer.
In addition, the inverter was powered by the DC power
supply. The control and motor parameters were the same as
those presented in Table I.
VII. CONCLUSION
The simulation and experimental results show that
PDDTC method can obviously reduce the torque and flux
ripples caused by HD under various conditions. By means of
the prediction of torque and flux, the apply moment of
voltage vector is the same as the calculating moment of
voltage vector, namely HD has been compensated to some
extent. Meanwhile the dynamic response is not deteriorated.
While the cost is a little increase of parameter dependence

and computation complexity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work has been supported by National Natural
Science Foundation of China (NSFC) (51407082).
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Fengxiang Chen was born in China. He received the B.E. degree from
Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China, in 2012. He is currently
working toward the Ph.D. degree in the school of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan,
China. His research interests include field oriented control and direct torque
control algorithms for permanent magnet synchronous machine drives
system.

Ronghai Qu (S’01---M’02---SM’05) was born in Heilongjiang, China. He

received the B.E.E. and M.S.E.E. degrees from Tsinghua University, Beijing,
China, in 1993 and 1996, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree from the
University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA, in 2002, all in
electrical engineering. He was a faculty member with Tsinghua University
from 1996 to 1998. From 1998 to 2002, he was with the Wisconsin Electric
Machines and Power Electronics Consortium, University of Wisconsin-
Madison. In 2003, he joined the Electrical Machines and Drives Laboratory
at the General Electric Global Research Center, Niskayuna, NY, USA, as a
Senior Professional Engineer, and joined HUST in 2010. He is currently a
Professor with the Huazhong University of Science and Technology
(HUST), Wuhan, China. He has authored many published technical papers,
and holds over 40 patents/patent applications. His current research interests
include electrical machine designs, drives, and controls, in particular, those
with novel machine topology. Prof. Qu is a Full Member of Sigma Xi. He
has received several awards from the GE Global Research Center since 2003,
including the Technical Achievement and Management Awards. He was a
recipient of the 2003 and 2005 IEEE IAS Electric Machines Committee Best
Paper Awards.

Jian Li (M’10) received the B.E.E. degree from the Dalian University of
Technology, Dalian, China, in 2005, and the M.S.E.E. and Ph.D. degrees
from Dong-A University, Busan, Korea, in 2007 and 2011, respectively. He
is currently an Associate Research Professor with the School of Electrical
and Electronic Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and
Technology, Wuhan, China. His current research interests include design and
analysis of permanent magnet and switched reluctance machines and electric
drives.

Dawei Li (S’12) was born in China. He received the B.Eng. degree in

electrical engineering from the Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin,
China, in 2010. He is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree at the
School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Huazhong University of
Science and Technology, Wuhan, China. His research interests include
design and analysis of novel permanent-magnet brushless machines.

Hanxiao Lu was born in China. He received the B.E. degree, in 2013, and is
currently working toward the Ph.D. degree in the school of Electrical and
Electronic Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology,
Wuhan, China. His research interests include field oriented control and
multiphase motor control algorithms.

Yuting Gao was born in China. He received the B.E. degree, in 2012, and is
currently working toward the Ph.D. degree in the school of Electrical and
Electronic Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology,
Wuhan, China. Her research interests include design and analysis of vernier
machines and flux reversal machines.

Lifan Xiao was born in China. He received the B.E. degree, in 2013, and is
currently working toward the Ph.D. degree in the school of Electrical and
Electronic Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology,
Wuhan, China. His research interests include permanent machines and
switched reluctance machines drives.