UNIT I

Unit - I
PROLOGUE TO THE CANTERBURY TALES – Prologue to the
CHAUCER
Canterbury Tales -
Structure Chaucer
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Objectives
1.3. Life of Chaucer
1.4. Works of Chaucer
1.5. Prologue to the Canterbury Tales
1.6. Background to the Prologue
1.7. The scheme of the Canterbury Tales
1.8. The Pilgrims
1.9. Chaucer’s Religious Characters
1.9.1. The character of the Parson
1.9.2. The character of the Prioress
1.9.3. The Clerk and the Monk
1.9.4. The character of the Friar
1.9.5. The characters of the Summoner and the Pardoner
1.10. Chaucer’s secular characters
1.10.1. The character of Manciple
1.10.2. The characters of the Sergeant of the law and the Doctor
1.10.3. The character of the Knight
1.10.4. The Square and the Franklin
1.10.5. The wife of Bath
1.10.6. Yeoman
1.10.7. The host of the Tabard Inn
1.11. Chaucer’s Language and Metre
1.12. Chaucer’s style
1.12.1. Chaucer’s use of common words and phrases
1.12.2. Chaucer’s use of poetic devices

1
Unit - I 1.13. Chaucer’s Art of Portraiture

Prologue to the 1.14. Chaucer’s Humour

Canterbury Tales - 1.15. Let us sum up
Chaucer 1.16. Key words
1.17. Answers to Check Your Progress

1.1. INTRODUCTION

In the famous ‘Prologue to the Canterbury Tales’, the

poet, Chaucer makes us acquainted with the various characters
of his time. Until Chaucer’s day popular literature had been
busy chiefly with the gods and heroes of a golden age; it had
been essentially romantic, and so had never attempted to study
men and women as they are, or to describe them so that the
reader recognizes them, not as ideal heroes, but as his own
neighbours. Chaucer not only attempted this new realistic task,
but accomplished it so well that his characters were instantly
recognized as true to life, and they have since become the
permanent possession of our literature. The merry host of the
Tabard Inn, Madame Eglantyne, the fat monk, the parish priest,
the kindly plowman, the poor scholar with his ‘books black and
red’ – all seen more like personal acquaintances than characters
in a book. Dryden has commented upon Chaucer’s characters
in the following words: “Here is God’s plenty”.

1.2. OBJECTIVES

This unit will enable you to learn

— Chaucer as the father of English Poetry

— Chaucer as the poet who throws light upon the

English life of the fourteenth century.

2
1.3. LIFE OF CHAUCER Unit - I

Chaucer’s boyhood was spent in London, on Thames Prologue to the

street near the river, where the world’s commerce was continually Canterbury Tales -
coming and going Of his education nothing was known, except Chaucer
that he was a great reader. His father was a wine merchant. At
seventeen years Chaucer was made page to the Princess
Elizabeth. This was the beginning of his connection with the
brilliant court, which in the next forty years, under three kings,
he was to know so intimately. In 1370 he was spent abroad on
the first of those diplomatic missions that were to occupy the
greater part of the next fifteen years. In 1386 Chaucer was
elected member of parliament from Kent and the distinctly
English period of his life and work begins. In the fourteenth
century politics seems to have been, for honest men, a very
uncertain business. Chaucer naturally adhered to the party of
John of Gaunt, and his fortunes rose or fell with those of his
leader. He died in 1400 and was buried with honour in
Westminster Abbey.

1.4. WORKS OF CHAUCER

The works of Chaucer are divided into three classes,

corresponding to the three periods of his life. The best known
poem of the first period is ‘The Romance of the Rose’, a
translation from the French Roman de la Rose, the most
popular poem of the Middle Ages. Perhaps the best poem of
this period is the ‘Dethe of Blanche the Duchesse’ better known
as ‘the Boke of the Duchesse’ written after the death of
Blanche, wife of Chaucer’s patron, John of Gaunt. The chief
work of the second period is ‘Troilus and Criseyde’, a poem of
eight thousand lines in which he gives to the whole story a
dramatic force and beauty which it had never known before.
The third great poem of this period is the ‘Legende of Goode

3
Unit - I Wimmen’. Chaucer’s masterpiece, the Canterbury Tales, one of
the most famous works in all literature, fills the third period of
Prologue to the
his life. Though the great work was never finished, Chaucer
Canterbury Tales -
succeeded in his purpose so well that in ‘The Canterbury Tales’
Chaucer
he has given us a picture of contemporary English life, its work
and play, its deeds and dreams, its fun and sympathy and hearty
joy of living, such as no other single work of literature has never
equaled. Chaucer planned this work as an immense one with
one hundred and twenty eight tales, which should cover the
whole life of Enlgand. Only twenty four were written; some of
these are incomplete. Though they were written; some of these
are incomplete. Though they are incomplete, they cover a wide
range, including stories of love and chivalry, of saints and
legends, travels, adventures, animal fables, allegory, satires and
the coarse humour of the common people. Though all except two
are written in verse and abound in poetical touches, they are
stories as well as poems, and Chaucer is to be regarded as our
first short story teller as well as our first modern poet.

1.5. PROLOGUE TO THE CANTERBURY TALES

Chaucer is the first English writer to bring the

atmosphere of romantic interest about the men and women and
the daily work of one’s own world - which is the aim of nearly
all modern literature. The historian of our literature is tempted to
linger over this ‘Prologue’ and to quote from it passage after
passage to show how keenly and yet kindly our first modern
poet observed his fellow-men, The characters too, attract one
like a good play : ‘the verray parfit gentl knight’ and his manly
son, the modest prisoners, model of sweet piety and society
manners, the sporting monk and the fat friar, the discreet man of
law, the well-fed country squire, the sailor just home from sea,
the canny doctor, the lovable parish priest who taught true
religion to his flock, the coarse but good hearted Wyf of Bath,
the thieving miller leading the pilgrims to the music of his

4
bagpipe, - all these and many other from every walk of English Unit - I
life and all described with a quiet, kindly humour which seeks
Prologue to the
instinctively the best in human nature, and which has an ample
Canterbury Tales -
garment of charity to cover even its faults and failings.
Chaucer
1.6. BACKGROUND TO ‘THE PROLOGUE’

‘The prologue to the Canterbury Tales’ describes a

company of English men and women come together by chance
on April day in the fourteenth century in a London inn for the
common purpose of making a pilgrimage to the shrine of St.
Thomas a Becket in Canterbury cathedral. He had plenty of
opportunity to observe persons of the kind he describes. He
spent a good deal of his time on official business in Kent, which
meant riding through villages and small towns where lived
craftsmen and merchants and ploughmen such as we meet in the
poem. And in London, where Chaucer had lived for many
years, every social group and every trade and profession had its
representatives. Many of the stories of ‘The Canterbury Tales’
admittedly make use of familiar medieval story – material which
Boccaccio and Sercambi also used, although Chaucer’s
accomplished retelling made them once again fresh and
interesting, but the prologue remains his own brilliant and
original invention, unique of its kind in English literature.

1.7. THE SCHEME OF THE CANTERBURY TALES

It is in the prologue that the scheme of the Canterbury

Tales’ is outlined for us by the Host of the Tabard Inn where the
pilgrims assemble. Each pilgrim was to tell two tales on the way
to Canterbury and two on the return trip to London, the prize
for the best set of stories being a free supper for the winner, the
Host acting as judge. Chaucer’s idea of ‘The Canterbury Tales’
was therefore both more complicated and much more
interesting than a simple collection of unconnected short stories.
Against the background of a pilgrimage to Canterbury he

5
Unit - I introduces a number of potential story-tellers, himself among
them, whom he endows with life and vitality and numerous
Prologue to the
individual characteristics, so that the whole work becomes
Canterbury Tales -
interesting and dramatic. In the Prologue we are introduced to
Chaucer
the actors who are going to entertain us later on, not only with
the stories they tell, but also with their own sayings and doings
in the passages that link the tales.

1.8. THE PILGRIMS

He introduces the knight and his attendants (Squire and

Yeoman) first. This group is followed by one of the same
number among the clerical pilgrims, namely the prioress and her
attendant Nun and Nun’s priest, for the prioress ranks highest
among the church members present. As an immediate contrast
to the worthy nuns there follow the portraits of the very worldly
Monk and Friar. Then he switches back to the lay pilgrims, to
the Merchant who represents a powerful and wealthy class of
fourteenth century society. Contrasted with him is the poor,
studious clerk of Oxford who is again one of the Churchmen.
The next group is that of the Five Gildsmen and their cook who
belong together, followed in turn by three other lay pilgrims who
are much more sharply individualized: The Shipman, the Doctor,
and the Wife of Bath. The portrait of the good Parson, whose
Christilike holiness contrasts sharply with the boisterous
wordliness of the Wife of Bath. The ploughman follows, for he
and the Parson are brothers. The Miller and the Reeve are birds
of a feather, despite their very different looks, but Chaucer
separates their portraits by that of the Manciple, perhaps to
stress the distance which these two quarreling ruffians keep
throughout the journey. Two unredeemed ecclesiastical pilgrims,
the Summoner and the Pardoner, conclude the portraits, except
for the poet himself, and the Host who is not strictly speaking
one of the pilgrims, although as one of the chief actors he is rightly

6
introduced to us in the transitional passage between the portraits Unit - I
themselves and the start of the pilgrimage and the story telling. Prologue to the
Canterbury Tales -
1.9. CHAUCER’S RELIGIOUS CHARACTERS
Chaucer
As a fair-minded man he was ever ready to weigh up
both sides of a question or of a person’s character before
pronouncing judgement on them. This is what Chaucer does in
the prologue where, as each pilgrim is presented to us in turn,
we have the impression that Chaucer looks eagerly for
something good in him or her to balance any faults or failings
which he has also noted. As a result hardly any of the pilgrims
emerge as wholly good or wholly bad, some all the more
damning for having no redeeming features at all, others so good.

1.9.1. THE CHARACTER OF PARSON

The poor Parson is the most obvious instance. In an age

when so many members of the clergy were lax and selfish and
neglectful of their duties, he stands out as almost unbelievably
righteous and conscientious. Indeed, the only fault we can find
is his lack of patience with obstinate sinners. The effect of
creating such a character is two fold one of presenting a model
of the good Christian shepherd and of drawing attention to the
worst failing among contemporary parish priests of which this
Parson is not guilty, such as using the dreaded penalty of ex-
communication upon poor parishioners who had failed to pay their
tithes or neglecting the Parish in order to seek more profitable
employment elsewhere. The methods which Chaucer employs to
serve this double purpose are repetition and contrast. Certain key
words are repeated, like ‘good’, ‘benygne’, ‘clene’, ‘clennesse’,
‘sheep’, shepherd. And effective contrasts are achieved, for
example, between the Parson’s material poverty and his spiritual
wealth. On the whole he is presented like a Christ like figure,
endowed with numerous Christian virtues like ‘devout’, deligent,

7
Unit - I patient, noble, clene, hooly, vertuous, discreet,” and twice we are
Prologue to the directly reminded of Christ by mention of His name:
Canterbury Tales - Yet as a person, the Parson remains remote, for he tells
Chaucer us nothing about the man’s clothes or equipment or his horse,
and the only touch in the prologue to remind us that he is a
flesh-and-blood participant in the pilgrimage is the fact that he
has a brother, the ploughman, who is also there.

1.9.2. THE CHARACTER OF THE PRIORESS

This good lady is sometimes condemned outright as

worldly, ambitious and insensitive to the sufferings of others.
She is very much concerned with good manners and courtly
etiquette. Her little indulgences, like displaying her forehead
which should have been veiled or carrying a few ornaments, are
noted by the poet with genial tolerance. On the other hand
Chaucer credits his Prioress with several virtues which amply
offset such weakness. She was moderate in her speech and her
concern for small animals is a lovable train in an age when
cruelty was all too common. The Prioress emerges as a
conscientious nun who is also a lady, plainly over-anxious to do
the right thing and prepared to err on the right side rather than
offend against good manners or be false to her tender heart.

1.9.3. THE CHARACTERS OF THE CLERK AND

THE MONK

Chaucer’s method of description by contrast is well

illustrated by placing side by side the studious clerk of Oxford
and the hunting Monk. The clerk is featured as lean, hollow,
threadbare and his horse so thin that its protruding ribs make it
look like a garden rake. The monk is ‘ful fat’ fond of a ‘fat
swan’, well equipped on a berry-brown horse that suggests the
same comfortable roundness as its master. The contrast is
carried further for while the clerk loves to collect books and

8
pore over them, the Monk disdains to study. Instead he collects Unit - I
horses and greyhounds. Chaucer takes pains to remind us Prologue to the
several times of the Monk’s absorbing passion for hunting. The
Canterbury Tales -
Monk is not the worst offender among the erring clerics of the
Chaucer
Canterbury pilgrimage, for atleast his laxness and worldly
interest do no direct harm to other people, although of course
they do not do any good either to his order or to his monastery.

1.9.4. THE CHARACTER OF THE FRIAR

Chaucer introduces Hubert, the Friar, a member of one

of the mendicant orders originally pledged to lives of service
and poverty after the model of St. Francis of Assisi and the
Spanish St. Dominic who had founded two of the four orders of
friars in the thirteenth century. Chaucer does not belittle either
the man’s unscrupulous dealings for personal profit in the name
of the religion – like his easy absolution from sin in exchange for
‘a nice sum’ or squeezing a farthing out of a destitute widow nor
his self-indulgent habits. And yet Friar Hubert is not an unlikable
fellow; he has an almost infectious gift of merriment, which
Chaucer stresses in the first line of the portrait. As a friar Hubert is
corrupt and depraved and without principles, but as an ordinary,
fallible human being, he is not without redeeming features.

1.9.5. THE CHARACTERS OF SUMMONER AND

PARDONER

Both the Summoner and the Pardoner held offices which

lent themselves to wholesale abuse, the one by accepting bribes
from people whom he was meant to summon to appear in an
ecclesiastical court, the other by allowing people to do penance
and thus obtain pardon from their sins by paying him money, as
well as by selling them any old rubbish claimed to be genuine
sacred relics of the saints or apostles. Chaucer does not have to
give many details of the frauds practiced these two ‘noble
ecclesiastics’, for his contemporaries knew them only too well.

9
Unit - I The Summoner is also described in equally flattering and
Prologue to the exaggerated terms which are all the more effective for implying
exactly the opposite of what the words mean. Chaucer is very
Canterbury Tales -
fond of this device as he called the Monk, ‘a manly man, to
Chaucer
been an abbot able’ and Friar Huber, ‘a worthy man’. In
appearance these two pilgrims are very different : the Summoner
loud-mouthed, more often than not drunk with blood-red wine
which made his face fire-red, covered with boils and pimples –
a repulsive creature of whose ‘visage’ children were aferd; the
Pardoner all smooth and effeminate with his long, yellow hair,
his stylish affectations and his ‘small voys’. Both men are
referred to as ‘gentil’ fellows, a word which in its proper
context was most precious to Chaucer, but by contrast filled
with the contempt which Chaucer obviously felt for both these
depraved and corrupt ecclesiastics.

1.10. CHAUCER’S SECULAR CHARACTERS

Most of the lay pilgrims in the Prologue are neither very

good nor very wicked, but they are all interesting. They are
quite shrewdly chosen from a variety of trades and professions.
Chaucer was himself very much a man of practical affairs with a
sound respect for success in business or professional practices.
In order to make them real and interesting for us we must be able
to picture them against their ordinary everyday background as
well as in the holiday atmosphere of the Canterbury pilgrimage.

1.10.1. THE CHARACTER OF MANCIPLE

The Manciple is a highly competent buyer of provisions

for the college of lawyers which employs him; indeed, we learn
little more about him from the poet than his business efficiency.
The sting is directed rather against the lawyers, who employ
him, for being outwitted, despite all their cleverness. He is
applauded much by the poet for his business tactics.

10
1.10.2. THE CHARACTER OF THE SERGEANT OF Unit - I
THE LAW AND THE DOCTOR Prologue to the
These two characters impress Chaucer similarly as Canterbury Tales -
thoroughly successful practitioners in their respective professions, Chaucer
even though there is a hint or two of not entirely scrupulous
dealings. Of this Chaucer is rightly critical, but what he appears
to dislike even more is hypocrisy. Both men are condemned for
this : the lawyer for his pompous officiousness, for pretending
that he was ‘bisier than he was’, and the Doctor for claiming to
know everything about medicine. On the other hand, Chaucer
again gives credit where it is due. Both men are well-read in
their professions. The Lawyer is as unassuming in his ‘hoomly’
clothes for the pilgrimage as the Doctor is moderate in his
personal habits. Chaucer notes with a good-humoured dig that
the Doctor is very fond of acquiring money but reluctant to spend it.

1.10.3. THE CHARACTER OF THE KNIGHT

Among the secular pilgrims present the knight occupies

first place, corresponding to the Lady Prioress, as head of a
convent, but the closest counterpart to the knight among the
latter is not the prioress but the poor Parson. Both portraits are
idealized, but the knight becomes a more substantial creature
than the priest because we see him on his horse and are told
enough about his ‘bismotered’ clothes to picture him hurrying
straight from his latest voyage to give thanks at St. Thomas’s
shrine. Although the list of the Kninght’s campaigns reads rather
like a conventional travel brochure, some of the places are
sufficiently distinctive for Chaucer’s contemporaries to have
regarded this particular knight as a distinuct individual. On the
other hand, like the Parson, the knight is presented to us as a
thoroughly virtuous man and a model of knighthood who is
repeatedly described as worthy and credited with almost as

11
Unit - I many virtues as the Christlike priest. The knight’s virtuousness is
Prologue to the again intensified. Such a knight as Chaucer here describes was
Canterbury Tales - no doubt as rare in the late fourteenth century as was the saintly
Chaucer parish priest.

1.10.4. THE SQUIRE AND THE FRANKLIN

It becomes obvious that most of the other pilgrims are

not particularly concerned about the ‘worthiness or gentilesse’
which the knight stands for, except for the squire and the
Franklin. The former is the knight’s son and as befits his
background is himself an apprentice knight. But he is also a
youngman eager for his lady’s favour, so that the portrait
Chaucer paints for us is a skilful blend of youthfulness, chivalry
in the making and thought of music and love. Each of these
aspects of the Squire’s personality has its own series of telling
words and phrases, all neatly intertwined and made even more
effective by vivid word-pictures like

“He was as fresh as is the month of May” or

“He sleep namoore than doth a nyghtyngale”

From ‘The Prologue’ is becomes clear that the Franklin

is a country gentleman of considerable importance in his country
who very fittingly had as his travelling companion another man of
importance, the Sergeant of the Law. The portrait of the Franklin
is a masterpiece of over-emphasis, for his one enormous failing
is a love of food. We catch just enough glimpses of this portly
gentleman to be impressed by the contrast of colours Chaucer
draws between the ruddy face and the whiteness of beard and
silken purse.

1.10.5. THE WIFE OF BATH

The remaining pilgrims, apart from the poet himself, are

skilled in some trade or craft, including the Wife of Bath who is

12
an expert at ‘clooth makyng’ and the Reeve who, although now Unit - I
an administrator of a large estate, was trained as a carpenter. Prologue to the
The wife of Bath comes from ‘beside Bathe’, that is from the
Canterbury Tales -
parish of St. Michael’s just outside the old city itself. In the
Chaucer
wife’s case, the main features are her appearance and clothes,
all very big and conspicuous, her character and her skill and
experience whether in cloth-making, love and marriage or
pilgrimages. In every sense Chaucer makes her into an over
whelming personality very different from the other female
characters already described. One detail of the wife’s
description is her deafness. We learn much later in the work that
in a fight with her fifth husband the wife received a blow on the
head which caused her to be deaf. The other hints of her
character are her love of good company, her Sunday-best
attire. In short, in this big, loud, jolly woman from Bath Chaucer
has given us a unique Englishwoman of six centuries ago who
remains one of the great creations of our literature.

1.10.6. YEOMAN

Chaucer’s Yeoman at once reminds us of Robin Hood,

both in appearance and by his skill in archery and woodcraft,
but there is nothing of the outlaw about him beyond his skill and
appearance. The Yeoman is a forester by trade, seemingly a
model of his craft, but he goes on the pilgrimage in attendance
upon the knight, for it was then customary for a knight to travel
thus attended.

1.10.7. THE HOST OF THE TABARD INN

The remainder of the prologue is devoted to a narrative

of events leading to the beginning of the pilgrimage proper, an
outline of the scheme of story telling devised by the Host of the
Tabard Inn, a few glimpses of the poet Chaucer himself as one
of the twenty nine pilgrims, and a slightly fuller description of the

13
Unit - I Host whom we get to know later as Harry Bailey. In the
Prologue to the description of the Host, the keywords are merry, and mirth;
Canterbury Tales - obviously Harry Bailey was a jolly man, whose chief idea was
Chaucer to make the pilgrimage itself a great success as entertainment
with not a little profit to himself thrown in.

1.11. CHAUCER’S LANGUAGE AND METRE

We need not be surprised to find Chaucer’s English

rather different from ours since ‘the Prologue’ was written in the
fourteenth century. But often the differences are purely on the
surface, so that a little rearranging of spelling or of the order of
a sentence may be all we need to get perfectly good sense. For
instance, the line “to telle yow al the condicioun’ is easily
recognized as the modern English ‘to tell you all the condition’.
If the line were printed like this, the metre of Chaucer’s line
would be spoilt, as this depends on stressing words or syllables
which we might not stress today.

There are of course some difficulties in Chaucer’s

language which we must face. They are mainly to do with
vocabulary. First of all we have words which are completely
strange to us because the English language had no further use
for them so that they have disappeared. Such words may
prevent our understanding a passage of Chaucer until we have
looked them up in our glossary. The second type of words,
those which look familiar but are used by the poet in different
senses from those they have today. So, we must be alert so as
not to miss or misinterpret Chaucer’s meaning. For instance,
‘Villeins’ were a separate social class of farm labourers, this
word conveyed a social rather than a moral meaning; it means
vulgarity rather than immorality.

14
1.12. CHAUCER’S STYLE Unit - I
Prologue to the
Chaucer, like other poets, has his own mannerisms of
Canterbury Tales -
expression and arrangement which make his poetry distinct
Chaucer
from that of other writers. Certain features of Chaucer’s style,
like his conversational ease or the use of repetition, no doubt
derive from the fact that Chaucer wrote much of his poetry in
the first place for recitation to a cultured, courtly audience.

1.12.1. CHAUCER’S USE OF COMMON WORDS AND

PHRASES

Chaucer is very fond of using certain common words

and phrases. He uses the word ‘faire’ as a useful descriptive
adjective. Other expressions of which Chaucer is very fond are
phrases of the type ‘wel koude he’, ‘wel knew he’, ‘ful pacient’,
‘ful bug’ where the short ‘wel’ and ‘ful’ merely help the metre of
the line. The repetition of these humble words as in the prioress’
portrait creates the effect of emphasis and eagerness. To keep the
metre of a line going properly Chaucer inserts little phrases,
often called tags. They are often put in the first person to
establish a direct link between poet and reader which in turn
increases one’s pleasure in the poetry. For example,

“of twenty year of age he was, I gesses

Of Northfolk was this reeve of which I telle”

He creates a colloquial tone by making use of common

turns of speech, popular idioms, proverbial sayings, even slang,
as well as relying very largely on plain, ordinary words.

A slight rearranging of very common words can turn on

ordinary sentence into one of greater emphasis and consequent
poetic effectiveness, as in this line where in Chaucer’s time as in
our own the more common word order would reverse the
positions of the first and third words.

15
Unit - I “God loved he best with al his hole herte”
Prologue to the It would not be effective if Chaucer had written,
Canterbury Tales -
“He loved God best with al his hole herte”
Chaucer
Sometimes Chaucer chooses words which alliterate to
make a line more effective”

“Ful byg he was a brown, and eek of bones

1.12.2. CHAUCER’S USE OF POETIC DEVICES

Chaucer’s style embraces the use of a number of poetic

devices, such as figures of speech or images which make a
point or a character more vivid by implied or expressed
comparison with something else. He uses a straight forward
comparison often.

“And of his port as meeke as is a mayde”

“His nekke whit was as the flour-de-lys”

Sometimes Chaucer deliberately repeats an idea in

succeeding lines, not only for emphasis, but in order to
introduce some subtle twist which comes as a surprise to the
reader.

1.13. CHAUCER’S ART OF PORTRAITURE

Chaucer’s portraits of the Canterbury pilgrims are

varied in much the same way, as the painter uses colours so
Chaucer uses the colours of rhetoric to achieve variety and
interest. No two portraits are alike, and there is not one that is
compete in the sense that it tells us absolutely everything there
is to be known about the person. In every case Chaucer selects
points of detail which appear to him significant about the
person’s appearance or character or background. Although
Chaucer was ready enough to learn from his wide reading, he

16
was no slavish follower of literary conventions, hence the Unit - I
different methods of description which he employs in the Prologue to the
prologue and the delightful variety of pilgrims which results. Canterbury Tales -
Chaucer’s achievement lies in creating characters who invite Chaucer
comparison with one another and help to set off one another’s
strong and weak points. One further results of this interdependence
of the various portraits is to add some dramatic interest to the
prologue’s portrait parade itself, for the essence of drama is the
interaction of different characters.

1.14. CHAUCER’S HUMOUR

Chaucer’s humour is not of the side-splitting kind. He

does not tell jokes and expect us to laugh at them. His is a
subtle variety which inspires and pervades the whole poem and
constantly provides us with new enjoyment. Primarily Chaucer’s
humour in the Prologue derives from the fact that he is himself
one of the pilgrims. He is both actor and spectator and both he
and his audience enjoy the antics which this clever arrangement
enables him to perform.

Check Your Progress

1. Who are the attendants to the Knight?

..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
2. Who is ranked highest among the Church Members?
............................................................................
..................................................................................
.................................................................................
3. Who are the brothers among the pilgrims?
............................................................................
..................................................................................

17
Unit - I
4. How many pilgrims are portrayed?
Prologue to the
............................................................................
Canterbury Tales -
..................................................................................
Chaucer
5. What type of a person the Parson is?
............................................................................
..................................................................................
6. What is the name of the Friar?
............................................................................
..................................................................................
7. Who is referred to as having ‘visage children were afered’?
............................................................................
..................................................................................
8. Why did the wife of Bath become blind?
............................................................................
..................................................................................

1.15. LET US SUM UP

As a poet Chaucer had no other tools besides words. It

took a great poet to use them so well that he can delight and
entertain us and make us think seriously with the help of the
English of the fourteenth century. We can not know much about
fourteenth Century England without much patient and scholarly
study of the social and political scene, the institutions, customs
and beliefs of the time. But here, in the Prologue to The
Canterbury Tales Chaucer has recreated a moment of the
fourteenth century set in a corner of England which still treasures
its Pilgrims’ way and its great cathedral at Canterbury. It is a
unique glimpse into medieval English society and into the hearts
and minds of men and women as they then were. The pilgrims are
alive and are placed before us in a dramatic way; we know the
colours of their clothes and watch their table manners; we share

18
their ambitions as much as their holiday mood. This variety, this Unit - I
dramatic vividness, and the lasting charm of this fourteenth
Prologue to the
century life are all part of Chaucer’s achievement. It is surely
Canterbury Tales -
the fact that so many of the things which Chaucer observes and
Chaucer
says about his pilgrims are still true today.

1.16. KEY WORDS

Pilgrim – one who travels to visit a holy place

Parson – a priest, a rector
Ecclesiastical – relating to the church
Pardoner – a licensed seller of papal indulgences
Foibles – weaknesses
Mendicant – beggar
Abbot – head of a convent
Visage – face
Sundry – several, varied
Yeoman – a man of small estate

1.17. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Squire and Yeoman

2. The Prioress
3. The Ploughman and the Parson
4. Twenty nine
5. Model of righteous and selfish living
6. Hubert
7. Summoner

LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS

M. Bowden - A Commentary on the the General Prologue to

the Canterbury Tales

H.F. Brooks - Chaucer’s Pilgrims

19
Unit - II UNIT II

The Canonization – THE CANONIZATION – JOHN DONNE

John Donne Structre
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Objectives
2.3. Life and Works of John Donne
2.4. Donne as a Metaphysical poet
2.5. Metaphysical conceits in Donne’s poetry
2.6. Donne’s poem ‘The Canonization’
2.7. A brief summary of the poem
2.8. Some artistic features of Donne’s poems
2.9. Let us sum up
2.10. Key words
2.11. Answers to Check Your Progress

2.1. INTRODUCTION

John Donne is generally called a Metaphysical poet and

considered as the founder of the Metaphysical School of poetry
in English. The term ‘Metaphysical’ generally meant philosophical.
It has come to mean poetry that is generally witty in character
and attempts a psychological analysis of men and matters, using
peculiar and learned imagery along with deliberately coined
conceits. Another notable feature of Donne’s poetry is lyricism.
But his lyricism does not mean that it is romantic. The rhythms
are unconventional and the tone satirical. Saintsbury has pointed
out how Donne combines in his poetry wit and imagination,
feeling and thought, insight and imagination. Donne is unique and
supreme as a love-poet.

20
2.2. OBJECTIVES Unit - II
The Canonization –
This unit will enable you to learn
John Donne
• John Donne as a metaphysical poet

• The features of metaphysical poems.

2.3. LIFE AND WORKS OF JOHN DONNE

John Donne was born in London in 1572, the son of a

prosperous iron merchant. He studied at Oxford and in 1591,
he entered the Inns of court in London. He married Anne More
in 1601. His interest and efficiency in politics made him the
member of parliament for Taunton constituency in the year
1618. The year 1621 saw him as the Dean of St. Paul’s
Cathedral. When he travelled in France, Spain and Italy, his
mind underwent a steady change. During this period, he wrote
much of his early verses – six satires and his songs and sonnets.

These poems are arguments about love. The tone is

direct and passionate, expressing as they often do sheer delight.
The imagery is drawn from normal life but invested with a vivid
naturalness. He wrote the Elegies where Donne is essentially a
psychological poet, analyzing and presenting human feelings and
emotions. Donne’s religious poetry attracts by its originality,
singular mode of thought and expression. They appear simple at
the first reading, but greater depth of meaning is revealed on
closer study. His two outstanding religious poems, famous as
the two ‘Anniversaries’ deal with his experiences of the life and
of the world. His early prose pieces do not deserve comparison
with his poetry, but his prose works like Devotions and the
Sermons reveal the richness of his mind.

2.4. DONNE AS A METAPHYSICAL POET

John Donne has a significant place in the history of

English poetry as the founder of the Metaphyiscal school. The

21
Unit - II very term ‘metaphysical’ implies preoccupation with philosophy.
The Canonization – It is poetry that is quite different from what we consider to be
Elizabethan and what we associate with the age of Dryden and
John Donne
Pope. In substance, from, imagery, it has more affinity with
modern verse, especially that which came to be written between
the two world wars. Donne’s poems reveal all the qualities we
associate with Metaphysical poetry. He has used his scholarship
to give a new twist to poetic expression. Like all metaphysical
poets, Donne uses conceits or far-fetched images. Often he
discards what is straight and prefers what is puzzling and obscure.
At times the use of far-fetched images leads to obscurity, and
this explains the neglect of Donne for a long time. Another
characteristic of Metaphysical poetry is the mystical element. In
his ‘Holy Sonnets’ we find dazzling flashes of mystical imagery.

2.5. METAPHYSICAL CONCEITS IN DONNE’S POETRY

Conceits originally meant a figure of speech establishing

a striking parallel between two apparently dissimilar things or
situations. The term was once used in a derogatory sense, but
today it is employed with discretion as an accepted poetic
device. These exaggerated comparisons are seen in Wyatt’s
poems. He compares the lover’s state to that of a ship laboring
in a storm. The metaphysical poets exploited all knowledge,
commonplace or esoteric, practical and philosophical for creating
these figures. In his poem ‘The Canonisation’, the comparisons
for the relationship between lovers move from the area of
commerce and business, then various actual and mythical birds
and diverse historical memorials to a climax which equates the
sexual act with ascetic life. In ‘A valediction’: Forbidding
Mourning’, there is a sustained conceit in the comparison
between the continuing relationship of his and his lady’s soul to
the co-ordinated movements of a draughtman’s compass. These
conceits in Donne are used not merely as ornament. They serve
to control and define the context and are integral to the meaning.

22
2.6. DONNE’S POEM ‘THE CANONIZATION’ Unit - II
The Canonization –
‘The Canonization’ is one of the best love poems of
Donne. It was written around 1603, after the death of Queen John Donne
Elizabeth. It expresses a positive attitude towards love. The
poet feels that the world has been lost for love and he tries to
explain the implications of the loss. ‘Cannonisation’ is a term
taken from the terminology of Roman Catholicism. It meant the
formal admission into the list of saints. A man or woman is
honoured with the title ‘saint’ as a reward for martyrdom, for
long selfless service to man and God for dedication to the cause
of defending and promoting the Roman catholic religion. A
person is made a saint after death. Often it is years after a
person’s ‘death that he or she is canonized. Donne’s poem
celebrates the attainment of supreme bliss through love. It is a
personal poem. The poet wants others to leave him alone to
enjoy his love in peace. He describes the various ways in which
his fashionable friends spend their time. They travel, they try to
get posts in the government by flattery and cultivation of a king
or Lord. They amass money. His love for his mistress will not
disturb their various occupations. He and she are made for each
other. They symbolize the perfection of the union between man
and woman. People will adore them as the types of ideal love.

The poem is in the form of a dialogue between the poet

and his friend. The poet is a romantic lover, but his friend is an
antiromantic, dry, logical scientific in his attitude to the passion.
We do not know whether the ‘you’ is a real person. The poet here
does not refer to the place and force of the physical passion. The
only thing is that he does not consider it to be the ultimate aim of
love, but only a stage in the progress towards its canonization.

2.7. A BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE POEM

The speaker asks his addressee to be quiet and let him

love. If the addressee can not hold his tongue, the speaker tells
him to criticize him for other shortcomings, his palsy, his gout,
23
Unit - II his ‘five grey hairs’ or his own mind and his own wealth and to
The Canonization – think of his ruined fortune. He admonishes the addressee to
look to his position and copy the other nobles. The speaker
John Donne
does not care what the addressee says or does, as long as he
lets him love.

The speaker asks rhetorically, “who is injured by my

love?” He says that his sighs have not drowned ships, his tears
have not flooded land, his colds have not chilled spring, and the
heat of his veins has not added to the list of those killed by the
plague. Soldiers still find wars and lawyers still find litigious
men, regardless of the emotions of the speaker and his lover.

Donne says that the gossip mongering love scorners will

rate them as insignificant as flies but he and his lover will
consider themselves as candles in that they die voluntarily like
candles. Donne crowns the stanza with the statement that they will
die and rise just like a phoenix and thus prove incomprehensible
to the love scorners. This stanza is the exultant proclamation of
their canonization. He says that even if they cannot live by love,
they can atleast die by it. They may not be exalted enough to fill
the glowing pages of history but they may be noble enough to
be enshrined in humble sonnets.

The fifth stanza is a record of the invocation. Donne

says that the love-scorners will address them politely and beg
for a similar pattern of love. In the beginning Donne was in the
position of a petitioner. But now, that part of the world which
treats love as a silly affectation is in the position of the
petitioner. The second is the scornful berating being reversed to
worshipful begging. Another noteworthy point is the elevation of
the style from the secular to theological level.

2.8. SOME ARTISTIC FEATURES OF DONNE’S POEMS

There is a deep personal note in all of his writings. He

die not care for thought because he did not want to build a

24
coherent system. He cared for feeling, for an endless analysis of Unit - II
an endless variety of intense personal moods. Donne’s age was The Canonization –
an age of intellect. Wide travel, interrogative attitude and the John Donne
nascent scientific spirit made the writers of his age
psychologically curious about everything. His psychological
curiosity is evident in his writing. He exalts love as religion in
‘The Canonisation’. He writes of mystical trance born of love in
‘The Ecstasy’. As the intellectual character dominates in his
poems, we find in their poems sudden contrasts, telescoping of
images and multiplied associations.

Check Your Progress

1. What is the meaning of ‘Canonisation’?

..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
2. What type of a person the poet’s friend is?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
3. What is meant by ‘Palsie’?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
4. What is the phoenix?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
5. Explain the words ‘stamped face’
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................

25
Unit - II 2.9. LET US SUM UP
The Canonization –
Though Donne displays in his poetry all the qualities
John Donne
characteristic of metaphysical poetry, his highly individualistic
personality is satisfied only when it scatters across his poems a
few qualities uniquely his own. He detested the oversugared
smooth flow of their verse as well. He wanted to drive home the
point that the woman’s lips were only lips and no corals and her
cheeks were only cheeks and not apples. The poem ‘The
Canonisation’ is a love poem embodying a positive attitude. A
marvelous fusion of sacred and secular ideas is achieved here.
The poem is a triumphant assertion of the glory of love as a
human experience.

2.10. KEY WORDS

Chide – rebuke
heats – hot passions, sensual passions
tapers – candles
hearse – vehicles for carrying a deadbody to the burial ground
chronicle – history
well wrought – beautifully carved
hermitage – hermit’s abode

2.11. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Canonisation means the formal admission into the list of

saints.

2. anti-romantic

3. a disease that cause paralysis of a limb or part of a body

4. The phoenix is a fabulous bird. It was said to live for

hundreds of years in the Arabian desert. When it had
completed its span of existence, it burnt itself on a funeral

26
 pyre and out of its ashes would rise another phoenix to go Unit - II
through the same cycle. The Canonization –
John Donne
5. a coin bearing the image of the king.

LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS

Grierson – A critical History of English Poetry

Isaac Walton – Life of Donne

William Long – A History of English Literature

27
Unit - III UNIT III

Francis Bacon Of FRANCIS BACON OF TRUTH, OF STUDIES

Truth, Of Studies Structure
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Objectives
3.3. Life and works of Bacon
3.4. Summary of Bacon’s essay ‘Of Truth’
3.4.1. Bacon’s admiration of Truth
3.4.2. Critical appreciation of the essay ‘Of Truth’
3.4.3. Bacon’s analogies in ‘Of Truth’
3.4.4. Bacon’s use of Biblical episodes in ‘Of Truth’
3.4.5. Bacon’s reference to other writers
3.5. Summary of Bacon’s essay ‘Of Studies’
3.5.1. The Advantages of Studies
3.5.2. The practical use of Books
3.5.3. The method of Studying Books
3.5.4. Advantages of Reading different subjects
3.6. Let us Sum Up
3.7. Key Words
3.8. Answers to Check Your Progress

3.1. INTRODUCTION

Bacon was a child of the Renaissance claiming all

knowledge as his province. In his essays he deals not only with
ordinary matters like gardening and masques but also with the
serious subjects like death, religion, and truth. His knowledge of
various subjects like medicine, astronomy, astrology, ancient
classics and ancient mythologies is evident from his allusions in
his essays. Bacon is a rationalist in the sense that he wants life
to be governed by reason and not passion. Bacon is a
pragmatist because he considers a concept valuable only if it

28
has a practical bearing on human interest. He never tries to be Unit - III
idealistic instead he observes human problems from close Francis Bacon Of
quarters and suggests practical solutions. Truth, Of Studies

3.2. OBJECTIVES

This unit will enable you to learn

— Bacon’s worldly wisdom and his awareness of the

complexity of life.

— Bacon’s epigrammatic style

3.3. LIFE AND WORKS OF BACON

Bacon was the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, Lord Keeper

of the Seal. At twelve he went to Cambridge but left the university
after two years because he was disgusted with the Aristotelian
philosophy taught there. Then he went to France where he
studied the practical subjects like statistics and diplomacy. After
returning to England, he became a lawyer in 1582.

He wrote a number of works. His first work ‘The

Instauratio’ was never completed through it was planned to
write in six parts. He became popular only through his Essays in
which he deals with various topics from love to religion. In his
work ‘The New Atlantics’ he visualizes an ideal country with all
modern scientific developments.

3.4. SUMMARY OF BACON’S ESSAY ‘OF TRUTH’

In the first part of the essay, Bacon says that some people
tell lies because truth is difficult to get at. When Jesus Christ was
sentenced to death by the Roman Governor Pilate, he raised the
question, “what is Truth?” but he did not wait for an answer
because he knew that it was very hard to get the truth from Jesus
Christ. To achieve something, people generally tell lies.

29
Unit - III To Bacon, truth is like broad daylight whereas lie is like
Francis Bacon Of the dim candle-light which conceals what is ugly and enhances
Truth, Of Studies what is picturesque. Bacon compares a liar to the diamond
which shines both in natural and artificial lights. He compares
the person who speakes the truth to a pearl which is bright only
in daylight. The truth-sayer sometimes wound people with their
harsh uncompromising remarks. Bacon is very practical in
saying that people tend to fill up their minds with illusions and
delusions. Bacon speaks practically that instead of shedding all
the illusions in the process of pursuing truth, a man may fill his
mind with cheering illusions.

3.4.1. Bacon’s admiration of truth

In the second part of the essay, Bacon expresses his

admiration of truth. He says that truth does supreme good to
human nature. He compares the pursuit of truth to a man
pursuing a woman believing the truth is an ecstatic experience
comparable to a man enjoying the company of his beloved. God
has given to man the reasoning faculty with which one can find
out the truth. He compares truth to the legendary pole or axle
tree which remains fixed and bears up heaven from falling.
Bacon is aware that in certain circumstances telling lies is
unavoidable. Only saints can always speak the truth. A rigid
truth-sayer will break down when confronted with a crisis. A liar
on the other hand is flexible and can face difficult situations with
confidence. Towards the end of the essay Bacon expresses his
hatred for liar by comparing him to the serpent that seduced
Eve and was doomed to crawl on its belly. The liar never
bothers about God’s wrath whereas he thinks only to escape
the wrath of human beings by telling lies. He concludes the
essay by saying that when faith disappears totally and all people
become liars a wrathful Christ will come down for the second
time and destroy the earth.

30
3.4.2. Critical appreciation of the essay ‘Of Truth’ Unit - III
Francis Bacon Of
In this essay ‘Of Truth’ Bacon analyses the relative
Truth, Of Studies
merits and demerits of speaking truth and uttering lies. He
speaks practically by saying that telling lies is sometimes
unavoidable. But he speaks strongly in favour of truth. When
the poets exaggerate things in their poems, they have to tell lies.
The poets telling lies has to be accepted and justified because
they try to offer delight to the readers by telling lies. Poetry
without exaggeration will be dull and uninteresting. Businessmen
also need to tell lies to promote sales. So, lying becomes a
necessity in day-to-day life just as an alloy is necessary to make
gold and silver malleable. Though he speaks for falsehood in
certain circumstances, he strongly speaks in favour of truth
which is the ‘soverign’ good of human nature. Bacon says that a
person can stick to truth in the face of crisis only if he has
absolute trust in God. Bacon highlights three cardinal virtues
which are interdependent – charity, trust in providence and
adherence to truth.

3.4.3. Bacon’s analogies in ‘of Truth’

To intensify his ideas Bacon uses many analogies in this

essay. Truth which exposes defects is compared to daylight
whereas falsehood is like candle-light, hiding or softening
whatever is hideous or horrible. Only honest and straight
forward people appreciate the truth sayer. He is compared to
the pearl which shines only in daylight. The liar is compared to
the diamond which shines both in sunlight and darkness. A
truthful man watching the sufferings of liars with unconcern is
compared to a man standing on a sea shore and unemotionally
looking on a storm tossed ship and secondly to a man remaining
inside a safe castle and coolly looking at a bloody battle raging
outside. Mixing falsehood with truth is as necessary in day-to-

31
Unit - III day transactions as mixing copper with gold is for the purpose
Francis Bacon Of of making the precious metal malleable.
Truth, Of Studies 3.4.4. Bacon’s use of Biblical episodes in ‘Of Truth’

Bacon makes use of Biblical episodes to illustrate his

points. When he wants to say that truth is difficult to get at,
Bacon alludes to Pilate raising the question ‘What is truth?’ and
not waiting for an answer because he knew that truth was
beyond one’s grasp. Bacon compares the liar to the serpent that
seduced Eve. He concludes the essay with a warning that when
lying and faithlessness become rampant, Christ will come down
for the second time not to save but destroy the world which has
gone astray.

3.4.5. Bacon’s reference to other Writers

To highlight his arguments, Bacon refers to other writers

to reinforce his arguments. Lucian, an ancient Greek satirist,
tried in vain to probe the causes of lying. He also refers to an
obscure ecclesiastic who dismissed poetry full of exaggeration
as the wine of devils. Bacon openly acknowledges his
indebtedness to the French essayist, Montaigne who said that
the liar is brave towards God and cowardly towards men.
Bacon’s style is a notable one for his use of axiomatic style. The
statements like ‘Certainly, it is heaven upon earth to have a
man’s mind move in charity, rest in providence, and turn upon
the poles of truth, and “Mixture of falsehood is like alloy in coin
of gold and silver” are examples to his typical pithy statement.

3.5. SUMMARY OF BACON’S ESSAY ‘OF STUDIES’

This essay was first published in 1597 and was changed,

later for the edition of 1625. In this essay he lists the various
uses of study and disadvantages of study, method of studying
books.

32
3.5.1. The Advantages of Study Unit - III
Francis Bacon Of
Study relaxes the mind. It gives delight and recreates the
Truth, Of Studies
mind of a reader, when he is alone. It adds charm to his
conversation and enhances his practical ability. A widely read
person has the ability of judgement and planning. But too much
time should not be spent on books because it would be a sign
of laziness and misuse of books. Exhibiting one’s knowledge of
books in conversation should be avoided because it is a parade
of knowledge.

3.5.2. The Practical use of Books

Books give knowledge but the practical use is not taught

by them. Only through personal experience and observation of
life the practical use of books can be learnt. The wisdom and
knowledge of life can be gathered only from the school life.

3.5.3. Method of Studying Books

Bacon says that one should know the correct method of

study in order to acquire the real benefit from his study. Books
must not be misused. They must not be studied to derive
knowledge to oppose others in arguments. Books are not tools or
ornaments to show their knowledge. After reading a book one
should brood over the ideas from the book. This will help a person
to improve his judgement. All the ideas from the books should
not be accepted as truth. A reader should examine them carefully
and should form his own conclusion. There are certain books
which should be read in parts, certain books should be read in a
hurry without care or attention. Only a few chosen good books are
to be concetntrated thoroughly with good care. The ideas from
such books are to be assimilated. In ordinary books the abstract
prepared by another can be read instead of reading the primary source
because they are like tasteless distilled water.

33
Unit - III 3.5.4. Advantages of Reading Different Subjects
Francis Bacon Of
Study moulds a man. Study of different subjects carries
Truth, Of Studies
with it various advantages. The study of history increases
wisdom for history is an epitome of the experience and wit of
the entire human race. It records the acquired wisdom of man
through the ages. The study of Mathematics makes the mind
profound and subtle. The study of moral philosophy makes a
person sober and serious. Logic and rhetoric develop the
power of debating and argumentation.

Bacon concludes that mental ailments are cured by

reading a particular subject just as physical diseases are cured
by bowling, walking and shooting. Bowling is good for the
kidneys, shooting for the lungs, riding for the head and walking
for digestion. Similarly Mathematics increases the concentration
power.

Check Your Progress

1. What is the advantage of studying ethics?

..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................

2. Bacon compares the natural abilities of men to

…………..

3. According to Bacon, writing maketh …………

4. The simple man …………. studies.

5. Who is Pilate?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................

34
 6. Who is the author of ‘The Divine Comedy’? Unit - III

.................................................................................. Francis Bacon Of

.................................................................................. Truth, Of Studies
..................................................................................
7. Who invented the form of the essay?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
8. What are ‘mummeries’?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
9. What do you mean by ‘Sabbath Work’?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
10. Who is Lucretius?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................

3.6. LET US SUM UP

Bacon proves himself as a pragmatist. He considers a

conception valuable only if it has a practical bearing on human
interests. He does not idealize anything or anybody. He
examines the good only to discover the evil latent in it and
probes the evil only to bring out the good in it. Speaking the
truth at all costs may be admirable. But Bacon, the idealist
yields to Bacon, the pragmatist when he says that the bad habit
of telling lies sometimes does good also. Bacon gives numerous
examples of good turning evil also. Studies are good – they give

35
Unit - III delight, embellish one’s talk and develop one’s skills. But too
Francis Bacon Of much studying is harmful according to Bacon.
Truth, Of Studies 3.7 KEY WORDS

Of Truth
giddiness – Changing one’s view often
count – consider
bondage – a kind of mental slavery
wits – minds
naked and open – bare and unadorned
stately – majestically
perfidious – treacherous
Civil business – everyday social life
Of Studies
sloth – unwillingness to work
confute – to prove a person or an argument to be wrong
impediment – obstacle
ailments – diseases
subtle – clever
grave – serious

3.8. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. The study of ethics sharpens the argumentative skill of the

people.

2. Wild plants

3. a full man

4. admires

36
5. Pilate is the Roman Governor of Judaea who sentenced Unit - III
Christ to death. Francis Bacon Of
6. Dante Truth, Of Studies

7. Montaigne

8. Mummeries are old dramas without words.

9. ‘Sabbath Work’ is work done during leisure. ‘Sabbath’ is

day of the week intended for rest and worship of God.

10. Lucretius is a Roman poet who wrote the poem called De

Rerum Natura in which he describes three kinds of
pleasure.

LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS

A History of English Literature - Hudson

A History of Enlgish Literature - Edward Albert.

37
Unit - IV UNIT IV

Paradise Lost Book PARADISE LOST BOOK IX JOHN MILTON

IX John Milton Structure
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Objectives
4.3. Life and Works of Milton
4.4. Summary of Paradise Lost Book IX
4.4.1. Milton’s claim that his theme is heroic than those of the
epics of the past
4.4.2. Satan choosing to inhabit the serpent
4.4.3. Satan’s soliloquy
4.4.4. The debate between Adam and Eve
4.4.5. Sara’s meeting with Eve
4.4.6. Satan telling Eve how he gained the power of speech
4.4.7. Satan leads Eve to the tree of knowledge
4.4.8. Satan persuading Eve to eat the fruit of the tree of
knowledge
4.4.9. Eve’s thoughts after eating the Forbidden fruit
4.4.10. Eve informing Adam what she has done
4.4.11. Adam also decides to eat the fruit
4.4.12. The consequences of the sin
4.5. The character of Adam
4.5.1. Adam’s love for Eve
4.5.2. Adam after the fall
4.6. The character of Eve
4.6.1. Eve’s wish to be independent of Adam
4.6.2. A lover of freedom
4.6.3. Becoming an easy prey to Satan

38
4.6.5. Eve after the fall Unit - IV
4.6.6. Eve more realistic that Adam Paradise Lost Book
4.7. The character of Satan IX John Milton

4.7.1. Unwilling to submit to God

4.7.2. Athiesic feeling of Satan
4.7.3. Heroic qualities of Satan
4.8. Epic qualities in Paradise Lost
4.8.1. Fable
4.8.2. Theme and characters
4.8.3. Episodes and design
4.8.4. Sentiments and Grand style
4.9. Let us sum up
4.10. Key words
4.11. Answers to Check Your Progress

4.1. INTRODUCTION

Shakespeare and Milton are the two figures that tower

above all men who have made our literature famous. Each is
representative of the age that produced him. Milton is a poet
who brings a new force into literature, who shall add to the
Renaissance culture and love of beauty the tremendous moral
earnestness of the Puritan. In his early work Milton appears as
the inheritor of all that was best in Elizabethan literature. He had
a wide reading of Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Spanish, French,
Italian and English Literatures. He finished Paradise Lost in
1665. The epic poem deals with the fall of Adam from a state of
innocence into a state of sin. Milton wrote the poem in blank
verse. The grand style suited the grandeur of the subject.

39
Unit - IV 4.2. OBJECTIVES
Paradise Lost Book
This unit will enable you to learn
IX John Milton
— Milton’s treatment of the subject to justify the ways
of God to men.

— The qualities of an epic and Milton’s sublime style

4.3. LIFE AND WORKS OF MILTON

John Milton was born on December 9, 1608 in London.

His father turned a puritan and settled in London where he
prospered as a scrivener. His father though a Puritan in politics
and religion, yet a musician and a lover of art and literature. So,
the boy grew up in a home which combined the culture of the
Renaissance with the piety and moral strength of early
Puritanism. His poems ‘L’ Allegro’ and Il Penseroso’ are
autobiographical in nature.

Two things of personal interest deserve mention in

Milton’s life, his marriage and his blindness. In 1643 he married
Mary Powell, a pleasure loving girl. After a month, tired of the
austere life of a Puritan household, she abandoned her husband.
After the death of his wife in 1653 he married another woman
who died in 1663. He married for the third time and his third
wife helped the blind odd man to manage his poor household.
The Defensio was the last work that Milton saw. Before it was
finished, he became blind and from 1652 until his death he
labored in total darkness, rebelled, upon whom he depended in
his blindness, rebelled at the task of reading to him and
recording his thought. Still he wanted to fulfil his dream of
writing an immortal poem and started dictating the lines of
‘Paradise Lost’’ and it was finished in 1665 after seven years.
In the next year he began his ‘Paradise Regained’, In 1671 his

40
last important work, ‘Samson Agonistes’ the most powerful Unit - IV
dramatic poem on the Greek model, was written. Paradise Lost Book
4.4. SUMMARY OF ‘PARADISE LOST, BOOK IX IX John Milton

Paradise Lost Book IX falls into five broad divisions.

4.4.1. Milton’s claim that his theme is heroic than those of

the epics of the past (Lines 1-47)

Milton claims that his theme is much more heroic than

those of epics like the Iliad, the Odyssey and the Aeneid. These
epics deal with the dire consequences of the wrath of heroes
like Achilles, Neptune and Juno. He wants to emphasize that the
heroic poetry of 17th century were mere secular fiction. He
constrasted his poem with those of the previous poem. He
claims his epic is based on scriptural fact. While those poets
delighted in the outward luxury of courtly ceremony, he reveals
the inner simplicity of the Christian life. His theme is higher in
true value. Unlike other previous poets, he is inspired by the
sacred Muse.

4.4.2. Satan choosing to inhabit the serpent (Lines 48-98)

On entering Eden, Satan travels far and wide in search

of a suitable disguise. Since the serpent is cunning by nature, he
decides to inhabit the serpent. If Satan induces the serpent to
do evil, nobody will suspect that a devil is inside the serpent.

4.4.3. Satan’s soliloquy (Lines 99-191)

Satan says that the earth is more beautiful than heaven.

Yet he can not be happy over it. Only when he succeeds in
ruining Adam and Eve, he will be happy. God has instigated
Satan by creating Man from dust and making him equal to
angels. So, Satan will try to spite God by ruining His darling
creation, Man.

41
Unit - IV 4.4.4. The debate between Adam and Eve (Lines 192-411)
Paradise Lost Book
Adam and Eve sing in praise of God. Eve tells her
IX John Milton
husband that if she stays with her husband, neither of them can do
their work properly. So, Eve wants to work in ‘yonder spring of
roses’ away from her husband and come back to him at noon.
Since Adam does not want to be separated from his wife and
warns Eve of the lurking enemy, Satan. If they stay together, they
can resist the enemy. Eve replies that they are free from death
and pain and so they need not be afraid of Satan’s attack.

Adam thinks that he can derive courage and confidence

from his wife, if she stays with him. Added to this, he would like
to witness her withstanding the enemy’s temptation. Eve says
that it is better to face the enemy than to live in constant dread
of him. Adam explains to her that God does not want anybody
to obey any external authority. Though man is allowed to obey
his reason, sometimes he may be misled and evil may appear as
good. Since Eve is not ready to pay any attention to his advice,
he allows her to go and protect for herself. Milton compares
Eve to spoilt women like Ceres, Proserpine. Thus the ground is
prepared for Eve’s fall.

4.4.5 Satan’s meeting with Eve (Lines 412 – 531)

Eve goes to the thicket of rose plants. This place is

much more beautiful than the legendary gardens of Venus and
Solomon. On seeing Eve, Satan is stupefied. He almost forgets
his evil intention. However he decides to ruin Eve. Satan in the guise
of a serpent attracts Eve’s attention and begins to address Eve.

4.4.6. Satan telling Eve how he gained the power of speech

(Lines 532=614)

Satan praises Eve by telling her that being a celestial

beauty, she deserves to live in Heaven, adored by angels. At

42
present, Eve is wasting her beauty, by living in the midst of Unit - IV
animals. Eve asks the serpent how it got the power of speech. Paradise Lost Book
The serpent replies that after having eaten a fruit, it gained not IX John Milton
only power of speech also knowledge. It also says that it came
there to worship her as a sovereign.

4.4.7. Satan leads Eve to the Tree of knowledge

(Lines 615-654)

Eve is curious to know which fruit has conferred the

power of speech on the serpent. The serpent, like an ignotius
fatuss leading night wanderers and ultimately ruining them, leads
Eve to the Tree of knowledge. Eve tells the serpent that God
has forbidden her to eat the fruit of the Tree of knowledge.

4.4.8. Satan persuading Eve to eat the fruit of the Tree of

knowledge (Lines 655-794)

The serpent assures Eve that she will not die if she eats
the forbidden fruit. The serpent says that God is unjust in
withholding knowledge from man, He need not be obeyed. The
serpent had been raised to human level by eating the fruit. So,
the human Eve will be raised to the divine level if she eats the
fruit. She too accepts to the idea that God is unjustly
withholding knowledge from them. She also thinks that she can
avoid evil, only if she has knowledge of good and evil. She
considers the fruit as ‘divine’ and she eats it. The serpent glides
away from the place.

4.4.9. Eve’s thoughts after eating the Forbidden fruit.

(Lines 795-855)

Eve worships the Tree which has given her knowledge.

She thinks that God might not have noticed her deed. First she
thinks of eating the fruit herself so that she can be superior to
Adam. She also thinks she might be punished with death and

43
Unit - IV Adam might be spared. Being jealous of Adam, she decides to
Paradise Lost Book give the fruit to Adam also. Adam comes there searching for her.
IX John Milton 4.4.10. Eve informing Adam what she has done
(Lines 856 – 885)

Eve tells Adam that she has eaten the forbidden fruit but
instead of dying, she finds herself growing to God-head. She
wants Adam to share the fruits with her.

4.4.11. Adam also decides to eat the fruit (Lines 886-999)

Adam aso decides to eat the fruit and share Eve’s fate.
He prefers to die than to live without Eve. She is flesh of his
flesh and bone of his bone. He hopes that as God has spared
the serpent, He will spare them also. If God punishes them with
death, His enemies ill condemn him as a tyrant. To avoid such
criticism, God will spare Adam and Eve. Eve is very much
moved by Adam’s love and affection for her. She also says that
her violation of God’s command had done a good thing, that is
she comes to know Adam’s intense love for her. She gives
plenty of forbidden fruits to Adam. Adam eats them, havig been
ravished by ‘female charm’

4.4.12. The consequences of the sin (Lines 1000 – 1189)

Both Adam and Eve experience an upsurge of sexual

appetite. They enjoy sex and sleep. After waking up, they
discover that they have lost their innocence. They feel ashamed
of their action and cover themselves with leaves. Then they
blame each other.

4.5. THE CHARACTER OF ADAM

In the IX Book, Adam and Eve sing in praise of God.

The relationship between Adam and Eve becomes strained
when Eve wishes to work separately. He patiently seeks to win

44
her over democratic persuasion. He tries to convince Eve that Unit - IV
God wishes them to remain together. Eve replies that she could Paradise Lost Book
defend herself. Though Adam speaks philosophically his talk
IX John Milton
could have no effect on Eve. Being very gentle, Adam does not
impose his will on her. With a warning to her against unexpected
dangers, he leaves her free to do whatever she wants to do. His
talk expresses his wisdom.

4.5.1. Adam’s love for Eve

When Eve tells Adam that she has tasted the Forbidden
fruit, he is shocked. He never thinks of deserting her at the
critical moment. He could have left her to face God’s wrath all
alone and saved himself. But he does not do it. Milton, a rigid
puritan, criticizes Adam severely as an uxorious husband fondly
overcome by female charm.

4.5.2. Adam after the fall

After the fall Adam is seized with lust and he loses much
of his greatness. He enjoys Eve like an animal. He is tortured by
a keen sense of shame after coitus and he covers his nakedness
with fig-leaves. Failing to realize that he is also responsible for
the fall, he blames Eve for her unrestrained curiosity and pride.
All his modesty and gentlemanliness vanish into thin air.

4.6. THE CHARACTER OF EVE

Book IX of Paradise Lost reveals the two phases of

Eve’s character her character before and after the fall. Before
the fall she is endowed with all the glory and splendor. But after
the fall she becomes cunning and selfish.

4.6.1. Eve’s wish to be independent of Adam

At the beginning of Book IX, Eve appears singing God’s

praise along with Adam. Eve in her heart of hearts wants to

45
Unit - IV achieve equality with Adam. She being created out of a rib of
Paradise Lost Book Adam, she thought that she has become inferior to Adam. She
IX John Milton wishes to be separated from Adam not only for doing more
work but also for being independent of Adam.

4.6.2. A lover of freedom

She thinks of facing the enemy openly instead of living in

constant dread of him. She considers her happiness can not be
enjoyed in Eden as she has the fear of the enemy. She is very
confident of openly facing the enemy.

4.6.3. Becoming an easy prey to Satan

She is easily tempted by Satan’s flattery. He gives

expression to her inmost feeling that she is leading an obscure,
unrecognized life in Eden in the midst of animals, having just
one man to appreciate her. She wants to be admired by many
angels. Satan also attracts her by saying that Eve is sure to be
promoted from the human to the divine level. So Eve decides to
keep the Forbidden fruit to herself and become Adam’s equal,
or if possible, his superior. Both Eve and Satan resemble each
other in aspiring for the highest position.

4.6.4. Eve becoming possessive after eating the fruit

Eve after tasting the Forbidden fruit, all the bad qualities
of her come to the forefront. Her possessive nature makes her
think that God may punish her with death for having violated
His order. After her death, Adam may be given another wife by
God. She cannot bear this and so she decides to thrust the fruit
on Adam. Hiding her wicked motive, Eve tells Adam that he
must also eat the fruit, so that there will be no discrimination
between them. If Eve becomes a goddess and Adam remains a
human, the gap between hem may disturb their marital harmony.
Adam is convinced by the words of Eve and he decides to face

46
his lot with Eve’s. She also says that they must be thankful to Unit - IV
the Forbidden Fruit because it has brought out their love for Paradise Lost Book
each other. IX John Milton

4.6.5. Eve after the Fall

After eating the fruit, Eve is filled with carnal desire and
she enjoys sex with Adam. She feels ashamed of it and she felt
that she has lost her innocence. For the first time in her life, she
becomes ashamed of her nakedness and covers herself with fig-
leaves. Instead of blaming herself, she blames Adam for having
yielded to her wish to work separately.

4.6.6. Eve more realistic than Adam

Eve becomes quite realistic when Adam is afraid at the

prospect of the future race being unblest. Eve suggests either
not to beget children or commit suicide. Adam scolds her for
suggesting such desperate remedies. She takes the hands of
Adam and getting ready to face the future.

4.7. THE CHARACTER OF SATAN

There are two different personalities in Satan before the

revolt and Satan after the revolt. The creation of God’s son
shatters Satan’s hopes. He considers that the angels are equal
to the son and so the angels can not be commanded to worship
the son. He is also ambitious to become equal, to God
Almighty.

4.7.1. Unwilling to submit to God

Though Satan knows very well that it is impossible to

win over God, he does not want to submit to God. To avenge
God, he plans to ruin the newly created beings, Adam and Eve.
He also feels jealous of Adam and Eve. Satan’s notable quality
is that he finds pleasure in causing pain to others. Though at

47
Unit - IV times he feels remorseful for his evil plans, his remorseful feeling
Paradise Lost Book is overpowered by his wish for revenge.
IX John Milton 4.7.2. Atheistic feeling of Satan

He is not ready to accept the common notion that God

created all. He says that God has no part in the growth of flora
and fauna on the earth. Everything is produced by the earth in
combination with the warmth of the sun.

4.7.3. Heroic qualities of Satan

Many critics consider Satan as a hero praising his

leadership qualities and his unfailing courage. Though Satan is
presented as a hero by Milton, the character of Satan finds a
deterioration in the later books. The great archangel takes the
form of a hateful reptile. Satan changes for the worse both
physically and mentally. Satan loses his brightness. This is
marked by Gabriel as ‘faded splendor wan’. There is a decline
in his physical courage also. He is afraid to face Adam for the
reason that Adam is endowed with physical courage and
intellectual power. He starts losing his goodness and nobility
and he himself confesses that “all good to me becomes bane”
and he finds delight only in destroying.

4.8. EPIC QUALITIES IN ‘PARADISE LOST’

Aristotle has put forth that an epic should have many

qualities like a probable and marvellous theme, a variety of
characters and episodes, sentiments and grand style.

4.8.1. Fable

Fable or action is the basis of an epic. To Addison the

action of an epic should have three features, it should be single,
entire and great. Following his ancient masters like Homer and
Virgil, Milton also begins his Paradise Lost with an account of

48
the debate of the fallen angels. He also states the cause for the Unit - IV
fall, the revolt of Satan, the creation of Hell for the inhabitation Paradise Lost Book
of the fallen angels. Thus the unity of action is preserved by IX John Milton
Milton. An Epic should have episodes related to the main action.
The action of Paradise Lost is planned in hell, executed on earth
and punished by heaven. The action of an epic should be great
the action of Paradise Lost deals with the sin of our first parents
affecting the whole human race at all times and in all places.

4.8.2. Theme and Character

Aristotle state that the theme of an epic should be

‘probable and marvellous’. The theme should be grand but not
unconvincing. Likewise Milton has borrowed his story from the
Bible and he did not want to add any invention of his own to it.
There is a variety of characters from God to Satan. Each
character has distinct qualities. Dr. Johnson commented upon
the characters of Paradise Lost that the epic lacks human
characters. What Dr. Johnson says is not true, as Eve is
presented as a typical feminist. She demands equality with
Adam and she wants to prove her capacity for independent
action. Adam is presented as a gentleman who does not compel
Eve to stay with him.

4.8.3. Episodes and Design of the Epic

As it was pointed out by Dr. Johnson, there are only

two episodes in Paradise Lost, one is Raphael’s narration to
Adam of the war in heaven and the other is Michael’s prophetic
account of the changes to happen after the Fall. The design of
Paradise Lost is a well-knit one. Satan’s rebellion against God
and getting punished is being paralleled with Adam and Eve
sinning and getting punished. Satan is sent to Hell while Adam
and Eve are sent to the vast, unfriendly world. Hell is presented
as antithetical to Eden.

49
Unit - IV 4.8.4. Sentiments and Grad style
Paradise Lost Book
There is a variety of sentiments like Satan’s cunningness,
IX John Milton
his passion for revenge, envy of the human pair and self-pity.
Raphael and Michael are noted for their concern and solicitude
for Adam and Eve. Adam and Eve are marked by mutual
adoration. But their sentiments are changed upside down in
Book IX. Eve becomes selfish. To achieve equality with Adam
she greedily eats the Forbidden fruit. She forces Adam also to
eat the fruit so that he will also die along with her, instead of
surviving and living with another ‘Eve’.

Milton’s use of grand style suits the sublimity of his

thought. The abiding interest of the poem is in these colossal
pictures and in the lofty thought and the marvellous melody with
which they are impressed on our minds. The poem is in
blankverse and not until Milton used it did we learn the infinite
variety and harmony of which it is capable. Milton’s style
possesses grandeur and elevation. The grandeur of his style is
evident in his use of unfamiliar words, and continued allusions.
Milton’s verse is far more musical than that of any other poet.
Hazlitt says, “A very remarkable quality of Milton’s music is its
wonderful harmony between sense and sound”.

Check Your Progress

1. Name Milton’s pastoral elegy.

..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
2. What is the supplement or sequel to Paradise Lost?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................

50
 Unit - IV
3. Why does Satan want to ruin Adam and Eve?
.................................................................................. Paradise Lost Book
.................................................................................. IX John Milton
..................................................................................
4. Who proposed to work separately, Adam or Eve?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
5. What shape does Satan take?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
6. What did Adam and Eve lose after eating the fruit?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
7. What were the mental changes in Adam and Eve after
eating the fruit?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
8. How did Eve pray to God after eating the fruit?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
9. Why does Adam want Eve to stay with him?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
10. To whom is Eve’s leaving Adam compared?

..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................

51
Unit - IV 4.9. LET US SUM UP
Paradise Lost Book
Milton’s proposition of Paradise Lost Book IX is to
IX John Milton
make man aware of his trivial acts. The Central idea of Book
IX is the fatal error and fall of Adam and Eve. This was the fall
which brought all death and sin into the world. Milton’s love of
beauty comes out in his description of paradise. Milton, though
a Puritan was a passionate devotee of beauty. In Book IX we
come across the graphic descriptions of paradise and the
garden of Eden. Paradise Lost is a symbolical epic throughout.
It is symbolic of the universe and man’s life. Each human being
has the soul and soul is God’s incarnate. Paradise Lost Book
IX is a frame work of symbolism.

4.10. KEYWORDS

base original - lowly origin

sapient king – Solomon, whose love for Pharaoh’s daughter is

the subject of Song of Solomon

tedded grass – grass spread out to dry

kine – cattle

Jove – the king of Heaven

Succour – help

Celestial - heavenly

4.11. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOU PROGRESS

1. Lycidas

2. Paradise Regained

3. Satan wants to ruin Adam and Eve because they are God’s
favourites. This is Satan’s indirect revenge against God.

52
4. Eve Unit - IV
Paradise Lost Book
5. A serpent
IX John Milton
6. Adam and Eve lost their honour, innocence, faith, purity and
noble virtue.

7. They shed profuse tears. Storms of high passion, anger,

hate, distrust, suspicion and discord agitated them.

8. Eve thanked God for those fruits which gave her mature
knowledge.

9. Adam argues that if he and Eve Stay together they can

protect each other.

10. Eve is compared to such raped or spoilt women like

Pomona, Ceres and Proserpine.

53
Unit - V UNIT V

Elegy written in a ELEGY WRITTEN IN A COUNTRY CHURCHYARD –

THOMAS GRAY
country Churchyard –
Thomas Gray Structure
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Objectives
5.3. Life and Works of Gray
5.4. Background of the poem
5.5. Summary of the poem
5.6. Elegiac element of the poem
5.7. The classical and romantic elements in the Elegy
5.7.1. The Elegy as a transitional poem
5.8. Let us sum up
5.9. Key words
5.10. Answers to Check Your Progress

5.1. INTRODUCTION

Thomas Gray’s works form a most interesting

commentary on the varied life of the eighteenth century. He was
a scholar, familiar with all the intellectual interests of his age, and
his work has much of the precision and polish of the classical
school; but he shares also the reawakened interest in Nature, in
common man, and in medieaval culture, and his work is
generally romantic both in style and in spirit. This new trend was
known as ‘Naturalism’ and ‘Return to Nature’. Gray’s Elegy
rejected the traditions of Neo-classics.

5.2. OBJECTIVES

This unit will enable you to learn

— The characteristics of the poems written during the

age of Transition

54
 — Thomas Gray as the precursor of the Romantic Unit - V
movement. Elegy written in a
5.3. LIFE AND WORKS OF GRAY country Churchyard –
Thomas Gray
Thomas Gray was born in 1716 in Cornhill, London.
His father, Philip Gray was a man of peculiar temper. Gray was
a boy frightened by his father. Since he had no friends in his
early years, he had to rely upon books. He studied at Eton and
acquired the friendship of Horace Walpole and Richard West.
The period of his literary creation is divided into three periods.
In the first period he wrote several minor poems, of which the
best are his ‘Hymn to Adversity’ and the Ode ‘To Spring’ and
‘On a Distant Prospect of Eton College’. These early poems
reveal melancholy and the study of Nature as the prime
characteristics. In the second period, he wrote ‘Elegy written in
a country churchyard’ (1750) the most perfect poem of the age.
Two other well-known poems of this period are ‘The Progress
of Poesy’ and the Bard’. In the period he wrote ‘The Fatal
Sisters’ and ‘The Descent of Odin’.

5.4. BACKGROUND OF THE POEM

It took eight years to complete the poem. It was

composed in the Churchyard at Stoke Poges where his mother
and aunt were buried. The valley, the meadows, beechwood with
scenic beauty attracted Gray. The Chapel with red tiles was a
place of burial. Gray used to sit there often. His thoughts turned
to men who labored, buried and forgotten under the ground.

5.5. SUMMARY OF THE POEM

As the day time comes to a close, the cattle return to

their sheds. The ploughman moves in darkness completely tired
and exhausted. The hooting owl in the ivy-grown steeple breaks
the silence. Simple and ignorant ancestors are buried in the

55
Unit - V churchyard. They can not be awakened by sweet smelling
Elegy written in a breeze, swallows twittering. The village peasants work heavily
country Churchyard – and die unknown. They have no engraved monuments. Some of
Thomas Gray them could be celestial musicians. They could not achieve fame.
Among the dead there may be some inglorious Milton and
guiltless Cromwell. The dead are far from the madding crowd.
The memorials erected for them evoke tributes from the passer-
by. The parting souls require drops of pity from everyone’s
eyes. They live unnoticed like flowers in the dark ocean, lovely
fragrant flowers unseen by anybody. They have a humble
destiny and do not have falsehood and selfishness. They are
shameful to evil deeds.

In the Elegy, he writes his own epitaph. After the poet’s

death, some one might come asking about his grave. To him the
old peasant may reply, that he would be lying idly under beech
tree; he had the habit of wandering in neighbourhood. His
epitaph states that here lies the poor man who was a youth
unknown to Fortune and Fame. Goddess of knowledge
favoured him much. He was generous and sincere. He helped
the poor and received God’s friendship. He never attempted to
show off his merits or faults.

5.6. ELEGIAC ELEMENT OF THE POEM

Gray was melancholic by nature. His Elegy laments at

the dead old ancestors. Their feelings and emotions and wishes
are always suppressed. They do not have any chance to
become poets or scientists because they have always a fear and
shyness. The parting soul required drops of pity from
everyone’s eyes. Nature herself weeps. Even in their ashes are
to be found their usual fires. It is an artless tale involving the
unhonoured dead. The poet recalls how he sorely missed one
such person, while looking for him in the wood. He, the lifeless

56
one, would move, look woeful, so crazy and one ‘crossed in Unit - V
hopeless love’. The dirge is sung in his honour, when his body is Elegy written in a
borne along the church-way. The stone erected for him shows country Churchyard –
the requisite information about him. Thomas Gray

‘The Elegy’ is coloured by the subtle note of melancholy

which runs from the beginning to the end. The poet’s own
personal life is also represented with a note of melancholy in the
concluding part of the poem. The presentation of the life of the
country people is also coloured by the same gloomy note.

5.7. THE CLASSICAL AND ROMANTIC ELEMENTS IN

THE ELEGY

‘The Elegy’ has something of the romantic mood but

shows many conventional touches. It marks the transition from
the period of classicism to that of Romanticism. Certain
characteristics of Romanticism are present in ‘The Elegy’ Gray
began in the tradition of Dryden and Pope, and ended in the
style and manner of Wordsworth.

5.7.1. ‘The Elegy’ as a transitional poem

‘The Elegy’ expresses sympathy with the lot of the

common people lived far away from the madding crowd and
spent their days in huts and cottages. This adoration of the
simple people is essentially a romantic trait. Gray introduces it in
the poem commemorating the life of the simple people.
Secondly there is a note of melancholy and pessimism which
later on was cultivated by the Romantic poets. The love for
Nature and landscape, the solitary atmosphere of the night, the
haunted places where the owl hoots – all clearly shows that the
poet has caught the spirit of Romanticism in a subdued form.
Gray polished every line that he wrote and naturally in his
poetry there is the artistic finish of a skilled craftsman.

57
Unit - V ‘The Elegy’ is romantic in its mood and stands as a
Elegy written in a transitional landmark between his period of classicism and his
country Churchyard – more highly imaginative poetry. In this poem Gray presents his
Thomas Gray love for remote and distant things, wonder and strangeness and
these qualities characterized the lovers of medievalism during
the Romantic period. Natural sounds were no less active to stir
his feelings and his imagination.

The singing of the young birds caused his heart to rise

involuntarily to carol with them. Classical poetry is impersonal
whereas Romantic poetry is full of self-expression. Gray’s Elegy
reveals his self. The personal element in Romantic poetry brings
out melancholy.

The classical poets delighted in the lives of the rich

people .Romantics had a soft corner to the poor. Gray shows
his deep sympathy for the poor. Another trend of romanticism is
love of beauty and love of Nature. He admires the beauty of the
village. He watches the evening scene of the landscape of Stoke
– Poges. With its lyricism, treatment of nature, melancholy note
and imaginative and emotional fervor, this poem reveals Gray’s
romantic spirit.

Check Your Progress

1. Where is the graveyard of the Elegy situated?

..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
2. Who are ‘the innumerable gems’ and ‘fragrant flowers’
in the Elegy.
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................

58
 3. Why are the village Miltons, Hampdens and Cromwells Unit - V
not known? Elegy written in a
.................................................................................. country Churchyard –
.................................................................................. Thomas Gray
..................................................................................
4. To Gray what are the advantages of poverty?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
5. Why do the villagers need a tomb?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
6. What is the truth of life according to Gray?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................

5.8. LET US SUM UP

The Elegy brings out a democratic note in a society

where common men are neglected. Thus the Elegy is the
precursor of romanticism with its beauty of Nature, simple style
and verbal music. The Elegy lament at the dead old ancestors at
the same time, it asserts the right of them. Gray paved the way
for Romanticism in English poetry. Critics point out that Gray
began as a classic and wound up a romantic. His earlier poems
‘Ode on the Spring’ ‘Hymn to Adversity’ have traces of
neoclassicism. But his ‘Elegy’ has freed poetry from the
shackles of classicism.

59
Unit - V 5.9. KEY WORDS
Elegy written in a
elegy – a mourning song
country Churchyard –
Thomas Gray curfew – evening bell
knell – sound of a bell at funeral
inevitable hour – death
celestial – heavenly
penury – poverty
inglorious – unhonoured
dauntless – fearless
epitaph – inscription on a tombstone

5.10. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Stoke Poges

2. The innocent villagers who are buried and forgotten

3. The village Hampdens and Cromwells are not known

because of their low social status.

4. Poverty prevents them from committing vicious acts, and

killing others.

5. The villagers need a tomb because everyone is to be

remembered after death.

6. All people great and small, rich and poor, beautiful and
ugly become one in death.

LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS

1. Edward Albert – A History of English Literature

2. Grierson – A critical History of English Poetry

60
 UNIT VI Unit - VI
THE SPECTATOR – ADDISON AND STEELE The Spectator –
Structure Addison and Steele

6.1. Introduction
6.2. Objectives
6.3. Life and Works of Addison
6.4. Life and Works of Steele
6.5. Addison’s contribution to Literature and Society
6.6. Addison as a critic of Literature
6.7. Summary of the essay ‘The Spectator’s Account of Himself’
6.7.1. The Spectator’s Early life
6.7.2. Unknown observer
6.7.3. Critical commentary of the essay, ‘The Spectator’s
Account of Himself’
6.8. Summary of the essay ‘Of the Club’
6.8.1. Sir Roger de Coverley
6.8.2. Man of law
6.8.3. Sir Andrew Freeport
6.8.4. Captain Sentry
6.8.5. Will Honeycomb
6.8.6. The clergyman
6.9. Summary of the essay ‘Sir Roger at Home’ by Addison
6.9.1. The Spectator at the Knight’s Estate
6.9.2. The Household: The Butler
6.9.3. The Chaplain
6.9.4. Critical commentary of the essay ‘Sir Roger at Home’
6.10. Humour in ‘The Spectator’

61
Unit - VI 6.11. Let us sum up
The Spectator – 6.12. Key words
Addison and Steele 6.13. Answers to Check Your Progress

6.1. INTRODUCTION

The Periodical essay, in its developed form, owes its

origin to the fertile and inventive brain of Richard Steele. ‘The
Tatler’ was started by him in 1709. It deserves to be called the
archetypal periodical paper. The paper suddenly shot into
popularity after, at Steele’s request, Addison started
contributing regularly to it. Out of the 271 papers that appeared
42 were the works of Addison. ‘The Spectator’ was a still more
spectacular success. It ran to 555 numbers. ‘The Spectator’
contained essays on morality, manners, art and literature, foibles
and faults presented in a ridiculous light, etc. The secret of the
popularity of ‘The Spectator’ is to be looked for both in the
choice of themes and subjects and the skillful execution. The
periodical essays of Addison and Steele possess a lot of interest
in terms of characterization. Foremost among them is the
character of the ‘Spectator’ himself. He stands at the centre of
the life that he describes. He is a keen observer, and notes all
details and external aspects of the comedy of human relations.

6.2 OBJECTIVES

This unit will enable you to learn

— Addison and Steele’s contribution to English Prose
— The Spectator Essays as a picture of the English
society.

6.3. LIFE AND WORKS OF ADDISON

Joseph Addison was the son of the Revere Lancelot

Addison, Dean of Lichfield. He was born on May 1, 1672 at
Milston, Wiltshire. He received his early education at Lichfield

62
and then at the Charterhouse school, where Richard Steele was Unit - VI
his school fellow. In 1687 Addison went to Oxford. In those The Spectator –
days no education was considered complete without a grand Addison and Steele
tour of the Continent. Montague procured Addison a pension of
L300 for this purpose, as he was struck with the extraordinary
talents of the youngman. Addison wrote and published a
narrative of his travels in Italy. It was his renewed association
with his school friend, Steele, which brought Addison a
congenial literary employment. It was while in Ireland that
Addison, through the publication of the Tatler, was brought into
that close connection with its editor, Steele that ultimately led to
the birth of ‘The Spectator’. ‘The Tatler’ ceased to appear at
the end of 1711, and two months later ‘The Spectator’ took its
place. Addison also made some contributions to Steele’s new
periodical called the Guardian. Addison’s last literary
productions were a prose comedy called the Drummer, and
some fifty papers that he contributed to ‘The Freeholder’.
Addison was a life-long patient of asthma, which was now
aggravated by dropsy. He died on July, 17, 1719.

6.4. LIFE AND WORKS OF STEELE

Richard Steele was born of English Parents in Dublin,

the capital of Ireland in 1672. Steele’s father was secretary to
the Duke of Ormond. With the help of this Duke, Steele was
admitted to the Charter house school at the age of thirteen. It
was there that he met his future friend and collaborator, Joseph
Addison, who also was a student at the Charterhouse. After five
years, he joined Merton College, Oxford. He came to be
known there as a classical scholar. But Steele could not
preserve for long in any work, and the result was that he left the
university without taking a degree. Steele then joined the army
as a volunteer. His comedy called ‘The Funeral’ written in 1701
was well received on the stage. He wrote two more comedies

63
Unit - VI called ‘The Lying Lover’ and the ‘The Tender Husband’,
The Spectator – Steele’s most successful comedy was ‘The Conscious Lover’
Addison and Steele which he wrote in 1722.

6.5 ADDISON’S CONTRIBUTION TO LITERATURE

AND SOCIETY

Addison made a unique contribution to English

Literature as the task of social reform. Critics and readers have
always been in agreement about the importance of the role that
Addison has played in moulding public taste and holding follies
and vices to ridicule so that their eradication could be effected.
Addison not only gave a strong lead to the forces which brought
about the regeneration of society but also laid solid foundations
for a prose style which later writers could use as a medium for
novels. It is no exaggeration to say that Addison created and
wholly perfected English prose as the medium of expression of
social thought.

6.6. ADDISON AS A CRITIC OF LITERATURE

As a critic of Literature Addison’s contribution was

unique. His literary criticism was not an exercise in academics
only. He had before him the difficult task of addressing his
literary criticism at once to the scholar and to the dandy and the
man in the street. It was literary criticism which had to mould
the taste of the reading public and also to justify itself.
Dr. Johnson tells us that Addison’s criticism was condemned as
tentative rather than scientific and it was the view that he
judged by taste rather than by principles. It is a great tribute to
the impeccable taste of a man to say that he could do by taste
alone what others could do only with the help of rules and
canons.

64
6.7. SUMMARY OF THE ESSAY ‘THE SPECTATOR’S Unit - VI
ACCOUNT OF HIMSELF’ The Spectator –
Addison and Steele
This essay is the opening number of ‘The Spectatr’. It
gives us an acquaintance with the guiding spirit of this periodical
who appropriately calls himself Mr. Spectator. Certain events in
his early life, he tells us were interpreted to mean that he was
destined to be eminent. He always had an insatiable thirst for
knowledge.

He undertook a tour of the continent, and also visited

Egypt in order to complete his education. As a man he is very
reticent and shy. What he dreads most in life is to be spoken to
by strangers or to be stared at.

6.7.1. The Spectator’s Early life

The Spectator has inherited a small estate from his fore-

fathers. His mother dreamt that the child would become a
judge. As a youth he was regarded to be very reserved but his
teacher took a great liking to him. At the university he
distinguished himself by a most profound silence as also by
being a very diligent student. He studied so hard that he claims
that there are few books, either in classical languages or in
modern languages which he has not read.

6.7.2. Unknown observer

In London he is in the habit of visiting all place of public

resort and assembly. He has no more than half a dozen of
personal friends. He takes note of the particular happenings in
the famous coffee-houses like Will’s, Child’s, Grecian or the
Cocoa Tree. He is to be seen in the chief theatres of the city as
well as at the Exchange. He has thus rightly assumed the name
of Spectator because he lives in the world more a spectator
than a participant.

65
Unit - VI 6.7.3. Critical Commentary of the essay the Spectator’s
The Spectator – Account of Himself
Addison and Steele
The essay gives a remarkably vivid portrait of the man
to whose share the chief duties of editing the paper fell. His
modesty, his learning, his reticence his calm observation, his
shyness before strangers all these qualities of the character are
properly highlighted. There are also hints of the peculiar humour
in which Addison had undisputed mastery – a humour which can
best be described as amiable.

6.8. SUMMARY OF THE ESSAY ‘OF THE CLUB’

This essay, written by Steele describes the members of

the Spectator Club. First among these is Sir Roger de Coverley
who is a man of eccentric habits but good and kindly nature. He
used to be a gentleman of fashion, but was so heart-broken
because of misfortune in love, that he became careless of his
dress, manners and appearance. Another member is an Inner-
Templar. He is remarkable for the integrity of his character. He
is very well-read in literature. Sir Andrew Freeport is a
prosperous tradesman. He is of the confirmed belief that the
real conquests are those made by trade and commerce. Captain
Sentry is a retired military officer. Will Honeycomb is the gallant
of the club, although he is rather old in years. There is a
clergyman who visits the club rather infrequently.

6.8.1. Sir Roger de Coverley

Sir Roger de Coverley is a baronet of a very ancient

descent. He is singular in his behavior but his singularities are an
outcome of his good sense. He is a bachelor because he failed
to obtain his suit of a young widow whom he courted in his
youngers days. He is fiftysix. As a youngman, he was very
spirited and fashionable but ever since his reverse in love he has

66
grown very negligent about his dress and appearance. He is Unit - VI
also a Justice of the Peace. The Spectator –
6.8.2. Man of law Addison and Steele

One of the members of club is an Inner-Templar. He is

not really interested in the legal profession but has joined it only
to please his father. The subject that really interests him is
ancient literature. He has made arrangements with an attorney
to give legal advice on all the matters which are referred to him
by his father. He is a great observer and discerning critic of
manners. He is a regular theatre-goer and his opinion of plays
and players is highly valued by others.

6.8.3. Sir Andrew Freeport

Sir Andrew Freeport is a prosperous tradesman. He is a

merchant of great eminence in the city of London. He is very
well acquainted with the trade and commerce of all countries.
He believes that the real empires are those established by trade
and commerce not the ones which rest on force.

6.8.4. Captain Sentry

Captain Sentry is the next heir to Sir Roger de coverley.

He is a man of good understanding but is incurably modest. He
has quitted the army, he explains, because that is a career in
which one cannot rise without being something of a courtier as
well as a soldier. He is very candid and does not blame his
superiors as the reason why he resigned his army career. He is
neither over-bearing nor obsequious by nature.

6.8.5. Will Honeycomb

Will Honeycomb is the gallant of the party. He is no

dashing young spark, however, because he is rather advanced
in years; but he has kept himself as well as his spirits perpetually

67
Unit - VI youthful. He is an authority on fashions and their history. He can
The Spectator – at once declare which fashion at the French or the English court
Addison and Steele is at the back of a particular way of dressing the hair now in
vogue. He can also relate ancient love affairs of English lords
and ladies with circumstantial detail.

6.8.6. The Clergyman

There is also a clergyman who visits the club, but he

comes so seldom that Steele is not certain whether he should be
described as a member of the club. He is philosophic, learned
and very well-bred. He is rather weak of constitution. Although
he is quiet and modest he has many followers. He does not
speak on sacred subjects in the club unless somebody else has
initiated the discussion. He seems to have no interest in worldly
things except as to overcome the infirmities and weaknesses of
the flesh and make himself fit for a higher world.

6.9. SUMMARY OF THE ESSAY ‘SIR ROGER AT HOME’

BY ADDISON

The essay is remarkable for the fact that in it we see the

direction that Addison gives to the character of the knight,
sketched earlier by Steele. Appropriately, Addison described
the knight in his country home, where his eccentricities are
completely over-shadowed by his manifold qualities of heart
and his great humanity. The knight is almost the ideal of a
benevolent master of the old order. His servants not only
respect him but also love him. Sir Roger’s butler is a man of
venerable looks and would easily be mistaken for a privy
councillor. The knight has made generous provision in his will
for all his dependents. The knight is very solicitous of the
comforts of his guests and has given strict instructions that the
spectator is not to be disturbed or stared at.

68
6.9.1. The Spectator at the Knight’s Estate Unit - VI
The Spectator –
The Spectator had been many times invited by the
Addison and Steele
knight to spend sometime with him at his country estate. Sir
Roger was very solicitous about the wishes of his honoured
guest. He allowed his guest to live according to his sweet will,
without any need for formalities. He could get up when he liked,
even dine in his own room if he felt like it, and speak or remain
silent as he thought fit. He has also instructed the villagers not to
stare at his guest because he knows his extreme shyness.

6.9.2. The Household: The Butler

The knight is the very picture of benevolence so far as

his domestics are concerned. All his servants are of a very long
standing, because Sir Roger is not in the habit of changing his
servants, and the servants on their part do not want to desert
such a noble master. He takes a personal interest in the welfare
of his servants and their families. The result is that they also are
extremely devoted to him and become extremely concerned
when he shows the least signs of ill health. The knight’s butler is
a grey-haired gentleman, who like others has grown old with his
master. He is a very prudent man, and according to the
instructions of his master takes the fullest care of the needs and
comforts of his guest. The other servants also are all very
solicitous that there should be not the least discomfort to the
friend of their master.

6.9.3. The Chaplain

Sir Roger has selected his Chaplain on a very peculiar

consideration. He informed the Spectator that he did not want
to have a Chaplain who might insult him with Greek and Latin at
his own table, therefore he had asked a friend of his at the
university to recommend to him a Chaplain who should be

69
Unit - VI rather of plain sense than of much learning, who should have a
The Spectator – good personality, a clear voice, a sociable temper and who
Addison and Steele should, in addition, know something of the game of
backgammon. During the thirty years that this clergyman has
been with Sir Roger he has not asked a single favour for himself,
although all the time he has some suit or the other on behalf of
his parishioners. The knight has desired that the chaplain should
rather deliver sermons written by famous divines than take the
trouble of writing them for himself. After listening to one of the
sermons, the spectator was of the view that other country
clergyman should also follow this excellent practice introduced
by Sir Roger.

6.9.4. Critical Commentary of the essay ‘Sir Roger at Home’

The essay tell us as much about the character of Sir

Roger as about the Chaplain and other members of his
household. The knight is eccentric only in appearance, deeper
down he is a man of excellent common sense.

His requisites for a good preacher appeared strange to

the author at first, but after hearing a sermon in the Church he
realised that a good aspect and a clear voice were more
indispensable in a preacher than a readiness in Greek and Latin
quotation. It is the sincerity of the knight himself which evokes
an answering sincerity from his servants. The essay has the
further charm of revealing the personality of the Spectator,
Addison himself. There is an interesting reference to the shyness
of the Spectator which has already been hinted in the opening
essay where Mr. Spectator gives an account of himself, telling us
that he is a man of a taciturn and reserved disposition. It is for
this reason that the knight has to instruct the visitors to observe
the Spectator only from a distance.

70
6.10. HUMOUR IN ‘THE SPECTATOR’ Unit - VI
The Spectator –
Addison’s humour is without doubt the feature which is
Addison and Steele
responsible for the enduring charm and popularity of the papers
published in ‘The Spectator’. Addison is a genial and amiable
humorist. His humour is urbane and responsible. It is never
bitter or profane. In his hands, wit, humour and irony are alike
used as instruments in his war against the abuses of the times.
According to Macaulay the distinguishing feature of Addison’s
humour is the grace, nobility, moral, purity, and decency which
he displays even in moments of acutest mirth. His aim is to
harmonise wit and decency. He knew the importance of
restoring humour to the path of decency. His humour is
characterised by great simplicity. The satirist in him selects the
chief follies and foibles, the glaring departures from decency and
decorum as the targets of ridicule. Addison is one of the masters
of humour, wit, gentle satire and delicate irony. He succeeded in
achieving a perfect blend of the serious and the humorous.
Macaulay calls Addison the great satirist who alone knew how to
use ridicule without abusing it, who without inflicting a wound
effected a great social reform, and who reconciled wit and virtue
after a long and disastrous separation during which wit had been
led astray by profligacy and virtue by fanaticism.

Check Your Progress

1. What kind of student was ‘The Spectator’?

..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
2. Why did the Spectator take part in public exercises?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................

71
Unit - VI
3. Name some of the coffee-houses frequented by Addison.
The Spectator –
Addison and Steele ..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
4. Who were Sir Roger’s friends?

..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
5. Who are the members of the Spectator Club?

..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
6. Where does Sir Roger de Coverley live when in London?

..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
7. Who is the author of the essay ‘Sir Roger at Home’?

..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
8. How does Sir Roger treat his valet?

..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
9. Which languages is the Chaplain ignorant of?

..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................

72
 Unit - VI
10. Where is Sir Roger’s country home?
The Spectator –
.................................................................................. Addison and Steele
..................................................................................
..................................................................................

6.11. LET US SUM UP

Addison deserves the highest praise as a delineator of

life and manners. His humour makes even descriptions of
ordinary scenes interesting. He is free from all eccentricity and
extravagance in portrayal of characters. His figures are
absolutely true to life. Although Addison was no preacher, yet
his writings have implicit in them a system of wisdom, ethics and
Christian morality. Dr. Johnson rightly holds out the essays in
‘The Spectator’ to be models of English prose. He praises
Addison for rising above the temptation to be merely
decorative. Absolute lucidity is always his aim and he is always
successful in achieving this aim. Addison deserves the highest
praise as a delineater of life and manners. His humour makes
even descriptions of ordinary scenes interesting. He is free from
all eccentricity and extravagance in portrayal of characters.

6.12. KEY WORDS

The Spectator’s Account of Himself

peruses - reads
choleric – short tempered
disposition – character
prefatory – introductory
civilities – polite attention
Of the Club
parts and merits – natural abilities

73
Unit - VI perverse – wrong headed
The Spectator – merry humours – merry moods
Addison and Steele Inner Temple – the name of the two Law colleges in London
fastidious – difficult to be pleased
candour – frankness
the Park – Hyde Park in London
probity – honesty
Sir Roger at Home
Speculations – reflections
Domestic – servants
Backgammon – a game played with movable pieces
tinged – coloured
countenance – face
edifying – instructive

6.13. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. The Spectator read all the Greek and Latin classics but
was very reserved.

2. The Spectator took part in public exercises to qualify for a

degree.

3. The Will’s, the Child’s St. James’, the Grecian, the Cocoa Tree

4. Lord Rochester and Sir George Etherege

5. Sir Roger de Coverley, Sir Andrew Freeport, Captain

Sentry, Will Honeycomb, a clergyman and a student of law.
The last two members are not named.

6. Soho Square

7. Addison

74
8. Sir Roger treats his valet de chambre as his brother. Unit - VI

9. Latin and Greek The Spectator –

Addison and Steele
10. Worcestershire

LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS

Hugh Walker – The English Essay and Essayists

W.M. Thackeray – English Humorists of the Eighteenth century.

Donald F.Bond – Critical Essays from the Spectator.

75
Unit - VII UNIT VII

The Duchess of Malfi THE DUCHESS OF MALFI - JOHN WEBSTER

- John Webster Structure
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Objectives
7.3. Life and Works of John Webster
7.4. The Revenge Play- its origin and development
7.5. Webster’s psychological approach to characters
7.6. Webster’s satirical Intent
7.7. A brief outline of the story
7.8. The Duchess of Malfi as a Revenge play
7.8.1.Webster contrasted with Kyd
7.8.2. Webster’s characterization
7.9. The contemporary court life as depicted in ‘The Duchess
of Malfi’
7.9.1. Bosola’s satirical observation on courtly life
7.9.2. The Sexual corruption of the age
7.10. Character of the Duchess
7.10.1. Her Charming Personality
7.10.2. Her love for Antonio
7.10.3. Her courage and fortitude
7.10.4. Her tactfulness
7.11. Character of Antonio
7.11.1. A passive character
7.11.2. His intelligence
7.11.3. His simplicity
7.12. Character of the Cardinal
7.12.1. A man of calculating mind
7.12.2. A Machiavellian Character
7.12.3. The fate of the Cardinal

76
7.13. Character of Ferdinand Unit - VII
7.13.1. His dependence on his brother The Duchess of Malfi
7.13.2. His fit of lycanthropia - John Webster
7.13.3. His attitude towards the Duchess
7.13.4. His redeeming feature
7.14. Character of Bosola
7.14.1. His Satirical bent of mind
7.14.2. His intelligence and shrewdness
7.14.3. His redeeming features and reformation
7.14.4. His role as an avenger
7.15. Let us sum up
7.16. Key words
7.17. Answers to Check Your Progress

7.1. INTRODUCTION

Webster’s genius is best shown in tragedy than in

comedy. Comedy does not seem to be his line at all. His tragedy,
‘Appius and Virginia’ was written on a different line from ‘The
White Devil’ and ‘The Duchess of Malfi’. Webster is not only a
great tragic dramatist. He is also a great poet. With Shakespeare,
the macabre element is a passing phase, but with Webster it is a
permanent phase. It is admitted by every critic that he has insight
into, and knowledge of human character. It is again a particular
type of characters he has studied psychologically and analysed
thoroughly. Men and women who have been plunged into, and
also struggled against wickedness have been the objects of his
study. It is a decadent age which he portrays in his tragedies-
the after math of the Renaissance. The Dukes and Cardinals of
Webster belong to the decadent Renaissance period, and they
are thoroughly steeped in Machiavellism as the pursue their
ends in life.

77
Unit - VII 7.2. OBJECTIVES
The Duchess of Malfi
This Unit will enable you to learn
- John Webster
— Webster as a writer of Revenge tragedies

— Webster’s psychological approach of characters

7.3. LIFE AND WORKS OF JOHN WEBSTER

It is not known when John Webster was actually born or

when he died or where he was educated or how he earned his
living. Most probably he was born between 1570 and 1580 and
he must have died after 1624. It is however known that he was
writing plays between 1612 and 1624, and that he was a
member of the Merchant Taylors’ company. When he served his
first term as a dramatist, he was only collaborating; and his
genius was little detected in what he wrote jointly with others.
He collaborated with Middleton and several others in two plays
– ‘Caesar’s Fall’ and ‘The Two Harpies’, and assisted Dekker,
Heywood and Wentworth Smith to write Lady Jane. The two
citizen comedies- ‘Westward Ho’ and ‘Northward Ho’ were
both written in conjunction with Dekker. Collaboration seemed
to have ill suited him. His strength was all reserved for original
work. His fame rests on two great tragic masterpieces. The
earlier one, ‘The White Devil’ was probably written in 1611.
The play is founded on fact, and the events that supplied its
basis took place between 1581 and 1585. He certainly made
some alterations, which were necessary to make the play more
effective on the stage.

The other masterpiece of Webster,”the Duchess of

Malfi”is more masterly written. It is a riper play than the first
one, and is acknowledged to be the greatest non-Shakespearean
tragedy of Elizabethan times. In these two plays Webster shows

78
himself to have complete mastery over all forms of pity and Unit - VII
terror, and succeeds in raising melodrama to the plane of The Duchess of Malfi
tragedy. Webster’s fame rests almost entirely on his two - John Webster
masterpieces. In them he is said to have come nearest to
Shakespeare among his contemporaries, as a writer of
tragedies. He is an artist in words, with a marvelous gift of
phrase. He has also the restraint of a true master, and he sees
deeply into the hearts of men.

7.4. THE REVENGE PLAY – ITS ORIGIN AND

DEVELOPMENT

Revenge of a wrong, real or supposed, is the dominant

motif of a revenge play. It is executed almost ruthlessly, and
often involves a series of murders. The revenge motif in a
revenge play finds its play for various reasons. Vindication of
personal honour which takes the course of arbitrary vengeance
in the partial lawless condition of feudal society is an important
element as we find in ‘The Duchess of Malfi’ and earlier in
‘Hamlet’. In fact revenge plays are “consistent demonstrations
of the pattern of moral law”. There is still another element which
enters into the revenge play – it is the passionate, restless and
vehement individualism of the principal character. It is a heritage
from the Renaissance – but it is also partly due to Seneca.
Another notable feature of revenge plays is that it mostly drew
its inspiration from Italy. Most of the revenge plays are set in
Italy. The scenes of ‘The Duchess of Malfi’ are laid in Malfi,
Rome and Milan. Italy must have been the proper atmosphere
for such plays.

The kind of tragedy had its beginning in ancient Greece

in the tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides. However, in their
tragedies there is little amount of horror which became the
major characteristic of the subsequent revenge tragedy. It was
for Seneca, the great tragic ancient Roman dramatist to

79
Unit - VII introduce the element of horror in the revenge play. In the
The Duchess of Malfi Senecan play, revenge is taken as a sacred duty to avenge the
- John Webster murder of some friend or relative. As the avenger proceeds to
accomplish his duty, horror is piled upon horror and in the end
the stage is left littered with dead bodies. The Elizabethan
dramatists followed the Senecan model of tragedy. From
Marlowe to Webster, the influence of Seneca on the English
Elizabethan tragedy is markedly seen. In fact, Senecan influence
crept into the English theatre through Kyd’s ‘Spanish Tragedy’.
He introduces such elements as the ghost, motive of revenge
and soliloquy. In Seneca, the desire for revenge is mostly
excusable, for it rises out of gross ingratitude. In ‘The Spanish
Tragedy’, Kyd transforms revenge into a convention and
justifies it.

7.5. WEBSTER’S PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH TO

CHARACTERS

Webster’s characters are psychological studies. His

plays are written on the basis of a revenge motive or with
melodramatic device of sensational horrors. The revenge motive
is only secondary. The sensational horrors with which his
tragedies are burdened, are but born of the wickedness of the
age which he portrays, and are also a proper setting while they
are provocation of the self-revelation of the characters concerned.
The reader’s interest will naturally be in the characters and not
in the setting or the background of the play, or in the machinery
employed for the projection of characters.

7.6. WEBSTER’S SATIRICAL INTENT

Webster portrays a moral, unscrupulous and even

vicious characters. It can not be the normal order of things in
the world. He sets one or two good and virtuous characters
against a multitude of bad and wicked one. He desires to lay

80
bare the rotten state of things in society. If he has no declared Unit - VII
purpose to reform the ills of society, he is certainly pained and The Duchess of Malfi
alieanated by them. And if there is no poet morally nobler than - John Webster
Webster, he would no doubt desire to see the moral anarchy set
right. He creates Bosola his spokesman in ‘the Duchess of
Malfi’. He has a cynical pose throughout, and sneers at the
pretensions of the sanctimonious Cardinal and at the open
malignity of Ferdinand, while he serves them for his own
interest.

7.7. A BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE STORY

The plays opens with a description of the purified

French Court, recently visited by Antonio, the major-domo of
The Duchess of Malfi. The Duchess is a young widow. She is in
love with Antonio but cannot declare her love openly. In the
same ay Antonio also admires the Duchess but remains dumb-
struck in her presence. The Duchess’s two brothers, the
Cardinal and Ferdinand, are very possessive towards the
Duchess. They ask her not to stray from the path of virtue and
marry any man surreptitiously.

The Duchess cannot repress her fleshly appetitie. The

brothers appoint the malcontent Bosola, the Duchess’s ‘provisor’
of the horse. But his real duty is to spy on the Duchess’s sexual
goings-on and report to her brothers. But the Duchess is not at
all deterred by these measures. As soon as the brothers go
back to Rome, the Duchess woos and wins Antonio in the
presence of her maid-servant, Cariola.

Three children are born to the Duchess-Antonio couple,

Through Bosola, Ferdinand comes to know about this. He
meets her in the dark and threatens to punish her unless she
makes amends. To save her husband, the Duchess sends him to

81
Unit - VII Ancona. Ferdinand pursues him there also. So he escapes to
The Duchess of Malfi Milan. Bosola, disguised, arrests the Duchess and brings her
- John Webster from Loretto back to her palace where she and her children are
strangled to death by him. The sight of the Duchess’s dead
body brings about an awakening in Ferdinand’s mind. He
refuses to reward Bosola.

Ferdinand goes mad. In the final encounter in the

Cardinal’s fortress, Bosola stabs Antonio by mistake and then
stabs the Cardinal also. Following this, Bosola and Ferdinand
stab each other to death. Antonio’s eldest son takes over as the
next ruler of Malfi.

7.8. THE DUCHESS OF MALFI AS A REVENGE PLAY

A revenge play is characterized by the pursuit of

revenge. Revenge of a wrong, real or supposed, is the dominant
motif of a revenge play. It is executed almost ruthlessly, and
often involves a series of murders. In a play of this kind revenge
is conceived of as a sacred duty, and not as a kind of wild
justice. Horrors are multiplied and there is abundant use of the
imagery of violence and terror. But a distinction is made between
a revenge play and a tragedy of horror. The obvious distinction
that can be made is that the revenge motive must come first in a
revenge play, while the horrors, often sensational and melodramatic
in a horror tragedy may be only secondary. In a revenge play then
revenge should be the primary motive, and there will necessarily be
a lot of murders for accomplishment of revenge; in a horror tragedy
the murders are often wanton and unprovoked, and sensationalism
is the predominant trait in such a drama.

7.8.1. Webster contrasted with Kyd

Webster seems to follow the tradition, but not necessarily

the technique of a revenge play in writing ‘The Duchess of

82
Malfi’. In Kyd’s ‘Spanish Tragedy’ the revenge motif is in full Unit - VII
operation and there is the ghost going about shrieking The Duchess of Malfi
vengeance. In ‘Hamlet’ Shakespeare introduces the ghost of
- John Webster
Hamlet’s father. The presentation is more artistic than in the play
of Kyd. But Webster brings no ghost in his play. He does not,
as a rule, strictly follow the technique of a revenge play. The
action of the play seems to spring from a revenge motive. The
Duchess marries secretly, and bears children, while her husband
or paramour remains undiscovered for a while. Her brother
feels that the sister has brought a bad name to the distinguished
family of the Duke. Therefore he must have revenge. He seems
to be carried away by his fury, and it looks as if he would
immediately put his resolution into action. But he is soon
brought into a saner temper by his brother, the Cardinal. Then
Ferdinand waits for two years or more during which period the
Duchess has borne two more children, the beeter of the children
still untraced. Ferdinand begins to be active now. He carries out
the sinister plan of persecution and torture, perhaps the creation
of the Cardinal’s brain, with the help of Bosola. Bosola who
seems to have been totally depraved by crime and violence,
plays his role with dispassionate thoroughness.

7.8.2. Webster’s Charactrization

‘The Duchess of Malfi’ makes us less interested in the

horrors than in the characters who are involved. The Duchess is
the heroine of the tragedy and according to the rule of tragedy
she dies. And it is a noble death. To the last moment she is the
Duchess of Malfi despite all her suffering and anguish which are
little revealed in her speech and action. She suffers in silence
and she maintains her dignity and majesty to the end. The
Duchess is a unique character. And it is Webster’s supreme art
which has created the character. He has Shakespeare’s artistry,
and insight into character and knowledge of human nature.
Webster shows his skill and artistry in portraying Bosloa’s

83
Unit - VII character. It is a subtler conception that Bosola, though a scholar,
The Duchess of Malfi might have chosen an estimable career, drifts into crime and
- John Webster viciousness. He seems to be a victim of circumstances. He has
certainly his weakness of character. He makes blunders in his
life but he finally redeems himself. He is a mere tool in the hands
of the Cardinal and Ferdinand. The tragedy that Ferdinand
suffers is more appalling than her sister’s. It begins as soon as
he looks at the face of the strangled Duchess; the face henceforth
ever haunts him and he is finally driven to a raving frenzy and
imagines himself as a wild beast. His outraged conscience at the
strangling of the Duchess revenges itself upon him in madness. It
is the character-interest in the play developed with rare
psychological perception and acumen that makes ‘The Duchess
of Malfi’ so different from the average revenge play.

7.9. THE CONTEMPORARY COURT LIFE AS DEPICTED

IN ‘THE DUCHESS OF MALFI’

Webster’s age witnessed the influence of Machiavelli

which encouraged a mad and ruthless pursuit of worldly
ambitions as something desirable and justifiable. This resulted in
an atmosphere full of selfishness, greed, jealousy, hatred,
intrigues and the like. Materialistic considerations prevailed
upon moral values and the outlook of the people in general
became too worldly. Webster, the great dramatist could not be
blind to this state of things. In the play, Webster lays bare the
rotten state of things in society. The play gives an impression
that the time is out of joint. Naturally Webster becomes satirical
in his observations about the prevailing conditions. Bosola, the
malcontent-mediator becomes his spokesman. He cast his
reflections on courtiers, politicians, women, human life, world, etc.

7.9.1. Bosola’s satirical observation on courtly life

While talking to Castruccio, Bosola refers to the

affectation and hypocrisy of the courtiers. He also refers to the

84
hierarchy of ranks in the court which is a hot bed of keen Unit - VII
competition. Likewise Bosola lashes at the unscrupulous ways The Duchess of Malfi
of the politicians. They are people with no conscience. He - John Webster
sneers at the pretensions of the sanctimonious Cardinal and at
the open malignity of Ferdinand, while he serves them for his
own interest. He exposed the cant and humbug of the Cardinal,
and more effectively too. His comments upon the frivolous and
fashion loving mature of women are also noteworthy.

7.9.2. The Sexual Corruption of the Age

The sexual corruption of the age has been highlighted

through the character of Julia. Through her own words,
Webster intends to expose the lack of ‘nice modesty’ in great
women of pleasure. Besides these contemporary labses and
vices, Webster does not miss an opportunity to strike at
mankind as a whole. Again through Bosola, he expresses his
aguish at the pitiable and degenerate condition of mankind. He
is pained to see man reduced to a beast by level. He sets one or
two good and virtuous characters against a multitude of bad and
wicked ones. Webster is certainly depressed by vice and
depravity which he chronicles in his tragedies. The revenge
motive is but a dramatic technique, used in revealing the
rottenness of life in ‘The Duchess of Malfi’.

7.10. CHARACTER OF THE DUCHESS

The Duchess of Malfi is one of the finest and most

complex female characters ever drawn in drama.She has been
portrayed with great insight and poetic power. She stands apart
from other characters in the play in her sweetness of temper,
dignity and correctness of behaviour, in her understanding of human
nature, her wisdom, self – composure and her independence. She
has none of the craftiness of her brothers. As a Duchess,
managing her affairs, she should have possessed a part of such

85
Unit - VII craftiness and sagacity, which might have stood her in good
The Duchess of Malfi stead. On the other hand, she seems to have a little too much of
- John Webster simplicity and innocence, which might partly be responsible for
her tragedy.

7.10.1. Her Charming personality

The Duchess possesses a charming personality. It is an

account of her charm and grace that all who look at her are
charmed by calling her ‘the right noble Duchess’.

7.10.2. Her love for Antonio

The Duchess loves Antonio from the depths of her heart.

When Duke Ferdinand warns her against second marriage, she
resents the opposition of her brother with great courage. She
has evidently made up her mind to marry again – and her choice
is Antonio – who is an honest and decent man without any
unscrupulous ambition either.

7.10.3. Her Courage and fortitude

The Duchess is an embodiment of courage and fortitude.

From the beginning to the end of her tortures, she does never
falter. The full strength of her character is tested in adversity.
Her misfortune begins when her brothers depart from Malfi. They
convey to her a sinister warning against a second marriage, and
leave with her a spy in Bosola that it will be his business to
watch his sister and particularly observe the suitors who seek
her in marriage and which of them she may have a liking for.

But her troubles begin with her marriage. Bosola is at

her court to spy on her. At a stage she confesses to him that
Antonio is her husband. After her brothers are informed of this,
Ferdinand comes to Malfi, and the dark threat he conveys to his
sister by presenting a dead man’s hand to her, followed by a

86
view of waxen figures of Antonio and his children appearing as Unit - VII
if they were dead. In the meantime the Duchess manages to The Duchess of Malfi
send off Antonio to Ancona. Later the Duchess and Antonio are - John Webster
banished from Ancona and their parting takes place near
Loretto and Antonio leaves for Milan with his eldest son. She
bears herself with dignity and courage in the midst of all these
troubles.

7.10.4. Her Tactfulness

The Duchess is simple and innocent but she is no less

tactful. She is seen to be quite resourceful at two places. When
Ferdinand visits her apartment, she is apprehensive regarding
the safety of her husband and her son. Therefore she decides at
once they should leave her and go to Ancona where she would
join them at a later stage. She then tactfully gives out that
Antonio has been dismissed from service because he has
proved to be dishonest by misappropriating large sums of
money. At a later stage she decides that they should at once
separate, her husband and her son going ahead of them to
Milan. With a quick intelligence, she at once understands that
the letter brought by Bosola from her brothers is a mere trap. In
this way, by her prompt decision, she is able to save their lives,
though not for long. Webster has drawn the character of the
Duchess in his own way. The strength of her mind, her power
of endurance, her mental poise, all are drawn from within herself
from her faith in her own integrity.

7.11. CHARACTER OF ANTONIO

Antonio is the steward of the Duchess of Malfi. Though

he is below the rank of the Duchess, yet he is able to inspire
love in her resulting in marriage. But he always remains in the
secondary position. By temperament he is a man of thought
rather than action.

87
Unit - VII 7.11.1. A Passive Character
The Duchess of Malfi
Antonio is a passive character. He does nothing on his
- John Webster
own. He remains subordinate to the Duchess and carries out
her wishes with the least desire of dominating her. He always
keeps a respectable distance from the Duchess. The marriage
does not seem to have brought them closer together. It is the
Duchess who has to make all the decisions. The only occasion
when he acts is when the Duchess is confined in childbed. He
orders the court gates to be shut up and the officers to be
locked in their rooms. At all other times, Antonio appears to be
too passive even after his marriage with the Duchess, he seems
to have little independence. It is the Duchess who decides to
send him to Ancona for his safety and the safety of children.

7.11.2. His Intelligence

But Antonio is not wanting in intelligence. He is a good

judge of human character. His study of the character of Bosola
is suggestive of his insight into character. Likewise his opinion of
the Cardinal is also apt.

7.11.3. His Simplicity

Antonio is a plain and simple man. In fact, it is on

account of his simplicity of heart that he is not suited to court
intrigues. And again it is his simplicity that brings his doom so
early. He does not suspect any one, though all are plotting
against him. Bosola does really undermine him and the Duchess.
Likewise, when the Cardinal sends Bosola to call Antonio to
meet him, he does not suspect the Cardinal at all. It is the
Duchess who takes measures for his safety.

7.12. CHARACTER OF THE CARDINAL

The Cardinal is the damned villain in the play. He is the

real villain of the play. He is the most vicious type of prelate.

88
Antonio rightly assesses his character. Even Bosola says of him Unit - VII
“some fellows, they say, are possessed with the devil, but this fellow The Duchess of Malfi
was able to possess the greatest devil; and makes him worse”. - John Webster
7.12.1. A man of Calculating Mind

The Cardinal is a keen and calculating man. He is more

subtle and crafty than Ferdinand. It is by his counsel and
invention that the persecution of the Duchess is conducted. It is
Ferdinand who is made to take the principal part in this
persecution while the Cardinal keeps out of it. He uses Bosola
as his tool but not directly.

7.12.2. A Machiavellian Character

The Cardinal is a Machiavellian type. There is no

redeeming feature in his villainy. He is the man who wants to
undo his sister, perhaps, not so much for the fact that she has
married a person below her dignity and has had children by him.
It is the malevolence of his nature which directs the destruction
of the Duchess, her children and Antonio. He poisons Julia
because she has come to know about his hand in the killing of
the Duchess and her children.

7.12.3. The fate of the Cardinal

Nemesis begins to operate against the Cardinal right since

the time when he requests the courtiers and friends to keep away
from Ferdinand at night even if he waked up and started rewing.
He gives a fateful direction to them when he tells them that they
must not stir and come to his help if he himself were to play some
of the mad tricks of his brother. By his own intrigue he invites his
doom. Bosola, who does not want to kill Antonio, does it
mistakingly. And when he assails the Cardinal at night with his
sword, the Cardinal cries for help and none comes to him for
the purpose. thus fate agvenges the villainy of the Cardinal.

89
Unit - VII 7.13. CHARACTER OF FERDINAND
The Duchess of Malfi
Ferdinand is a contrast to the Cardinal. He has nothing
- John Webster
of his brother’s astuteness, caution and calculation. He is of a
fiery, ungovernable temper, as against the cool self-possession
of his brother, and in this respect he shows his weakness in
Villainy. He is simply carried away by the violence of his
passion.

7.13.1. His dependence on his brother

Ferdinand is fiery and impulsive, but he has no decisions

of his own. He attempts to initiate his brother’s Machiavellian
craft and double-dealing, but shows his inaptitude. He breaks
into fury on hearing the birth of his sister’s child, and would
have liked to do something terrible at that very moment, if the
Cardinal had not checked him. It is at the advice of his brother
that he is able to organize the subtle persecution of the Duchess.
It is the mind of the Cardinal that always works behind his
operations.

7.13.2. His fit of lycanthropia

It is Ferdinand’s turbulence that rebounds on himself.

His disillusionment begins when he looks at the face of the
strangled Duchess. He is constantly haunted by remorse which
tortures his mind and heart and he finds that it is a worse torture
than he inflicted upon his sister. And he has to suffer in silence
his mind breaks down resulting in lycanthropia. This disease in
Ferdinand is but an outlet for the unceasing anguish or remorse
in his mind. Towards the end of the play Ferdinand is revealed
in his irrecoverable madness. He fights with his own shadow,
and throws himself down on the ground, and will not get up until
he is raised. The sight of the bodies of his strangled sister and
her children, infact, competes the process of his madness.

90
7.13.3. His attitudes towards the Duchess Unit - VII
The Duchess of Malfi
There has been a lot of confusion about Ferdinand’s
- John Webster
attitude towards his sister, the Duchess. The objection to his
sister’s marrying again is also not very clear. Some critics have
gone to the extent of saying that Ferdinand had incestuous love
for the Duchess and it is sexual jealousy that prompted him to
torture and murder her. But Cardinal’s active share in this deed
belies this kind of opinion. But this is certain that it was the
contemporary prejudice against widow remarriage that is
reflected in Ferdinand’s attitude towards his sisters.

7.13.4. His redeeming feature

Ferdinand is not of the nature of the Cardinal, his

brother. The Cardinal is an unqualified, deep-dyed villain for
whom there can be no rescue. In the scene of death the
difference between the two brothers is more noteworthy than
elsewhere while Bosola stabs the Cardinal, for Bosola appears
as the executor of Fate’s decree against him, he appeals to his
mercy and cries for help. Ferdinand appears on the scene.
When the cardinal appeals to him for mercy, Ferdinand replies,

“The devil!

My brother fight upon the adverse party”

Thus Ferdinand wounds his brother, and also inflicts a

death blow upon Bosola. It is the righteous judgement that falls
upon the Cardinal and his agent too. Fate makes Ferdinand the
executor of this judgement. Ferdinand infact, is a marvelous study
of human psychology revealing webster’s art and understanding.

7.14. CHARACTER OF BOSOLA

Bosola is perhaps the most complex and important

character in ‘The Duchess of Malfi’. Bosola wants to rise high

91
Unit - VII in life. he is a person who can live a good life, but his ambition
The Duchess of Malfi does not let him do so. His ambition opens to him a career of
- John Webster crimes. At the opening of the play we learn that he has served
as a galley slave for some years on conviction for murder in the
service. His punishement makes him cynical in his ambition. His
ambition seems to have been to become an eminent courtier in
those days of factitious splendor of court in which Machiavellian
policy might push one to great eminence. It is with this end he
seeks service again with the Cardinal and the Cardinal refers
him to Ferdinand.

7.14.1. His Satirical bent of mind

Bosola is a traditional mal-content in his satirical bent of

mind. He is dissatisfied with the world. He frequently broods
over the disparity between merit and reward. Bosola hurls bitter
satires at princes and at courts and courtiers. Likewise he rails
at feminine weakness for cosmetics. He also reflects on human
life in general comparing man to the most ferocious beasts.

7.14.2. His intelligence and shrewdness

He is a very intelligent person who knows the job fully

well. This is evident when Ferdinand offers him gold, he
straightaway asks him whose throat he must cut. He has the
insight to look into the intent of others. Bosola is shrewd and
has little to do with hypocrisy, which marks out both Ferdinand
and the Cardinal. He is fully aware of the evil he is doing, and of
the damage to his own self too. He perceives his own deformity
as well as the deformity of others and he hates himself as well
as others. But above all he is too shrewd for the Duchess, and
easily wins her confidence. Very shrewdly he elicits the secret
about the Duchess’ husband from her own mouth.

92
7.14.3. His redeeming features and reformation Unit - VII
The Duchess of Malfi
Bosola is after all a human being with human touch in his
- John Webster
heart. When the Duchess dies as a result of continual persecution,
he naturally demands reward from Ferdinand who denies it.
This denial comes to him as a shock and awakens him to the
hideousness of his own guilty action. He has watched the
Duchess bearing herself under persecution and begins to feel for
her when Ferdinand asks him how his sister bears herself in her
imprisonment, he pays the noblest tribute to her. He is indeed
depraved by his career of crime and vice but his sensibility of
goodness and greatness in others for example in the Duchess with
whom he is brought in close contact, has not yet been dimmed.

7.14.4. His role as an avenger

After the murder of the Duchess, when Bosola is asked

by the Cardinal to kill Antonio, Bosola is, infact, shows signs of
remorse for the deed done by him. The soliloquy of Bosola at
the end of the second scene of the fifth act is very significant of
the change that is taking place in him. He will spare Antonio,
and with his assistance, plays the part of the Avenger. It is his
misfortune that by mistake he kills Antonio. But then he fulfils
the part of avenger by killing the Cardinal and Ferdinand, while
he is mortally wounded by Ferdinand.

But with all his redeeming features, Bosola does not

impress as a tragic figure. His cynical and vicious temperament
always clings to his personality.

93
Unit - VII
Check Your Progress
The Duchess of Malfi
- John Webster 1. Who is the Duke of Calabria?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
2. Who is Cardinal?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
3. What is the role of Antonio Bologna?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
4. Who is the friend of Antonio Bologna?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
5. What is the role of Daniel De Bosola?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
6. Name the character whom Antonio calls peevish and
irritable courtier in Act I.
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
7. Why did Julia make false excuses to her husband
while she was going to meet Cardinal?

..................................................................................
..................................................................................

94
 8. Whom did Bosola murder by mistake? Unit - VII
The Duchess of Malfi
..................................................................................
- John Webster
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
9. Where was the Duchess taken prisoner?

..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
10. Who advises Antonio to proceed to Milan with the
eldest son?

..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................

7.15. LET US SUM UP

It is admitted by every critic that he has insight into and

knowledge of human character. It is again a particular type of
character he has studied psychologically and analysed
thoroughly. Men and women who have been plunged into, and
also struggled against wickedness, have been the objects of his
study. It is a decadent age which he portrays in his tragedies the
aftermath of Renaissance. There is still a striving for virtue and
decencies of life in the age of decadence and Webster brings
stoical philosophy, as interpreted by Seneca, to buttress it up.
The Duchess apart, who is untainted by evil, and therefore, a
set-off against the prevailing wickedness of the time, and with
whom we may associate her steward, Antonio and they both
suffer the worst because they are good and honest – we
discover the gleaming of good in Bosola, and even in the fanatic
devotee to wickedness – Ferdinand. The Cardinal alone seems
to be irredeemable.

95
Unit - VII 7.16. KEY WORDS
The Duchess of Malfi
presence chamber – the room in which a person of high rank
- John Webster
holds audiences
lecherous – licentious, lustful
slighted – neglected
Roman mantle – a loose cloak or cape, usually sleevless worn
by the ancient Roman
malcontents - frustrated and dissatisfied men
haven – harbour
intelligence – spy
darkest action – the evil deeds which you most carefully
conceal
pippin – a variety of apple
labour – the effort and pain of childbirth
breeding – pregnancy
frailty – weakness
melancholy bird – owl
suitors – lovers
commendations – good wishes
intelligence – spying activity

7.17. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Ferdinand
2. Brother of Ferdinand
3. Cook of the household to the Duchess
4. Delio
5. Gentle of the house to the Duchess
6. Bosola

96
7. She loves Cardinal most but her husband does not like it. Unit - VII
8. Antonio The Duchess of Malfi
9. The Duchess was taken prisoner in her own palace. - John Webster

10. The Duchess

LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS

1. F.L. Lucas (Ed.) – The Complete Works of John Webster

2. W.L. Sampson (Ed.) – The White Devil and the Duchess of

Malfi

3. E.E.Stoll – John Webster, the Periods of his works

4. J.D. Jump – The Duchess of Malfi and the White Devil

97
Unit - VIII UNIT - VIII

The Spanish Tragedy THE SPANISH TRAGEDY – THOMAS KYD

– Thomas Kyd Structure
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Objectives
8.3. Life and Works of Thomas Kyd
8.4. Summary of the play
8.4.1. Belimperia using Horatio as a tool to avenge the death
of Andrea
8.4.2. The love affair between Horatio and Bel-imperia and
Horatio’s death
8.4.3. Hieronimo and Bel-imperia avenge the death of Andrea
8.4.4. The end of the play
8.5. The Spanish Tragedy as a revenge play
8.5.1. Hieronimo’s delay in avenging the death of his son
8.5.2. Play within the play
8.6. The character of Hieronimo
8.6.1. Hieronimo’s reaction over the death of Horatio
8.6.2. Hieronio’s helplessness in taking revenge
8.6.3. Hieronimo’s final move against the enemies
8.7. The Character of Bel-imperia
8.7.1. Bel-imperia’s love for Horatio
8.7.2. Bel-imperia avenges the death of Horatio
8.8. The Character of Horatio
8.8.1. Horatio’s valour and patriotic feeling
8.8.2. Contrast between Horatio and Lozenzo
8.9. The character of Balthazar
8.10. The character of the King of Spain
8.10.1. The king as a diplomat

98
8.10.2. The king’s expression of anger Unit - VIII
8.11. Let us sum up The Spanish Tragedy
8.12. Key words – Thomas Kyd

8.13. Answers to Check Your Progress

8.1. INTRODUCTION

Thomas Kyd was a great writer in the Elizabethan

drama. He is the father of the revenge play. He was the first to
introduce ‘blank verse’ and ‘classical rhetoric into the English
stage. The first part of ‘Hieronimo’ and ‘The Spanish Tragedy’
were the most popular Elizabethan plays. The Spanish Tragedy
(1585) first gives us the drama or rather the melodrama of
passion, copied by Marlowe and Shakespeare. The play was
revised again and again. Kyd was notable for his wellknit plot
construction.

8.2. OBJECTIVES

This unit will enable you to learn

— Thomas Kyd as the first great English master of

melo-drama

— The characteristics of a revenge play

8.3. LIFE AND WORKS OF THOMAS KYD

Thomas Kyd was born in London in 1558. He attended

the Merchant Taylor’s school where he studied Latin, French,
Italian and Greek. He never went to the university, though he
was grouped among the University Wits. He was arrested for
certain anti-religious writings. He died in 1594 after he was
released from prison because of the torture he had suffered in
prison. He became popular for his work, ‘The Spanish
Tragedy’. He also wrote ‘Solyman and Perseda’. It was said

99
Unit - VIII that he wrote an early version of Shakespeare’s ‘Hamlet’. He
The Spanish Tragedy also translated Tasso’s Padre di Famiglia under the title ‘The
– Thomas Kyd house holder’s Philosophy’. He was the first who adopted the
Senecan Tragedy to the popular theatre.

He introduced the dramatic features like plot within the

plot, appearance of the ghost, the suffering heroine, the revenge
theme, murders and physical horrors, the play within the play
into English drama.

8.4. SUMMARY OF THE PLAY

The play begins with the ghost of Don Andrea, a

Spanish nobleman killed in a recent battle with Portugal,
narrating how he was killed by the Portuguese Princ, Balthazar
after falling in love with Bel-imperia and having a secret affair
with her. After his death, the judges of the underworld are
unable to decide where to place him. Then he comes down to
the earth as per the advice of Prosperine to watch the
destruction of the two men, Balthazar and Lorenzo who were
responsible for his death.

8.4.1. Bel-imperia using Horatio as a tool to avenge the

death of Andrea

Andrea finds that Balthazar is captured by both Horatio,

son of the Knight Marshal Hieronimo, and Lorenzo, the king’s
nephew. The king settles the quarrel between Horatio and
Lorenzo by asking Lorenzo to take Balthazar and make him
stay at his palace. After listening to Horatio’s narration of the
circumstances leading to her lover, Andrea’s murder Bel-
imperia falls in love with Horatio and hopes to use him as a tool
to avenge Andrea’s murder. In Portugal, the Viceroy is cheated
by the Villain called Villuppo into the belief that his son had
been shot down in the battle by Alexandro who is in reality a
sincere follower and well-wisher of Balthazar. When Alexandro

100
is about to be hanged for his supposed treachery, the Unit - VIII
Portuguese ambassador arrives and informs the Viceroy that his The Spanish Tragedy
son is quite safe in Spain. Alexandro is released at once and – Thomas Kyd
puts Villuppo in prison.

8.4.2. The love affair between Horatio and Bel-imperia and

Horatio’s death

Balthazar falls in love with Bel-imperia, the daughter of

the Duke of Castile. Lorenzo and Balthazar use Pedringano, a
servant of Bel-imperia as a spy to know all the information
about her. They come to know that she has fallen in love with
Horatio and plan to kill him. When Horatio and Bel imperia
meet in Horatio’s garden, Lorenzo and Balthazar come there as
they have planned. The two murderers stab Horatio to death
and drag away Bel-imperia. By then her shout awakens
Hieronimo. He rushes to the spot but finds his son hanged on a
tree. He then promises to take revenge upon his son’s death.
Hieronimo becomes mad due to the death of his son. He also
receives a bloody letter in Bel-imperia’s hand writing, identifying
the murderers as Lorenzo and Balthazar. Lorenzo is worried of
Hieronimo’s suspicious behavior.

8.4.3. Hieronimo and Bel-imperia avenge the death of

Andrea

Hieronimo’s wife Isabella, overcome by grief for her

son’s murder goes mad and stabs herself to death at the place
where Horatio was hanged. The Portuguese Viceroy visits
Spain. The date of Balthazar’s marriage with Bel-imperia is fixed.
Hieronimo is given the responsibility over the entertainment for
the marriage ceremony and he uses it to execute his action of
revenge. To celebrate the occasion, Hieronimo decides to enact
a play entitled ‘Soliman and Perseda’. He also convinces
Lorenzo and Balthazar to act in the play. The role of Perseda is

101
Unit - VIII played by Bel-imperia. Perseda falls in love with a knight by
The Spanish Tragedy name Erastus, played by Lorenzo. They get married, but the
– Thomas Kyd Turkish Emperor, Soliman, played by Balthazar falls in love with
Perseda and gets angry with Erastus. Soliman reveals his love
towards Perseda to his bashaw (a noble courtier). The role of
bashaw is played by Hieronimo. The bashaw advises Soliman
to murder Perseda’s husband, Erastus because it is the only
way for Soliman to secure Persida for himself. Following the
bashaw’s advice, Soliman slays Erastus. Perseda becomes
furious because of her husband’s murder. Hence she in turn kills
Soliman and stabs herself to death. Only the bashaw survives in
the play. The bashaw, who is Hieronimo reveals to the shocked
audience that all the characters such as Lorenzo, Balthazar and
Bel-imperia have killed one another in reality using real knives.
He also reveals how he planned all this to avenge his son’s
death. Hieronimo tries to kill himself also in order to escape
punishment. But the King of Spain, the Viceroy and the Duke of
Castile stop him. Hieronimo in order to avoid talking to them
bites his own tongue and keeps silent. He gets another chance
and tricks the Duke of Castile by giving him a knife. He then
angrily stabs the Duke who denied justice to him before when
he had gone to meet him. After killing the Duke, Hieronimo
stabs himself and dies.

8.4.4. The end of the play

The ghost of Andrea and Revenge are happy to see all

the villains put to death and go away to meet their friends and
enemies in the under world. Andrea assigns all the good
characters such as Hieronimo, Bel-imperia, Horatio and
Isabella to happy eternity where they can attain God. The evil
characters like Lorenzo, Balthazar and others are assigned to
various tortures and punishments in Hell.

102
8.5. THE SPANISH TRAGEDY AS A REVENGE PLAY Unit - VIII
The Spanish Tragedy
The Spanish Tragedy is the first revenge tragedy in
– Thomas Kyd
English Literature. Critics are of the opinion that Shakespeare
designed his play ‘Hamlet’ based on ‘The Spanish Tragedy’.
The play is about a father avenging his son’s murder. Knight
Marshal Hieronimo is very much affectionate towards his son,
Horatio. Horatio is loved by Bel-imperia. Lorenzo wants her to
marry the Portuguese Prince, Balthazar. Lorenzo and Balthazar
can not tolerate Bel-imperia and Horatio as lovers. So, they
stab Horatio and hang him on a tree. Hieronimo is shocked to
see his son’s dead body and has taken a vow to avenge the
murderers of his son.

8.5.1. Hieronimo’s delay in avenging the death of his son

Hieronimo’s depressed feeling makes him delay in taking

revenge upon the murders of his son. He even after receiving
Bel-imperia’s bloody letter identifying the murderers as Lorenzo
and Balthazar, he is in a fix whether to believe it or not.
Hieronimo receives another letter written by Pedringano which
confirms the suspicion over Lorenzo and Balthazar. Hieronimo
feels ashamed of his inability to take revenge upon the
murderers.

8.5.2. Play within the play

When the date of Balthazar’s marriage with Bel-imperia

is fixed, Hieronima arranges to enact a play entitled ‘Soliman
and Perseda’ to celebrate the occasion. Besides this he wants
to make use of this occasion to execute his plan of taking
revenge In the play within the play Bel-imperia plays the role of
Perseda who falls in love with a knight called Erastus, played by
Lorenzo. Both of them get married, but the Turkish emperor,
Soliman, played by Balthazar, falls in love with Perseda and

103
Unit - VIII becomes angry with Erastus. Soliman reveals his love for
The Spanish Tragedy Perseda to his bashaw whose role is played by Hieronimo. The
– Thomas Kyd bashaw advises Soliman to murder Perseda’s husband, Erastus.
As per the advice of the bashaw, Soliman kills Erastus. Perseda
became angry with her husband’s murderer, and kills Soliman
and stabs herself to death. At last the bashaw reveals the truth
to the audience that all the characters such as Lorenzo,
Balthazar and Bel-imperia have killed one another in reality
using real knives. He also tells them the truth that it was all his
plan to avenge his son’s death. When he tries to kill himself, the
King of Spain, the Viceroy stop him. He then angrily stabs the
Duke who denied justice to him before. After killing the Duke,
Hieronimo stabs himself and dies.

Towards the end of the play, the ghost of Andrea and

Revenge are happy to see all the villains are put to death and
they are assigned to tortures in hell. At the same time the good
characters of the play such as Hieronimo, Bel-imperia, Horatio
and Isabella are assigned to happy eternity in Heaven. Thus
God’s justice is well established in the end of the play.

8.6. CHARACTER OF HIERONIMO

It is said that Hieronimo is the real hero of the play. He

has intense love for his son, Horatio, when there is a struggle
between Horatio and Lorenzo as to who is responsible for the
capture of Balthazar, Hieronio pleads with the King of Spain on
his son’s behalf. Realising this, the king grants Horatio the right
to fix and collect Balthazar’s ransom.

8.6.1. Hieronimo’s reaction over the death of Horatio

Hieronimo takes the vow to avenge his son’s death at

the moment when he sees his son’s deadbody. He asks his
hysterical wife to maintain balance, so that the murderers would

104
not suspect his attempt for revenge. Though the letter written in Unit - VIII
blood by Bel-imperia makes him confirm the identity of the The Spanish Tragedy
murderers, he never acts hastily. He decides to wait and watch – Thomas Kyd
because it may be the plan of Lorenzo to trap him.

8.6.2. Hieronimo’s helplessness in taking revenge

Though the letter written by Pedringano is a strong

proof for him to identify the murderers of his son, Hieronimo
does not take any action. He is reluctant to face the murderers
openly because they are so powerful and placed in a high
position. His violent behaviour after the death of his son makes
the people suspect that he has gone mad. He postpones his
action of revenge. In this respect he is compared to
Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Hieronimo attempts to commit suicide
but he convinces himself one has to wait patiently till the right
moment occurs.

8.6.3. Hieronimo’s final move against the enemies

When Belimperia threatens to take action herself against

the murderers, Hieronimo sheds away his hesitation and starts
acting at once. He wants to enact a drama entitled ‘Soliman and
Perseda’ in which Lorenzo and Balthazar are also assigned
roles. In the course of the play, Lorenzo and Balthazar are
really murdered. Hieronimo after killing the Duke of Castile,
stabs himself to death. Bel-imperia also kills herself.

8.6.4. The character of Bel-imperia

Bel-imperia is the niece of the King of Spain and the

daughter of the Duke of Castile and sister of Lorenzo. Bel-
imperia, a beautiful and passionate woman falls in love with
Andrea, a commander in the Spanish army. In the war between
Spain and Portugal, Andrea is killed by Balthazar, the
Porthuguese Prince.

105
Unit - VIII 8.7.1. Bel-imperia’s love for Horatio
The Spanish Tragedy
Horatio, a dear friend of Andrea and the son of the
– Thomas Kyd
Knight Marshal Hieronimo, narrates to Bel-imperia the incidents
of the war and how he tried to rescue Andrea who was killed
by Balthazar. She immediately falls in love with Horatio, who is
also inferior to her in social status. Balthazar falls in love with
Bal imperia but she rejects his love because he is the one who
killed her first lover Andrea. When she meets Horatio in the
gardent, Lorenzo and Balthazar come there and drag her and
stab Horatio to death and hang him on a tree. Bel-imperia is
helpless and cries in pain. But she decides to avenge the
murderers of her lover.

8.7.2. Bel-imperia avenges the death of Horatio

When she is locked up by Lorenzo, she manages to

write a letter in her blood, asking Hieronimo to avenge his son’s
death. When Hieronimo fails to act, she forces him to take
action at once and she threatens that she will take action herself.
This activates Hieronimo and he promises her that he will act
according to her wish and apologizes for his delay. When he
gets ready to enact the play. ‘Soliman and Perseda’. During the
course of the play, she stabs Balthazar to death and stabs
herself too. Thus ends the life of a most charming and lovable
woman, Bel-imperia.

8.8. CHARACTER OF HORATIO

Horatio is the son of the King’s knight Marshal,

Hieronimio and the ‘second love’ of Bel-imperia. He is also the
best friend of Andrea, whom Bel-imperia loved first. He is
dutiful not only towards his nation but also to his friend. Andrea
and his beloved, Bel imperia. He feels proud of his friend,
Andrea’s courageous performance in the battlefield. But he feels

106
very much for the loss of Andrea. He is very particular in Unit - VIII
performing the funeral rites to the dead body of Andrea, The Spanish Tragedy
because he thinks that Andrea’s ghost can enter the under world – Thomas Kyd
only after the funeral rites are performed. He searches for
Andrea’s deadbody for three days and performs the funeral rites.

8.8.1. Horatio’s valour and his patriotic feeling

He willingly takes part in the war and fights for his

country genuinely. It is pointed out by the Army General. He
challenged even the prince of Portugal for a single fight. He is
solely responsible for the victory of Spain.

It is evident from his words that he is dutiful towards his

beloved, Bel-imperia.

8.8.2. Contrast between Horatio and Lorenzo

Though Lorenzo is stronger than Horatio in physical

stature. Horatio is bold enough to confront him. While Horatio
is direct, impulsive and honest, Lorenzo is a deceiver and
manipulator of others. Though Horatio appears only in two
scenes, his presence is felt throughout the play.

8.9. CHARACTER OF BALTHAZAR

Balthazar is the prince of Portugal and the son of the

Viceroy of Portugl. He was the leader of the Portuguese army
which fought against Spain. But he was defeated and captured
by Horatio and Lorenzo in the battlefield as a prisoner. He feels
jealous of Andrea and killed him in the battlefield. Though
Balthazar loves Bel-imperia deeply, she rejects his love because
she is in love with Andrea. When he is unable to win the love of
Bel imperia, he kills Horatio, the second lover of Bel-imperia.
Thus he proves himself as the outright villain in the play. In the
play within the play, he is murdered by Bel-imperia, Thus he
meets with his death at the end of the play.

107
Unit - VIII 8.10. THE CHARACTER OF THE KING OF SPAIN
The Spanish Tragedy
The king of Spain is the brother of the Duke of Castile
– Thomas Kyd
and uncle of Lorenzo and Bel-imperia. As he has no issues, he
considers Lorenzo and Bel-imperia as his own children. He
behaves majestically to as his own children. He behaves
majestically to maintain his position. He is very generous
towards his subjects. When the general of the army narrates
how his soldiers tried hard to win over the enemies, the King at
once presents his chain to the general as a reward. He rewards
Lorenzo and Horatio as well as the soldiers. He is very
magnanimous even to his enemies. When Balthazar, the Prince
of Portugal, is brought before the king as a prisoner of war, the
king welcomes him, though Balthazar’s father fails to pay his
tributes. He treats Balthazar very gently and asks Lorenzo to
accommodate him in his estate. The king never wants to treat
Balthazar as a prisoner.

8.10.1. The king as a diplomat

The king of Spain always wants to maintain peace with

the neighbouring countries. He waged war against the Viceroy
of Portugal because of the Viceroy’s failure to pay the tributes
to Spain. To maintain peace between the two countries in
future, he asks his brother, the Duke of Castile to give his
daughter, Bel imperia in marriage to Balthazar. The Duke also
agrees to the king’s proposal. Thus the king of Spain proves
himself as a diplomat.

8.10.2. The king’s expression of anger

A king need not be always good to his subjects. He

should express his anger against them whenever the need arises.
Likewise in the play. When Hieronimo commits murders, the
king becomes angry with him and asks him to tell who were the

108
other accomplices in the criminal deeds. When Hieronimo Unit - VIII
unwilling to reveal, the king orders the torture of Hieronimo to The Spanish Tragedy
extract the truth from him. But Hieronimo commits suicide. – Thomas Kyd
Check Your Progress

1. Who is responsible for the victory of the Spanish army?

..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
2. Why does Bel-imperia want to use Horatio as an ally
in fulfilling her plan?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
3. Where do Horatio and Bel-imperia propose to meet?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
4. Why does Isabella become mad?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
5. By whom is Andrea killed in the battle?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
6. Who performed the funeral rites of Andrea?
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................

109
Unit - VIII
7. Why does Andrea’s ghost come down to earth?
The Spanish Tragedy
..................................................................................
– Thomas Kyd
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
8. What is Hieronimo’s reaction on seeing his son’s dead body?

..................................................................................
..................................................................................

8.11. LET US SUM UP

Thus Thomas Kyd proves himself as the Father of the

revenge play. His contribution to English drama is notable. He
was the one who introduced blank verse to the English stage
even before Christopher Marlowe. He also adopted the
Senecan Tragedy to the popular theatre.

8.12. KEYWORDS

Knight Marshal – a legal official

Infernal king – Pluto, the king of the underworld
Albion – England
dissemble – conceal
carcass – dead body
Cupid – God of Love
fraught filled
empyreal – heavenly
Hymen – God of marriage

8.13. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Horatio

2. Bel-imperia wants to use Horatio as an ally to take revenge

upon the murderers.

110
3. Horatio and Bel-imperia propose to meet in the Knight Unit - VIII
Marshal’s bower. The Spanish Tragedy
4. Isabella becomes mad because her son Horatio has been – Thomas Kyd
murdered.

5. Andrea is killed in the battle by Balthazar.

6. Horatio performed the funeral rites of Andrea.

7. Andrea’s ghost comes down to the earth with his

companion, Revenge to watch the destruction of two men,
Balthazar and Lorenzo.

8. On seeing his son’s dead body, Hieronima plans to avenge

his death.

111
Unit - IX UNIT IX

Tom Jones TOM JONES – HENRY FIELDING

- Henry Fielding Structure
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Objectives
9.3. Life and Works of Henry Fielding
9.4. Organisation of the Novel
9.5. Epical Dimensions and Moral vision
9.6. Humour in ‘Tom Jones’
9.7. Realism
9.8. Author’s comments
9.9. A brief summary of Tom Jones
9.10. Character of Tom Jones
9.10.1. Brought up as a bastard
9.10.2. Goodness of Heart
9.10.3. Affection for Squire Allworthy
9.10.4. Sexual liaisons
9.10.5. Tom and Blifil
9.11. Character of Sophia
9.11.1. Devoted to her father
9.11.2. Love with Tom
9.11.3. Rejection of Blifil
9.11.4. Not too perfect to look human
9.12. Character of Squire Allworthy
9.12.1. Credulous, morally blind, lacks insight
9.13. Character of Blifil
9.13.1. Malicious and hypocritical
9.13.2. His courtship of Sophia

112
9.14. ‘Tom Jones’ as a comic Epic in prose Unit - IX
9.14.1. The comic tone in ‘Tom Jones’ Tom Jones
9.14.2. Epic qualities in ‘Tom Jones’ - Henry Fielding

9.14.3. Mock-heroic style

9.14.4. Solemnity of purpose
9.15. Realism in ‘Tom Jones’
9.15.1. Realism in Characterisation
9.15.2. Realistic description of the contemporary life
9.16. What is a picaresque novel
9.16.1. ‘Tom Jones’ as a picaresque novel
9.17. Let us sum up
9.18. Answers to Check Your Progress

9.1. INTRODUCTION

Fielding had a genius for sounding the emotions of the

human heart, but his methods are different. Richardson pores
over human weaknesses whereas Fielding looks, laughs and
passes on. He does not seek to analyse or over-refine; and so
his characters possess a breadth, humanity and attraction denied
to Richardson’s Realism is the keynote of all his work. He had a
fierce hatred of all that savoured of hypocrisy. His lively, ironical
pen has something of the power of Swift, but his mood is
tempered by the warmth of his human sympathy. His prime
interest is in the depicting of the everyday life of the ordinary
man, and he is particularly striking in his descriptions of low life.
Unlike Richardson, he has no heores, and few out and out
villains – his characters are men, with all men’s weaknesses, and
the range of his portrait gallery has not often been exceeded. He
is breezy, bustling, and energetic in his narrative. He shows us
life on the highway, in the cottage, and among the streets of
London.

113
Unit - IX 9.2. OBJECTIVES
Tom Jones
This unit will enable you to learn
- Henry Fielding
— The realism of Henry Fielding’s novels.

— The humour of Fielding which is boisterous and broad

9.3. LIFE AND WORKS OF HENRY FIELDING

A younger son of an ancient family, Fielding was born in

Somersetshire in 1707, was educated at Eton, and studied law
at Leyden. Lack of funds stopped his legal studies for a time; he
took to writing plays for a living, but the plays were of little
merit; then having married, he resumed his studies and was
called to the Bar. After sometime in practice he was appointed
Bow street magistrate, a post which brought him a small income
and much herd work. His magisterial duties, however, had their
compensations, for they gave him a close view of many types of
human criminality which was of much use to him in his novels.
Fielding himself was no Puritan, and his own excesses helped to
undermine his constitution. In the hope that it would improve his
health, he took a voyage to Portugal in 1754; but he died some
months after landing, and was buried at Lisbon.

In 1742 appeared Joseph Andrews which is a novel of a

new and powerful kind. From the very beginning we get the
Fielding touch; the complete rejection of the letter-method; the
bustle and sweep of the tale ; the broad and vivacious humour;
the genial and half-contemptuous insight into human nature; and
the forcible and pithy prose style. His next works were ‘A
Journey from this World to the Next’ (1743) and ‘Jonathan Wild
the Great’ (1743). ‘Jonathan Wild’ is the biography of the
famous thief and ‘thief-taker’ who was hanged at Newgate. His
greatest novel, ‘Tom Jones’ (1749) completes and perfects his
achievement. In the book we have all his previous virtues with the

114
addition of greater symmetry of plot, clearer and steadier vision into Unit - IX
human life and human frailty, and a borader and more thickly peopled Tom Jones
stage. His last novel, ‘Amelia’ (1751) is an autobiographical novel. - Henry Fielding
The last work he produced was his ‘Voyage to Lisbon’, a diary
written during his last journey. It possesses a painful interest, for it
reveals a strong and patient mind, heavy with bodily affliction,
yet still lively in its perception of human affairs.

9.4. ORGANISATION OF THE NOVEL

The novel is divided into three parts, each consisting of

six books. The first six books lay the foundation of the story,
and cover the time preceding Tom’s birth to his unjust
banishment by Squire All Worthy. The second part describes
the several adventures of Tom and Sophia on their journey from
Glastonbury to London. Here the novel takes a very rambling
course, but it must be said to Fielding’s credit that, except an
incident or two, introduced to present a generalized contrast or
a comment, all the episodes are well integrated with the
development of the plot. The last six books take all the major
characters to London. They cover little time but are replete with
action. Fielding had many problems left in suspense for his
denouement. He must punish Tom Jones for his breaches of
good conduct, reveal the fundamental goodness of his
character, lay bare the intrigues against him and disclose the
mystery of his birth. All this is done with great art, and the book
ends happily with the marriage of Tom and Sophia.

9.5. EPICAL DIMENSIONS AND MORAL VISION

Fielding himself described ‘Tom Jones’ as a comic epic

in prose. The novel, indeed, does posses epical dimensions. “It
is a picture of all England that we find there” says Digeon “and
a picture of England at a moment, when, suspended between
her great past and her prodigious future, she was most limpidly

115
Unit - IX herself… ‘Tom Jones’ is the England of the time”. Much of the
Tom Jones English society is portrayed in ‘Joseph Andrews’ as well as
- Henry Fielding ‘Amelia’. But they do not give the impression of completeness.
It is ‘Tom Jones’ alone that gives the impression of fullness.

Fielding says that “to recommend of fullness and

innocence has been my sincere endeavour’ in the novel. But,
without discounting the importance of chastity, he does not
equate virtue with chastity. To him virtue is ‘goodness of heart
and the greatest vice is hypocrisy. Hypocrisy is a mask and
when the mask is ripped off, we get a very striking presentation
of the contrast between the face presented to the world and the
real features – the whole Blifil clan, Bridget Allworthy,
Thwackum and Square, landlords and landladies, the servants
of various ranks, the Seagrim family, Honour and Partridge,
Mrs. Western and Mrs. Fitzpatrick, Lady Bellaston and Lord
Fellamar, all are hypocrites. The two characters who distinguish
themselves from this crowd by virtue of their honesty and
integrity are Tom and Sophia. They wear no masks; their
handsome faces are the index of their handsome souls. But
while Fielding exhibits the loveliness of virtue and denounces
vice and emphasizes the need of pursuing virtue and avoiding
vice, he also dwells on the importance of prudence and
circumspection in guarding virtue and it is this that constitutes
his moral vision.

9.6. HUMOUR IN ‘TOM JONES’

‘Tom Jones’ is a comic epic and the essence of comedy

lies in humour. In this novel, Fielding’s humour takes many
forms. There is the humour of action, a knock about comedy of
fights and horseplay, sometimes described in the mock-heroic
vein, like the scuffle in which Molly gets involved, or the quarrel
between Mrs. Partridge and her husband, or the fights at Upton

116
Inn. Then there is the humour of character presented through Unit - IX
characters like Squire Western and Partridge. Western is a mild Tom Jones
version of Sancho Panza. Sometimes a lot of fun results from - Henry Fielding
two incompatible characters, like square and Thwackum being
brought together. Occassionally, Fielding indulges in ironical
humour also, humour at the cost of some characters. Bridget
appears ‘inconsolable’ after the death of her husband with
whom she has not shared even a single happy moment. Fielding
is never cynical like Swift or Smollet. He seems to be like a man
who understands the frailties of mankind and is willing to take a
lenient view of them.

9.7. REALISM

Fielding is described as a realist. But this is a selective

realism. He does present us with a vivid picture of the
eighteenth century town and country life, but it is a selective
picture. He gives us the bare necessities of external aspects.
The life in London is described in great details, and yet Fielding
is largely indifferent to the filth and squalor and stink of London.
The poverty of Mrs. Miller’s cousin is described but we are
hardly made to feel it. There are broad, generalized hints of the
savagery, brutality and misery that seethed beneath the polite
surface of the eighteenth century England but their horror is
always kept under control by Fielding’s comic and ironic vision.

9.8. AUTHOR’S COMMENTS

‘Tom Jones’ is full of the author’s comments, but they

are, fortunately, by and large, confined to the introductory
chapters of various books. These chapters may be deviations
from the story but they are so arranged that they may be read
separately. And they are too good to miss. Fielding uses them to
express his views on art and morality. He is conscious that he is
giving a new genre of literature and he takes pains to describe

117
Unit - IX its various aspects. He is also anxious to adjust the moral point
Tom Jones of view of his readers to his own perspective of right and
- Henry Fielding wrong. This is mostly achieved in the author’s comments in the
introductory chapters.

9.9. A BRIEF SUMMARY OF ‘TOM JONES’

Squire Allworthy, a childless widower, lives in retirement

in Somersetshire along with his sister Miss Bridget Allworthy.
One day on his return home after an absence of a full quarter of
a year in London, he discovers an infant lying asleep in his bed.
The discovery causes much flutter, but he decides to keep the
child in his care. This foundling, named Tom Jones by the
Squire, is the hero of the novel. Enquiries by Mrs. Deborah
Wilkins, the Squire’s housekeeper, reveal that one Jenny Jones
who had lately nursed Miss Bridget in a violent fit of illness is
the mother of the foundling. When questioned by the Squire,
she freely confesses her sin but refuses to reveal the name of the
father. Squire Allworthy gives her some wholesome admonition
and makes her leave the neighbourhood. After Jenny’s
departure, the local schoolmaster Partridge whom Jenny had
served for a while is suspected to be the father. Squire
Allworthy summons him, reprimands him, and as a punishment
deprives him of his annuity. Soon after, Partridge’s wife dies and
he also leaves the country. Miss Bridget marries captain Blifil
and eight months after the marriage, the couple is blessed with a
fine boy, Master Blifil. It is decided that the new-born infant and
Tom Jones, the foundling should be brought up together.

Squire Allworthy grows very fond of Tom Jones.

Captain Blifil soon dies of apoplexy. The parson Thwackum and
the philosopher Square who are incharge of the two youngsters,
Tom and Blifil, lose no opportunity of maligning Tom in order to
win the favour of Bridget. Blifil is a willing accomplice in these
endeavours. However, sometimes it appears as if Bridget
prefers the foundling even to her own son.

118
 Tom, quite a mischievous lad, has Black George, the Unit - IX
gamekeeper among his friends. The two are together involved in Tom Jones
a poaching incident on a neighbouring estate belonging, to - Henry Fielding
Squire Western, an ill-tempered boorish country squire. Tom, in
order to save Black George takes the blame upon himself and
helps his family in many other ways. These actions, though well-
intentioned, are exploited by Blifil and the two tutors to tarnish
his image in the eyes of Squire Allworthy.

Tom gets interested in two women, Black George’s

daughter Molly, an aggressive coquet and Squire Western’s
daughter Sophia, gentle, virtuous and generous. A series of
incidents bring Tom and Sophia together and they fall in love
with each other. But this puts Tom in a dilemma. Molly is found
to be pregnant and Tom ascribes to himself the responsibilities
for her pregnancy. Secondly, being a penniless bastard, he
knows he cannot be acceptable to Squire Western who insists
on a prudential marriage for his daughter.

A quick succession of events give a strange turn to

Tom’s life. A chance discovery of Square in Molly’s bed-room
absolves him from all moral responsibility towards her. But a
few indiscretions committed by him give Blifil a chance to vilify
his character and he is dismissed by Squire Allworthy. He takes
the road to Bristol. A match is proposed between Blifil and
Sophia and when Sophia is unduly forced to accept it, she
decides to leave the protection of her father and go to London
to one of her relations, Lady Bellaston.

Now Tom and Sophia are both on the road, separately

of course. Tom desirous of joining the army, runs into a
company of recruits and volunteers to join them, but offended
by a bawdy jest by Ensign Northerton at the expense of
Sophia, picks a quarrel with him and gets wounded. He meets

119
Unit - IX Partridge, supposed to be his father, who denies that he
Tom Jones fathered him but offers to accompany him on his wanderings.
- Henry Fielding Tom rescues an old recluse, the Man of the Hill from being
robbed by two ruffians and the very next morning he saves Mrs.
Waters from being strangled by Ensign Northerton. He
conducts Mrs. Waters to the Upton Inn.

The Upton Inn is the centre of some gripping drama.

Tom Jones is seduced by Mrs. Waters. Sophia, accidentally
reaching the same inn, quickly discovers Tom’s involvement
with Mrs. Waters and departs without meeting him. Squire
Western, hot on her track, misses her by few minutes and,
lured by a fine hunting day, temporarily gives up the chase. Tom,
remorseful for having missed Sophia through his own moral
laxity, also leaves for London.

In London, Tom and Partridge take lodging with Mrs.

Miller. Her daughter Nancy, pregnant, is threatened with a
rejection by her lover Nightingale. Tom prevails upon Nightingale
to marry Nancy and saves Mrs. Miller’s family from utter
disaster.

Believing that it lies only in Lady Bellaston’s powers to

bring him in touch with Sophia, Tom allows himself to be
seduced by the lady who is in reality a wealthy but corrupt
society woman. But he soon gets fed up with this odious affair
on the advice of Nightingale, proposes marriage to Lady
Bellaston. The trick works, for the marriage nowhere being in
the lady’s mind, she breaks away and the affair comes to an
abrupt termination.

In the last phase of the novel, Lady Bellaston plays a

very crucial role. Sophia being the real object of Tom’s
attention, Lady Bellaston, with the purpose of getting her out of
the way, persuades Lord Fellamar to rape her so that in her

120
disgrace she might be forced to accept him as her husband. Unit - IX
Sophia is fortunately rescued by the timely arrival of Squire Tom Jones
Western who takes her in his own custody. Out of desperate - Henry Fielding
malice, Lady Bellaston does two things. She uses Tom’s letter
of proposal to her to instigate Sophia against him. At the same
times she plots Tom’s abduction by a press gang.

A duel with Mr. Fitzpatrick lands Tom in the jail. His

fortunes are now at the lowest ebb. Mr. Fitzpatrick’s wounds
being reported fatal, his very life is in danger. Mrs. Waters is
found out to be Jenny Jones and Tom is given the appalling
news of having committed incest. Lady Bellaston and Blifil, both
acting independently, try to ensure that Tom is unable to secure
his release from these circumstances. However, his friends,
generously assisted by Lady Luck, are also at work. Mr.
Fitzpatrick is declared out of danger and he confesses he was
the first to provoke Tom. A death bed letter from a repentant
Square and Mr. Miller’s testimony to Tom’s innate goodness
reconcile him to Squire Allworthy. Blifil and Dowling are forced
to confess their villainy. Jenny Jones gives out the secret of
Tom’s true parentage – he is the illegitimate son of Bridget from
Summer, a former resident at Squire Allworthy’s estate – and he
is absolved from the sin of incest. Mrs. Miller, Squire Allworthy
and Squire Western all intercede on his behalf and he is
reconciled to Sophia as well.

9.10. CHARACTER OF TOM JONES

Tome Jones, the hero of the novel, is born of a handsome

youngman Summer, who stays at the Allworthy estate for
sometime and Miss Bridget, the Squire’s sister. But his
parentage is revealed only towards the end of the novel. Squire
Allworthy regards him as Jenny Jones’ son begotten by
Partridge hence his name Tom Jones – while most of the

121
Unit - IX people, including Partridge – think him to be Squire Allworthy’s
Tom Jones illegitimate son. He grows up into a well-formed, handsome
- Henry Fielding personality with comely features. He has effeminate grace but
masculine ruggedness.

9.10.1. Brought up as a bastard

Tom is brought up with the stigma of being a bastard

indelibly stamped on him. Despite Bridget’s preferential
treatment, he receives scant respect and affection. Tom grows
up into a very healthy youngmen, free from any mental
complexes and retains the innate goodness of heart. By giving
an exactly identical parentage and the same domestic
circumstances to both Tom and Blifil, perhaps it was Fielding’s
aim to affirm that character is innate rather than cultivated.

9.10.2. Goodness of Heart

The dominating quality of Tom is the goodness of heart.

Tom is willing to help others even at the risk of his own life.
Thus he rushes to sophia’s help when she is thrown off the
horse, and breaks his own arm to retrieve the bird she so dearly
loved. In helping others, he has to take recourse to a lie, he
does not hesitate and lies with tenacity. He lies to Squire
Allworthy that he alone was involved in the poaching incident
and stubbornly adheres to the lie. But he lies to save Black
George, not himself. He lies to Lady Bellaston when he
proposes marriage to her. But he has no eye on her property;
he lies to disengage himself from her detestable amorous advances.

Tom never consciously hurts anyone. Even when others

hurt him, he is willing to forgive and forget. He forgives the
highway man for having attacked him, and moved by his
pathetic tale, he even offers him two guineas from his slender
allowance. He even requests his godfather to forgive Blifil

122
though he has suffered a lifetime of torture on account of his Unit - IX
wickedness and treachery. Tom Jones
9.10.3. Affection for Squire Allworthy - Henry Fielding

Tom’s affection for Squire Allworthy and his sense of

gratitude to him are also praise-worthy. Although he is
subjected to a great deal of inconvenience on account of the
moral blindness of his godfather, he never utters a word of
protest, nor does he tolerate a word of complaint against him.
He is the only one genuinely affected when Squire Allworthy
falls ill and truly relieved and delighted to get the news that he is
out of danger.

9.10.4. Sexual liaisons

Tom has often been condemned for his liaisons with

various women, but it is significant to observe that in all the
three cases – Molly, Mrs. Waters and Lady Bellaston – he is
the seduced rather than the seducer. Tom always lives by
impulse, not by reason – and his impulses are not trained. He
has naturally boisterous animal spirits that lead him to
extravagances. When delighted, or grieved, or angry, or
anxious, he is apt to fall into paroxysms of frenzied excitement
and to behave literally like a mad man.

9.10.5. Tom and Blifil

The goodness of Tom’s heart is made amply clear by

contrasting him with Blifil. Tom is impulsively generous; Blifil is
selfish and scheming. Both Tom and Blifil have been wronged
by society but the former has withdrawn from human society
and has come to believe that “human nature is everywhere the
same, everywhere the object of detestation and scorn” Tom has
even greater reason to condemn human nature, but he has not
turned a sceptic or a cynic.

123
Unit - IX 9.11. CHARACTER OF SOPHIA
Tom Jones
Sophia Western, partly modelled after Fielding’s first
- Henry Fielding
wife, Charlotte Cradock, is undoubtedly the finest character in
the novel. Motherless from the age of eleven, she has been
brought up by her aunt Mrs. Western and is about eighteen
when she is first introduced to us. Her shape is not only exact
but extremely delicate.

9.11.1. Devoted to her father

Sophia is devoted to her father and does not want to

hurt him at any cost. Her filial piety is almost religious in temper.
Squire Western is a coarse and brutal drunkard who would
even like to prevent her from cherishing the memory of her
mother. Still she loves him and in almost everything accepts his
word as law. And there is such a radiance of virtue on her face
that as she journeys from inn to inn, the inmates everywhere
hold her in respect and awe and no sexual levity is attached to
her anywhere.

9.11.2. Love with Tom

In her love with Tom, Sophia displays courage,

magnanimity and consistent fidelity. The first awareness of her
growing passion for Tom she gets through a very painful
experience. On hearing the news that Molly Seagrim is in
distress, Tom abruptly leaves the dining table at square
Western’s and rushes to meet Squire Allworthy, and Sophia
suffers a pang. The first awareness of love is very painful and it
angurs ill for the lovers. Tom is a branded bastard, with no
social status, no expectations, nobody to speak well of. Still
Sophia recognizes his amiable qualities, his bravery, generosity,
high-spiritedness, chivalry, innate goodness of heart and
ingenuity, and acknowledges her love for Tom. Apart from

124
courage, it needs magnanimity to forgive his undesirable liasions Unit - IX
with women. She forgives him not only for his affair with Molly Tom Jones
but even helps Molly with clothes. - Henry Fielding
9.11.3. Rejection of Blifil

Sophia’s fidelity in love is evident from her two

rejections of very desirable looking matrimonial alliances, one
with Blifil and the other with Lord Fellamar. And there are
domestic pressures to accept either of them. Blifil, the heir-
apparent to the Allworthy estate is, on the surface at least, a
man without any moral blemish; his conduct looks
irreproachable, and his moral virtues are so highly played up by
his tutors, Thwackum and Square. But Sophia with an intuitive
perception of Blifil’s hypocrisy and his abject baseness, feels
repugnance for him, and having once rejected him, never agrees
to revise her decision. Not even her father’s threats that he
would disinherit her and turn her out of his house stark naked
make any impact on her mind. Towards the end of the book,
Squire Western again pleads with her to accept Blifil and put an
end to his troubles, but Sophia does not yield.

9.11.4. Not too perfect to look human

Fortunately Sophia is not drawn too perfect to look

human. She is capable of clever flattery. When Mrs. Western is
forcing her to marry Lord Fellamar, Sophia flatters her to
compunction and the impending calamity is averted for the time
being. This is not deceit or dishonesty ; this is simply womanlike
ingeniousness which she employs to extricate herself from an
impossible situation. She also has a little vanity, which though
for fleeting moment, makes her toy with the idea of sacrificing
herself to filial piety and be a martyr, the type of vanity one
encounters in an imbecile heroine like Thackerary’s Amelia. But

125
Unit - IX Sophia is definitely healthier and more wholesome, and her
Tom Jones natural responses to her situation are more human. Her flaws
- Henry Fielding simply humanise her; they do not lower her in our esteem.

9.12. CHARACTER OF SQUIRE ALLWORTHY

Squire Allworthy has been depicted as an essentially

good man. He is moved to tears at the slightest provocation, is
replete with beneficence’ and is ‘ever ready to relieve the
distress of others. He gives Tom 500 dollars to enable him to
earn an honest livelihood even as he banishes him from his estate.

9.12.1. Credulous, morally blind, lacks insight

He lacks sagacity and when he is most complacently

confident of his judgement, he is most pitiably mistaken and
instead of meeting out justice, he subjects people to gross
injustice and does definite harm to them. His credulity is
exploited and he is duped; his generosity is reviled and he is
maligned. He misunderstands and is misunderstood. Those who
benefit from his charity hardly deserve it; those who deserve
kindliness are treated rather cruelly. Thus he banishes both Tom
Jones and Partridge from the Allworthy estate though both of
them are innocent. He shelters the Blifil brothers, the doctors
and the captain, and approves of a marriage that bring nothing
but misery to his sister. He harbours in his household the
philosopher square and divine Thwackum who are both
loathsome hypocrites. Fielding wanted us to judge Tom Jones
by his motives, his intentions, and not merely by his actions, and
the same criterion we ought to apply to the Squire as well.

9.12.2. Deficient in Passion

Squire Allworthy is miserably deficient in passion.

Fielding says, “It was Mr. Allworthy’s custom never to punish

126
anyone, not even to turn away a servant in a passion. He Unit - IX
displays the same lack of passion when Squire Western brings Tom Jones
to him the proposal of marriage between Blifil and Sophia. Allworthy - Henry Fielding
receives Mr. Western’s proposal without any visible emotion or
without any alteration of countenance, and the warm blooded
Western in frankly irritated. Squire Allworthy lacks humour too and
he takes himself as well as everybody else with solemn seriousness.

9.13. CHARACTER OF BLIFIL

Blifil, the son of Captain Blifil and Bridget, is the villain

of the novel. He seems to have inherited a veraciousness and
treachery, dishonesty and meanness from his parents and
engrained these qualities in his character by assiduous pursuit.
An arrant knave, a very devil incarnate, he is the most
detestable character in the novel, his villainy being unmitigated
by even a single redeeming action. His mask of piety and
solemnity wins him the favour of Squire Allworthy, while with
carefully worn respectfulness and adroit flattery, he ingratiates
himself to his tutors, Thwackum and Square.

9.13.1. Malicious and hypocritical

Blifil is both malicious and hypocritical. He maligns and

hurts others simply for the pleasure of it, but he knows how to
ascribe his vilest actions to the purest motives. He seeks to
hasten the end of his sick uncle by giving him the bad news of
his mother’s death. He is bent on marrying Sophia, for he
covets both her fortune and her person, but more than that, he
wants to wreak vengeance on Sophia for her partiality for Tom
and on Tome for having had the privilege of being loved by Sophia.

9.13.2. His courtship of Sophia

Blifil’s courtship of Sophia presents him as a heinous

character. He has affinities with Lovelace also, who torments

127
Unit - IX Clarissa for his personal pleasure because she is virtuous and he
Tom Jones does not believe in virtue. Blifil is more stiff and theoretical than
- Henry Fielding Lovelace, but he is more potentially dangerous than his
notorious contemporary. Fielding establishes that the real source
of danger to virtue and innocence is not an outspoken rake and
lecher like Lovelace but an oily tongued hypocrite like Blifil.
Blifil is really a big fraud and he does try to bluff everybody in
the novel. But his efforts are a dismal failure. The only person
Blifil is able to deceive and impose upon is Squire Allworthy.

9.14. ‘TOM JONES’ AS A COMIC EPIC IN PROSE

Fielding evolved a new genre-comic epic in prose. He

tells that his comic epic in prose embraces dignity and solemnity
of purpose. In a comic epic, the novelist’s tone is light, even
frivolous and he gives mildly satirical, ironical exposition of the
ridiculous, and it is comic since it concerns the ridiculous in
human life. Behind the frivolous tone of the novelist, there is a
strict moral responsibility which he shares with the writers of the
serious epics.

9.14.1. The comic tone in ‘Tom Jones’

The comic tone of the novel is established from the

beginning when Mrs. Wilkins, confronts him in what she thinks
to be a grossly indecent dress for a gentleman – an ironic
comment on the prudence of decency in dress.

In Book II, we have a highly comic description of the

battle between Partridge and his wife which is sparked off by
Mrs. Partridge’s suspicion that her husband is the foundling’s
fther. She attacks the poor school master with ‘tongue, teeth
and hands’ reducing him to a bloody wreck, but feeling tired of
this exercise falls into a fit of weeping and succeeds in winning
the sympathy of the neighbours. The same Book gives a graphic
description of Captain Blifil’s ecstatic pleasures that he

128
experiences by contemplating an early death of Squire Unit - IX
Allworthy. It is amusing to note that it is the Captain himself Tom Jones
who dies and not the Squire. - Henry Fielding

The meeting between Blifil and Sophia in the same book

is also dealt with in a comic spirit. Nobody speaks for the first
quarter of an hour : then Blifil suddenly breaks forth into a
torrent of far fetched verbosity answered by Sophia in
monosyllables. The scene at the Upton Inn and the landlady,
apprehending a gross violation of the sanctity of the premises,
abruptly pounces upon them. The ensuing battle involves
soldiers of both the sexes; the weapons include the tongue, the
broomstick, the cudgel and the fist. Fielding employs mock-
herioc syle and diction to describe this battle of wits. He even
invokes the graces before he begins his description. Whenever
the situation is in danger of getting a tragic colouring and
whenever the chief protagonists find themselves in some
precarious predicament, Fielding provides a comic turn or
offers a timely resolution.

Fielding’s handling of his characters also has a touch of

the comic. The excessive solemnity of Squire Allworthy and its
ironic implications have already been commented upon. Squire
Western is portrayed purely in the comic vein. His violence is
more amusing than horrifying.

9.14.2. Epic qualities in ‘Tom Jones’

If ‘Tom Jones’ is comic in spirit, it is epical in scale. It

offers atleast forty well-portrayed characters drawn from
different cross sections of society. There are lords, justices of
peace, lawyers, servants, highwaymen, parsons, innkeepers,
soldiers gypsies, country squires and many others. Fielding also
shows his concern for the epic unities. The headings of the
various Books indicate the time taken by the action described in

129
Unit - IX them. The action is comprehensive and well extended in space.
Tom Jones It includes within its folds the country side, the highways and the
- Henry Fielding great urban society of London. The action is so distributed that
three units consisting of six Books each strictly observe the
unity of place

9.14.3. Mock-heroic style

Fielding has freely used mock-heroic style and diction.

In Book IV, the jealous attack made upon Molly by some
women who resent her fine dress has a clear touch of the
mock-heroic. Even the title given to the chapter describing this
battle suggests its mock heroic character. Apart from this we
can notice some other details of the epic formula also. There is
a generous sprinkling of Homeric similes and while describing
Sophia, there is even a serious invocation to the Muse.

9.14.4. Solemnity of purpose

Fielding called his novel an epic also on account of the

very high notions he had of he purpose of the novel. He never
thought that a novel was merely a source of entertainment. He
considered it a very serious form of literature imbued with as
serious a moral purpose as an epic. He felt that a novel could
be a fit vehicle for profoundly influencing human thought and
behavior and used it so. In ‘Tom Jones’, his purpose was to
show the loveliness of virtue and the ugliness of vice, to suggest
that one’s interest lay in the pursuit of virtue and the avoidance
of vice and to emphasize the need of directing one’s good
intentions intelligently – a very solemn purpose indeed.

9.15. REALISM IN ‘TOM JONES’

Fielding who is considered to be the pioneer of the

realistic novel in England had a very intimate and variegated
experience of life and he based all his writings on actual

130
experience. With such faith in actual experience, he copied from Unit - IX
the Book of nature and scarcely produced a character or action Tom Jones
which he had not taken from his own observation and - Henry Fielding
experience.

9.15.1. Realism in characterization

Fielding’s knowledge of life and people was as

extensive as that of Defoe while his insight was keener and
deeper. In his early life he had come in intimate contact with the
aristocracy. In his later life he studied the lower strata, while in
his capacity of a magistrate, he got a very rare opportunity to
have a close view of the working of the criminal mind. In the
novel he gives a strictly veracious picture of the real human
world he had so diligently observed and studied. His characters
are neither paragons of virtue nor mosters of vice but real
human beings with their lights and shades in proper perspective,
and he draws them with perfect honesty and candour.

9.15.2. Realistic description of the contemporary life

Fielding’s portrayal of the eighteenth century life and

manners in ‘Tom Jones’ is so realistic that the novel can be
accepted as an authentic social document. He presents a
panoramic view of the entire society. The poverty and squalor
of the countryside along with the wealth and splendour, the poor
condition of the highways with the sense of danger and
insecurity felt by the travellers, the folly and frivolity of the
fashionable society of London, and the glowing materialism of
the trading class have all been depicted with remarkable
veracity. The inadequacy of public education, the poor
professional knowledge of medical practitioners and the
corruption and arbitrariness prevailing in law have also been
well portrayed.

131
Unit - IX 9.16. WHAT IS A PICARESQUE NOVEL
Tom Jones
The term ‘Picaresque’ has been derived from a Spanish
- Henry Fielding
word ‘Picaro’ which means a rogue or villain. Originally a type
of romance that dealt with rogues or villains was called
picaresque. A picaresque novel presented a series of adventures
and misadventures mostly on the highways. With the
development of the novel, it was no longer considered essential
to take only a rogue or a villain as the central character. The
picaresque form offered many advantages to the novelist. It did
not require a regular, well-organised, well-rounded plot. The
novelist got an opportunity to introduce a wide variety of events
and characters. The picaresque form offered enough scope to
throw light on the life, culture and morality of the age and to
criticize the evils infesting it. In English, Defoe wrote in the
picaresque tradition. Later Fielding in ‘Joseph Andrews’ and
‘Tom Jones’ followed the same tradition.

9.16.1. ‘Tom Jones’ as a picaresque novel

‘Tom Jones’ is not a regular picaresque novel. But it

incorporates in its structure the major characteristics of the
picaresque form. The first six Books depict Tom’s adventures in
the country side. But it is with Book VII, when dismissed by
Squire Allworthy, Tom takes the road to Bristol, the really
picaresque nature of the novel becomes evident. For the next
six Books, Tom is involved in some breath-taking, swashing
adventures on the roadside. In Book VII, piqued by some
scurrilous jests at Sophia’s expense by Ensign Northerton, Tom
picks a quarrel with him and gets hit on the head with a bottle of
wine. Not only the hero, but also Sophia and Mrs. Honour are
put on the road to London. Tom’s next halt is at the Bell, which
he is forced to leave on account of the rude and insulting
behavior of the land lady. The same evening, he rescues the

132
Man of the Hill from being robbed by two ruffians and the next Unit - IX
morning, he saves Mrs. Waters from being strangled by Ensign Tom Jones
Northerton. After a night’s stay at the Upton Inn, where some - Henry Fielding
hilarious comedy takes place, Tom is again on the roadside now
to meet beggars , highwaymen and gypsies.

The Picaresque nature of the novel enables Fielding to

bring his hero in contact with different strata of the society –
country squires, divines and philosophers, lawyers and military
officers, land ladies, beggars and highway men, gypsies and
finally the aristocrats – and expose the contemporary social
evils as well as human follies and foibles of a more general
nature. General human weaknesses that Fielding holds to
ridicule are the envy, malice, selfishness and hypocrisy of
saintlike figures who are held in high esteem, figures like square,
Thwackum and Blifil.

Check Your Progress

1. What type of a person Tom Jones is?

............................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
2. Who is Sophia Western?
............................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
3. Explain the character of Squire Allworthy.
............................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................

133
Unit - IX 4. What did Captain Blifil do?
Tom Jones ............................................................................
- Henry Fielding ..................................................................................
5. What type of a woman Lady Bellaston is?
............................................................................
..................................................................................
6. Tom gets interested in two women. Who are they?
............................................................................
..................................................................................
7. How did Tom save Mrs. Miller’s family from utter
disaster?
............................................................................
..................................................................................

9.17. LET US SUM UP

It is true that even before Fielding, Defoe and

Richardson had written novels, but it is with Fielding only that
the novel gets its proper shape. He made invaluable contribution
to the development of plot construction and the art of
characterization and explored the hidden potentialities of this
genre as an art form. He bade farewell to the fantastic world of
romance and firmly planted the novel in his own soil making it
an effective weapon of social criticism. He also tried to
advocate a healthy philosophy of life and thus imbued his
writings with a very solemn purpose. Fielding breathed life into
the characters he portrayed. Exercising his authority as a comic
writer, he refused to go deep into the mind of his characters but
this does not imply that he had inferior knowledge of life and
people. Infact, Fielding’s understanding of people was more
intimate than that of most of his contemporaries.

134
9.18. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Unit - X
The School for
1. Tom Jones is generous, brave, courageous and kind, loves
Scandal - Sherida
Sophia and ultimately marries her.

2. Sophia Western is the heroine of the novel. She sincerely

loves Tom Jones and is wilhing to forgive his indiscretions.

3. Squire Allworthy is the patron of Tom Jones. He is a

benevolent wealthy widower.

4. Captain Blifil is the husband of Bridget Allworthy, father of

Blifil. He betrays his brother Dr. Blifil who introduces him
into the Allworthy family.

5. Lady Bellaston is a thoroughly corrupt city woman, a widow

or a divorcee and she uses her wealth to seduce and keep a
series of young men.

6. Molly, Black George’s daughter and Sophia, Squire

Western’s daughter.

7. Nancy, Mrs. Miller’s daughter is threatened with a rejection

by her lover, Nightingale, Tom prevails upon Nightingle to
marry Nancy and saves Mrs. Miller’s family from utter
disaster.

LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS

1. Robert Alter – Fielding and the Nature of the Novel,

2. M.C. Bettestin (Ed.) – Twentieth Century Interpretations of

‘Tom Jones’, 1968.

3. Neil Compton (Ed.) – A Selection of Critical Essays on

‘Tom Jones’, 1970

4. E.M.W. Tillyard – The Epic Strain in the English Novel, 1958.

135
Unit - X UNIT X

The School for THE SCHOOL FOR SCANDAL – SHERIDAN

Scandal - Sheridan Structure
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Objectives
10.3. Sheridan’s Life and Works
10.4. The Audiences of Sheridan’s time
10.4.1. The French Influence
10.4.2. Drinking and Gambling
10.4.3. Affectation in speech
10.5. A Brief outline of the story
10.6. Success of the play ‘The School for Scandal’
10.7. Anti-sentimental comedy of Goldsmith
10.8. Anti – Sentimental comedy of Sheridan
10.9. Comic situations in Sheridan’s plays
10.10. Character Portrayal in Sheridan’s plays
10.11. Character of Joseph Surface
10.11.1. Pretended love
10.11.2. His Exposure
10.11.3. Joseph as a comic villain
10.11.4. Joseph contrasted with Charles
10.12. Character of Charles
10.12.1. Extravagance of Joseph
10.12.2. The admirable qualities of Charles
10.13. Character of Sir Peter Teazle
10.13.1. Sir Peter’s love for his wife
10.13.2. Sir Peter’s faults

136
10.14. Character of Lady Teazle Unit - X
10.14.1. Lady Teazle’s grace and elegance The School for
10.14.2. Lady Teazle’s charm Scandal - Sheridan

10.15. Wit and Humour in ‘The School for Scandal’

10.16. The social life reflected in the play
10.16.1. The frivolous life style of the people
10.16.2. Sheridan’s satire
10.17. The play as an anti-sentimental comedy
10.17.1. Goldsmith’s anti-sentimental comedies
10.17.2. Sheridan’s attempt to revive comedy
10.17.3. Seridan’s wit and humour
10.17.4. No moral purpose
10.17.5. An element of sentiment
10.18. Let us sum up
10.19. Key words
10.20. Answers to Check Your Progress

10.1. INTRODUCTION

Sheridan is one of the greatest writers of English

comedy. He started writing his plays when he was a young man.
He was not gifted with an instinctive knowledge of human
nature, as Shakespeare was. He was not concerned with the
problems of humanity as Ibsen, Shaw and Galsworthy were. He
was an extremely witty person and so he thought of writing
plays which will amuse audience and readers alike. He packed
his plays with witty dialogue and so he is among the most
popular of the English writers of comedies. He chose to review
the comedy of manners in the eighteenth century. The comedy
of Manners had reached its perfection in the Restoration period
in the hands of Wycherley and Congreve. But their plays were

137
Unit - X marred by vulgarity and obscenity. Sheridan wrote his plays in
The School for good taste. His plays provide a feast of witty dialogues and
Scandal - Sheridan virtue triumphs at the end. The Rivals, the School for Scandal
and The Critic are perfect examples of the comedy of Manners
purged of its old obscenity.

10.2. OBJECTIVES

This unit will enable you to learn

— how Sheridan purified the sentimental comedy of its

vulgarity

— Sheridan’s wit and humour

10.3. SHERIDAN’S LIFE AND WORKS

Sheridan was excellent both as a dramatist and as a

speaker. Sheridan was bron in Dublin in 1751. His father,
Thomas Sheridan, was the Manager of the Theatre Royal of
that town. His mother, a woman of great beauty, was gifted with
literary talent. He involved himself in politics. He joined the
Whig party. Although Sheridan sat in the House of Commons
for thirty two years he did not create a favourable impression on
the House as a Parliamentarian. Sheridan’s last days were very
unhappy. His wife died in 1792. The burning of Drury Lane
Theatre ruined him completely. He had to pass his last days
frequently in the obscurity of a debtor’s prison. He died in 1816
at the age of sixty-four.

He wrote ‘The Rivals’ and it was produced at Drury

Lane Theatre. The play was a departure from the sentimental
comedies in which there were tears instead of laughter. This
play was followed by ‘St. Patrick’s Day’ or ‘The Scheming
Lieutenant’. In the same year he wrote a comic opera, The
Duenna. In 1777, he produced two plays – A Trip to

138
Scarborough, and his masterpiece, ‘The School for Scandal’. Unit - X
His famous farce, The Critic was written in 1779. His last play, The School for
Pizarro was written in 1799. Scandal - Sheridan
10.4 THE AUDIENCES OF SHERIDAN’S TIME

Sheridan’s world consisted of the Upperclass society of

London and Bath. He represented this society in his plays and
these were the people who thronged the theatres at Drury Lane
and Covent Garden. They loved to see themselves being
represented on the stage. These were men and women who had
plenty of money and plenty of leisure. Witty conversation was
cultivated by them. Spreading scandals about others was their
main delight. Character assassination was their main hobby.
Rumours were started and these spread like wild fire. The
scandalous sotires and lampoons were printed in cheap society
papers. This is the company of scandal-mongers over which
Lady Sneerwell presided. Persons like Snake were their agents
for carrying out their plans.

10.4.1. French influence

The leaders of fashion in London were greatly

influenced by the atmosphere of the French ‘salons’. Everyone
talked wittily at the cost of everyone else. Marriage vows lost
their sanctity. Lady Teazle, who became the disciple of Lady
Sneerwell, thought that a fashionable lady should be unfaithful to
her husband and should have a young lover. It was fashionable
for young maids to intrigue and for wives to elope with their
lovers. the ladies of the time spent a lot of money on their
dresses and so they appreciated this on the stage. The
audiences could not have been surprised to hear Sir Peter
complaining that his wife was making him bankrupt due to her
expenses on her dresses and her flowers.

139
Unit - X 10.4.2. Drinking and gambling
The School for
Costly French wines were in fashion instead of the
Scandal - Sheridan
homely English ale. The men used to drink a lot. Gambling was
also very common. Charles represents the sons of rich men who
had lost their fortunes and become heavily indebted due to
drinking and gambling.

10.4.3. Affectation in Speech

The men and women of fashion had started speaking

with an affected accent. It was fashionable for men and women
to use French and Italian words in their speech. Sheridan
satirises this in the speech of Mrs. Malaprop who pretends to
use flowery language and in the process misuses the words.
Thus the upper classes in Sheridan’s days led a very artificial
and extravagant life. These were the people who flocked the
theatres. The middle and the lower classes were not affected by
the fashions and they led their simple lives. They generally kept
away from the theatres. Sheridan took no notice of them.

10.5. A BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE STORY

In London there is a college of scandal mongers whose

president is Lady Sneerwell, a rich widow. The slanderers
damage the reputation of innocent persons by circulating false
stores and forged letters; they also get scandalous paragraphs
published in newspapers. Each slanderer has his own way of
maligning others.

Sir Peter Teazle, an old bachelor has married a young

woman brought up in the country. Lady Teazle apes the
fashionable, and thereby squanders a lot of her husband’s
money. Her extravagance is the cause of frequent quarrels
between her and her husband. But “the scandalous college”. of

140
which she is a member, encourages her to continue her way of Unit - X
life. Sir Peter has three wards, Joseph and Charles who are The School for
brothers, and Maria, a rich heiress. Joseph is extremely polite Scandal - Sheridan
and professes high sentiments; but he is a hypocrite and talks of
high morals only to hide his villainy. Sir Peter has a high opinion
of Joseph whom he regards as “a model for the young men of
the age”. Charles, on the other hand, leads a dissipated life, and
is a reckless spender. Sir Peter hates Charles for the kind of the
life he leads, and thinks that he would never improve. Rowley is
a judge of character than Sir Peter, and knows that Joseph is a
hypocritical villain, while Charles, not withstanding his
dissipated life possess a good heart. He is sure that Charles
“will retrieve his errors yet”, while Sir Peter thinks that he can
never reform himself. Joseph wants to marry Maria for her
money, and Sir Peter, too, advises Maria to marry the “ideal
youth”. But Maria loves Charles and does not like Joseph. Sir
Peter, however, would not allow Maria, his ward, to marry a
rake. Lady Sneerwell has a tenderness for Charles, and she and
Joseph make concerted effort to prevent the marriage of
Charles and Maria. As a part of their scheme, they spread the
reports of Charles’ relations with Lady Teazle; those reports
reach the ears of Sir Peter.

Joseph and Charles have a good natured and wealthy

uncle in the east, named Sir Oliver Surface. After his brother’s
death he has been sending money regularly to his nephews for
their maintenance. He now returns home from the East Indies,
and hears what sir Peter says about his nephews. But, being
well acquainted with human nature, he cannot believe that
Joseph indeed is so perfect as he is reported to be. He suspects
him to be a hypocrite. But he would make trial of the two
brothers before forming his own opinion about their character.
Joseph and Charles have not seen Sir Oliver, and so cannot

141
Unit - X recognize him. So, he decides to visit Charles as a money
The School for lender, Mr. Stanley, and afterwards to visit Joseph as a poor
relation Stanley, who has already applied to him for help.
Scandal - Sheridan
On arriving at the house of Charles, Sir Oliver finds that
his nephew is surrounded by tipplers and gamblers. It is quite
evident that he lives beyond his means and foolishly wastes his
money. He has nothing left in the house, all his father’s valuables
being already disposed of. There are, however, the family
pictures which he now offers to Mr. Stanley only for three
hundred pounds. But he would not part with the portrait of his
uncle, Sir Oliver, because he has been extremely good to him.
“I’ll keep his picture while I have a room to put it in”, he says.
Sir Oliver is so much pleased with this answer that he condones
all the faults of Charles.

Meanwhile Joseph succeeds in persuading Lady Teazle

to visit him all alone. Though he has circulated the story of an
illicit love between Charles and Lady Teazle, he, infact, is the
lady’s lover. Many a time he has told Lady Teazle that he loves
her ardently : and visits him in his library he persuades her to
surrender virtue to him; His conversation however, is interrupted
by the arrival of Sir Peter, who has come to tell him that Charles
is behind a curtain in his room. Sir Peter tells him that he has
made ample provision for his wife in his will. Then he informs
him of Charles’ relations with Lady Teazle. Just then Charles
arrives, and Sir Peter asks Joseph to talk to him of what he has
said, while he will go into a closet from where he will overhear
their talk. When Joseph informs Charles of Sir Peter’s
suspicion, he emphatically is entirely baseless. On the contrary
he says that he has often seen Joseph exchanging significant
glances with Lady Teazle. To stop Charles from saying anything
further Joseph whispers to him that Peter is overhearing their
talk from the closet. Charles pulls out Sir Peter, who apologizes

142
to him for having suspected him wrongly. A visitor now comes, Unit - X
and Joseph goes out to meet him. In his absence, Charles and The School for
Sir Peter discover Lady Teazle behind the curtain. It is now
Scandal - Sheridan
clear to Sir Peter that Joseph whom he has been regarding as a
young man of high morals is an arch hypocrite and downright
villain. The villain is exposed at last.

Sir Oliver now visits Joseph as Stanley, a poor relation

of the two brothers from their mothers’ side, who, being in
straitened circumstances, has applied to them for help. Charles
has already instructed Rowley to send Stanley a part of the
sum, he has got by selling the family pictures, though he himself
is in sore need of money. But Joseph gives Stanley only an
empty promise of help. He assures his needy relation that he has
not even a penny to part with; and when Stanley points out that
he has been receiving large sums from his uncle, he replies that
he has received from him nothing beyond a few occasional
presents, like China shawls, congou tea etc. Sir Oliver is now
convinced that Joseph is a liar and hypocrite, and is devoid of
that benevolence for which he is universally praised.

The scandal-mongers come to know that Sir Peter

found Lady Teazle behind a curtain in the library of Joseph, and
they weave fantastic stories round this incident. Some say that
Lady Teazle was found with Joseph, while others assert that
Charles was the lover. Crabtree and Sir Benjamine Backbite
bring the news of a duel between Sir Peter and Lady Teazle’s
lover in which the former was run through with a sword, and
had a bullet lodged in his throat. This news is believed by all,
and they go to Sir Peter’s house to find out how he is. They
meet Sir Oliver whom they mistake for a doctor, and enquire
from him how his patient is. Just then Sir Peter comes, and they
meet him with a volley of questions. Sir Peter is very angry at
their impertinent interrogations that he turns each one of them
out of his house.

143
Unit - X Rowley informs Joseph and Charles that their uncle, Sir
The School for Oliver, has returned from the east, and is coming to meet them
Scandal - Sheridan at Joseph’s house. But when Sir Oliver comes, he is mistaken
by Charlest for Mr. Premium and by Joseph for Stanley. They
both ask him to leave the house, for their uncle is expected any
moment, and when he refuses to go, they try to push him out.
At this moment Sir Peter, Lady Teazle, Maria and Rowley
arrive and the two brothers learn their mistake, much to their
shame and chagrin. Lady Teazle now proposes that Charles
and Maria be married, since they love each other. But Joseph
says that Charles has already promised to marry Lady
Sneerwell. Then Lady Sneerwell comes out of the room, where
she has been waiting so far, at the suggestions of Joseph, to
accuse Charles of being false to her. But Snake, an accomplice
of Lady Sneerwell, testifies under oath that her story is entirely
faked up, and that there is not a word of truth in it. Thus fails
the last attempts of Joseph and Lady Sneerwell to prevent the
marriage of Charles and Maria. Their marriage is fixed for the
next day, and Joseph and Lady Sneerwell go out in shame and
disappointment.

10.6. SUCCESS OF THE PLAY ‘THE SCHOOL FOR

SCANDAL’

The play ‘The School for Scandal’ was produced on

th
the 8 of May 1777. It was instantly a great success. Its
success may be attributed to two causes : In the first place, it is
the finest of those comedies which in the eighteenth century
revived the tradition of the comedy of manners. It has brilliant
wit and excellent satire. In an age of wit and satire these
qualities of the play could not fail to capture the mind of the
audience, and they brought it immediate success. The second
cause of its success was the brilliant cast, which included many
of the leading actors and actresses of the day.

144
10.7. ANTI-SENTIMENTAL COMEDY OF GOLDSMITH Unit - X
The School for
As a reaction to the vulgarity of Restoration comedy a
Scandal - Sheridan
type of comedy was developed in England which is known as
sentimental comedy. This was in vogue when Sheridan started
writing his plays. The purpose of these plays was to teach
morals instead of amusing the spectators and the readers. They
raised tears instead of laughter. Godsmith and Sheridan took up
arms against this spurious brand of comedy and tried to revive
real comedy. Goldsmith first came into the field with his hilarious
comedy, ‘She Stoops to Conquer’. This comedy makes us
laugh from the beginning to the end. This play acted as a
medicine in five doses to cure real comedy which was dying.

10.8. ANTI-SENTIMENTAL COMEDY OF SHERIDAN

Sheridan took up the fight against sentimental comedy by

writing a purified version of the comedy of manners. His first play,
the Rivals is full of wit and humour. There is no question of any
moral preaching in it. There are situations in which captain
Absolute makes a fool of his father and Lydia’s aunt, Mrs.
Malaprop. Falkland’s excessive sensibility is ridiculous. In his
play ‘The School for Scandal’ instead of depicting a morally
elevated society, he shows us a society in which scandal-mongers
have a free hand. Joseph surface who always talks of noble
sentiments is shown to be a big hypocrite. At the same time,
Sheridan does not deprive his good characters of noble feelings.
Charles may be a rake but he is grateful to his uncle who has
helped him and he is anxious to help a poor relation. Maria is
sincerely in love with Charles. Sir Oliver is tremendously touched
by the fact that his nephew does not sell his photograph and Sir
Peter sincerely loves his young wife even while she quarrels with
him and wastes his money. The hilarious comedies of Goldsmith
and Sheridan killed the sentimental comedy and revived true
comedy in England.

145
Unit - X 10.9. COMIC SITUATIONS IN SHERIDAN’S PLAYS
The School for
In Comedies of Manners the plot is not very important.
Scandal - Sheridan
Witty dialogue is more important than plot or character. In the
‘School for Scandal’ at places the plot stands still while the
scandal mongers show us how they spread scandals in society.
But Sheridan knows how to produce comic situation. Every
scene is so handled that it becomes a comic situation. The
school for scandals contains the screen scene which is probably
the most humorous situation in the whole realm of English
comedy. Lady Teazle has befriended Lady Sneerwell who has
given her the fantastic idea that a lady of fashion must have a
young lover. So he encourages Joseph surface and goes to his
house. He tries to persuade her to sacrifice her virtue but she is
saved by the timely arrival of her husband. She quickly goes
behind the screen. Sir Peter tells Joseph how much he loves her
and what plans he has made for her welfare. Just then Charles
arrives. Sir Peter has heard that Charles is in love with Lady
Teazle. So he wants to hide behind the screen and hear what
Charles has to say about this. But he finds that there is
somebody hiding there. Joseph tells him that it is a French
milliner. So Sir Peter hides behind the cup-board and asks
Joseph to cross-examine Charles about his relations with Lady
Teazle. When Charles is asked about this he starts telling
Joseph that actually he is the favourite of the lady. Joseph is
now afraid that he will be exposed and so he tells Charles that
Sir Peter is in hiding behind the cup-board. Charles pulls Sir
Peter out. Just then Joseph has to go to another room. Sir Peter
asks Charles whether he wanted to have some fun at the cost of
his brother. Charles likes it of all things. So Sir Peter tells him
that there is a French Milliner hiding behind the screen. Charles
pulls the screen down and Lady Teazle comes out.

This situation advances the plot considerably. Sir Peter

now understands what a hypocrite Joseph is. Lady Teazle

146
understands how much her husband loves her. She confesses Unit - X
that she came to make love to Joseph because she did not The School for
know his real nature. She was about to compromise her honour Scandal - Sheridan
when she was miraculously saved. She decides to give up the
company of the scandal mongers and to live as a devoted and
faithful wife.

10.10. CHARACTER PORTRAYAL IN SHERIDAN’S

PLAYS

The Comedy of Manners, which is revived in ‘The

School for Scandal’ is not a drama of character but of dialogue.
It is interesting because of its sparkling wit and brilliant
dialogue, and not because it helps us to understand human
nature. Sheridan’s characterization is determined by the kind of
play he wrote. His model was the comedy of manners which
‘relies much on sparkling dialogue and on the comic possibilities
of plot and circumstance and clash of character that detailed
and original characterization is not called for’. In fact Sheridan
had not the genius for original and complex character creations.
He could lend an additional grace to what had already been
done before, so that even old and oft. repeated things appear
surprisingly fresh and spirited in his plays. Sheridan’s characters
have had a long ancestry on the stage. Sir Oliver Surface, a
good-natured wealthy uncle, Sir Peter Teazle, an old husband, a
level-headed attractive heroine, are not new character
creations. We meet similar characters frequently in the
seventeenth and eighteenth century drama.

10.10.1. Sheridan’s characters are types

Sheridan’s characters are types and not individuals. He

may lend an individual trait or two to his fully drawn portraits.
But on the whole his characters embody common qualities of a
class rather than specific traits of individuals. As their names

147
Unit - X suggest they are all very one-sided. They are human figures, but
The School for observed by the dramatist only in one aspect. Sheridan has
Scandal - Sheridan created ‘flat’ characters, so that whenever they appear on the
stage, they speak the same things, behave in the same manner
and reveal the same trait of their nature. His characters embody
only one outstanding trait which wholly determines their speech
and action. This was the method adopted in his characterization
by his predecessor Ben Jonson, whose characters are the
embodiments of certain ‘humours’ which entirely determine their
behavior. Sheridan’s characters remind us of characterization in
the plays of Ben Jonson who wrote the ‘comedy of humours’
out of which the comedy of manners gradually grew.

10.10.2. Tell-tale names of characters

The names which Sheridan gives to his characters

suggest their nature. Lady Sneerwell’s sole business in life is to
sneer at others. Mrs. Candour is candid enough to malign,
though indirectly, whomsoever she likes, Crabtree’s nature is as
hard and sour as a crab-apple and Sir Benjamin Backbite is so
far advanced in back-biting that his conversation is a perpetual
libel on all his acquaintances. The characters of persons other
than the slanderers, too, have suggestive names. ‘Teazle’ from
‘tease’, for instance suggests perpetual vexation.

10.11. CHARACTER OF JOSEPH SURFACE

In the character of Joseph surface, Sheridan redicules

an ostentatiously moral hero of the sentimental comedy of his
age. Joseph is clever enough to hide his real character under an
outward show of fine sentiments. Everyone regards him as a
man of refined sentiments, polished manners and lofty ideas.
The man who is most taken in by his hypocrisy is Sir Peter
Teazle. Joseph in his eyes is a model of perfection to be copied
by the young men of the age, a man of sentiment who acts up to

148
the sentiments he professes. Sir Peter is deceived by Josephs’ Unit - X
perpetual moral talk and serious demeanour. But Lady The School for
Sneerwell who has a penetrating vision and is a much better Scandal - Sheridan
judge of character than Sir Peter, knows what Joseph’s real
character is.

10.11.1. Pretended Love

Joseph makes love simultaneously to two women, Maria

and Lady Teazle, assuring each of the sincerity of his love. He
pretends to love Maria for her money and Lady Teazle for a
different reason. By becoming Lady Teazle’s serious lover he
means that he intends to seduce her, and in the scene within his
library, he persuades her to surrender her virtue through a queer
piece of logic. He tells her that by surrendering her virtue she
will silence all tongues of scandal against her. For then she will
become extremely cautious in her behavior, and will be ready to
humour her husband and to agree with him in all matters. Sir
Peter’s timely arrival in his library, however, defeats his plan. It
is Sir Peter’s timely arrival in his library, however, defeats his
plan. It is in the library scene, that the first discovery of
Joseph’s Villainy is made, It is an irony of fate that Sir Peter,
who is the greatest admirer of Joseph, is the first man to
discover that Joseph is a treacherous liar and scheming rascal.
He discovers Lady Teazle in Joseph’s room, though everybody,
including Joseph, has been saying that Charles is her lover.

10.11.2. His exposure

Joseph is a subtle schemer but the last scene of the play

witnesses total failure of all his schemes. He makes every
possible effort to prevent the marriage of Charles and Maria.
His last effort in this respect is to lend support to Lady
Sneerwell who tries to prove through letters that Charles has
made a solemn promise to marry her. The success of this plan

149
Unit - X depends on the testimony of Snake. But instead of helping him,
The School for as he expects, Snake tells the truth, much to the amusement of
Scandal - Sheridan the audience. So tables are finally turned against Joseph and he
leaves the stage with Lady Sneerwell amid a peal of laughter.
But before he goes out he says that he would prevent Lady
Sneerwell from doing any further harm to his brother.

10.11.3. Joseph as a comic villain

Joseph can be called a comic villain. The exposure of

his hypocrisy is responsible for much of the humour of the play.
His attempts to hide his villainy result in the chief comic situation
in the play. He is trying to seduce Lady Teazle when her
husband arrives. She hides behind the screen and listens to the
conversation between Sir Peter and Joseph. Then Charles
arrives. Sir Peter wants to hide somewhere and finds that there
is a lady hiding behind the screen. Joseph tells him that it is a
French milliner. Sir Peter hides behind a closet. When Joseph
finds that the words of Charles would expose him, he tells him
that Sir Peter is hidden behind the closet. Charles brings him
out. When Joseph goes to another room Charles brings down
the screen to expose the supposed French Milliner. The whole
scene exposes the villainy of Joseph and amuses the audience.

10.11.4. Joseph contrasted with Charles

The two brothers – Joseph and Charles are presented

by the dramatist in contrast with each other. Charles is a
spendthrift but sincere at heart. Joseph tells like a moralist but is
really a villain. The difference between the brothers is not
between sentimentalism and realism but between genuine
emotion and hypocrisy. Sir Oliver discovers the truth about the
two brothers. Joseph is disgraced and Charles is rewarded. He
becomes Sir Oliver’s heir and is married to Maria whom he
sincerely loves.

150
10.12. CHARACTER OF CHARLES Unit - X
The School for
Charles is just an antithesis of his brother, Joseph. While
Scandal - Sheridan
Joseph is deceitful, cunning and scheming, he is open, frank and
honest. He indulges whole-heartedly in the pleasures of life
unlike his brother who pretends to be moral and puritanical. He
is notorious for his profligacy in London society. However
Charles has two friends in the world, Maria, his sweetheart, and
Rowley, his father’s steward. When the rest of the world
condemns him as an incorrigible rake, Maria alone stands by
him and defends him. No slander against Charles has the power
to turn her heart against him. Rowley, while admitting the
weaknesses of Charles, hopes that his character would improve
as he grows older. Notwithstanding his profligacy Charles, in his
opinion is better than Joseph, for he is open and straightforward
while Joseph is crooked and scheming.

10.12.1. Extravagance of Joseph

Joseph’s worst fault is extravagance, while his other two

weaknesses are said to be wine and owmen, though there is
nothing in the play to show that he is a drunkard or is given to
womanizing. He is a reckless spender, for he must live
splendidly and entertain his friends lavishly. He has not yet
developed sobriety and thoughtfulness which come with age and
experience. Since he is terribly extravagant, he has sold
practically everything in his house itself. In the play we find him
selling the last item he can dispose of, the family pictures when
he is badly in need of money that he offers them to Mr.
Premium for a throw-away price.

10.12.2. The admirable qualities of Charles

Charles loves and respects those who are good to him;

thus he repays kindness with love. Hence he would not part

151
Unit - X with the portrait of his uncle, Sir Oliver, who is his real
The School for benefactor in life. He helps the needy with a lean purse. Hence,
Scandal - Sheridan while Joseph offers to poor Stanley only a false promise of help,
Charles helps him with a hundred pounds and that too at a time
when he himself is in sore need of money. Another lovable
quality in Charles is his sense of humour which he maintains
even in acute distress. Misfortune fails to damp his spirits, so
that he is always cheerful. Charles is a young man of good heart
and generous impulses. He sows his wild oats and makes the
mistakes which a young man might be tempted to make. But his
wildness is carefully balanced by his gratitude to Sir Oliver and
his generosity to a poor relation. He may be a spendthrift but he
is full of noble feelings. In a world rife with malicious scandals
he has malice towards none and is nobody’s enemy but his own.

10.13. CHARACTER OF SIR PETER TEAZLE

Sir Peter is a familiar figure on the stage an old bachelor

jealous of a young wife. He chose a country bred girl as his wife
and hoped to lead a quiet and peaceful life. But exactly the
reverse has happened. He realized even during his honeymoon
that his country-bred wife was not so simple and docile as he
thought her to be. Sir Peter was unhappy over his wife’s
extravagance.

10.13.1. Sir Peter’s love for his wife

Though Sir Peter is impatient of lady Teazle’s

extravagance and quarrels with her on that account, he loves
her. Rowley, who understands him well, knows this fact, and Sir
Peter too knows what his real feelings for Lady Teazle is well
provided for , bears testimony to his genuine love for her. And it
is this love by which he ultimately succeeds in winning the heart
of his erring wife; she realizes her folly and is reconciled to the
man who loves her.

152
10.13.2. Sir Peter’s faults Unit - X
The School for
Sir Peter, thinks that he is ‘the sweetest – tempered man
Scandal - Sheridan
alive’. For his unhappy domestic life he holds his wife alone
responsible. It never occurs to him that with his irritable temper
and fault-finding habit he, perhaps, is more provoking than his
extravagant wife. Likewise, Sir Peter has a high opinion of his
judgement, and thinks that he was never mistaken in his life. But
he was wrong in thinking that a girl born and bred in the country
would prove an absolutely simple and docile wife. He is also
wrong in his opinion about Joseph and Charles. The fact is that
Sir Peter is credulous and readily believes what others say.
Since everybody praises Joseph, he thinks that he is a model of
perfection, and since everybody speaks ill of Charles, he too
has a low opinion about him. Again he suspects his wife of
having relations with Charles, because he has heard people
saying so. But, as events prove, Sir Peter is a poor judge of
character; for he himself discovers that Joseph, who is
supposed to be virtuous, is a confirmed rogue and that Charles,
the notorious profligate, is a good man.

10.14. CHARACTER OF LADY TEAZLE

Lady Teazle is a charming young lady who lends grace

to the play. She was born and bred in the country and came to
the metropolis when she married Sir Peter. The fashions of
London intoxicate her and she joins the company of scandal
mongers. Living economically and being loyal to one’s husband
now appear unfashionable to her. She forms the impression that
a fashionable lady must have a young lover. She feels flattered
when young Joseph Surface pretends to love her secretly. She
was on the point of succumbing to his wills but her virtue is
saved by the timely arrival of her husband.

153
Unit - X 10.14.1. Lady Teazle’s grace and elegance
The School for
Sheridan has endowed Lady Teazle with remarkable
Scandal - Sheridan
grace and elegance. She is not a mere country-bred girl dazzled
by the fashions and gay life of London. Sheridan’s heroine is
every inch refined and graceful compared to Wycherley’s
heroines. It was to end the boredom of her life in the country
that she married Sir Peter, an old bachelor. Lady Teazle is not a
silly village girl. She is extremely witty.

10.14.2. Lady Teazle’s Charm

Sir Peter is angry with Lady Teazle for her thoughtless

extravagance, and yet he can not help admiring her charm. She
has a grace even in her quarrels with her husband. Her sense of
humour is palpable even in such quarrels, or is merely teasing
her husband for pure fun. Sir Peter reminds her in anger that
before her marriage she was a poor country girl of no social
importance, and that he has made her a woman of fashion, of
fortune and rank. Such a remark would have highly incensed
any other woman. But Lady Teazle quietly solicits only one
more favour which is to make her his widow. The reply is
enough to disarm Sir Peter. That is why he says that he enjoys
quarreling with her.

10.14.13. Lady Teazle as an inexperienced lady

Lady Teazle is young and inexperienced, and her lack of

experience is well illustrated by her love of fashion, and her
readiness to believe whatever Joseph says. Joseph is artful
enough to deceive her, and she is too inexperienced to see
through his trick and understand his real motive. Only the timely
arrival of her husband saves her from being burnt. She insists on
telling the truth to shame Joseph, and accepts her husband’s
proposal to lead a quiet life in the country, where scandals and

154
scandal-mongers can not harm them. Though a member of the Unit - X
‘scandalous college’ Lady Teazle is free from the spiteful venom The School for
of the other members of that group. She has joined the college Scandal - Sheridan
for pure amusement.

10.15. WIT AND HUMOUR IN ‘THE SCHOOL FOR

SCANDAL’

Wit is the pervasive spirit of the comedy of manners. Its

dialogue is saturated with Wit, and consequently it abounds in
clever sayings and quick repartees. In The School for Scandal
there are witty dialogues, particularly in those scenes where
Lady Teazle is present. Sir Benjamin Backbite is regarded as a
wit but his wit is used only to malign others. Lady Teazle, though
a country – bred girl, has a nice turn for repartee. A repartee
comes to her naturally, so that even in moments of anger and
excitement she can please the audience with a witty reply.

Charles surface is another character who is a source of

humour in the play. He is gifted with high spirits which he
maintains even in adversity. Accordingly his speeches are full of
pleasant humour. Charles high spirits enliven the scene in which
he is present. Humour is introduced in the ‘library’ scene as
soon as he arrives at his brother’s house. His humour stands in
contrast to his brother’s seriousness. Sheridan is remarkable for
creating comic situations, which in most cases are a mixture of
wit and pure fun.

10.16. THE SOCIAL LIFE REFLECTED IN THE PLAY

Sheridan presents in the School for Scandal the upper

section of the English society of his time with which he was
thoroughly acquainted. Extravagance is one of the vices of the
upper class people. Hence to replenish their purses, from which
money quickly drains out, they have to depend on the money-

155
Unit - X lenders, who charge exorbitant interest on the sums they lend.
The School for Charles is typical of the extravagant youngmen common in the
Scandal - Sheridan section of society, the play presents, and money-lenders are
necessarily companions of such young men.

10.16.1. Frivolous life style of the people

The men and women presented in the play have enough

leisure and money to carry on their frivolous pursuits. Sir Peter,
an old bachelor marries a young wife on the strength of his
money, though after marriage he grudges giving her money to
buy fresh roses and fashionable dresses. Sir Oliver has earned
fabulous wealth in the east, and can easily extricate Charles
from his financial difficulties. Lady Sneerwell is a rich widow,
and the other members of her ‘scandalous college’ are quite
well-to-do. These rich persons have no other business except
scandal-mongering, seducing women, drinking, card-playing,
gambling and dwelling. Women engaged in exchanging
scandalous news, always talk of elopements, separations of
husbands and wives. The vulgarity of this life is covered with wit
and polished language. The picture of life is on the whole
realistic.

10.16.2. Sheridan’s Satire

Sheridan’s satire is aimed mainly at the scandal

mongers, and it is they who are specially ridiculed in the play.
Besides them, his satire also plays on newspapers, money-
lenders, self-styled poets and wits, and hypocritical moralists.
He ridicules the newspapers of the time which strive to gain
wider circulation by publishing scandalous reports. Joseph is an
external hypocrite, found in all ages and societies, who, while
pretending to be a man of principles and preaching high morals,
violates in practice all that he preaches. The Villainy of such a
‘moral’ hypocrite is satirized in the play.

156
10.17. THE PLAY AS AN ANTI-SENTIMENTAL COMEDY Unit - X
The School for
The middle class with its Puritan ideology exerted a
Scandal - Sheridan
powerful influence on the drama of the eighteenth century. This
influence is to be marked both in the tragedy and the comedy of
the period. The domestic tragedies of the age were edifying
works. The comedy of the age was becoming sentimental and
tearful. The cynicism and satire of the Restoration comedy was
replaced in it by an endeavour to rouse virtuous emotions. Thus,
it its attempt to preach morals, it gave up its proper aim, which
was to raise laughter.

10.17.1 Goldsmity’s anti-sentimental comedies

Goldsmity was the first to protest against the flood of

sentimentalism and ‘gentleness’ which was invading the stage.
His two comedies, ‘the Good Natured man and she stoops to
conquer are free from the moral aim of the sentimental comedy,
and are attempts purely to raise laughter. Sheridam, too, had the
same ideal before him. But while Goldsmity did not write the
comedy of manners, Sheridan tried to revive the spirit of the
Restoration comedy in his plays.

10.17.2. Sheridan’s attempts to revive comedy

Sheridan could not exactly revive the spirit of the

Restoration comedy. The Restoration society, which was
reflected in the comedy of manners had ceased to exist in the
eighteenth century. A new society imbued with puritanical spirit
and ideals had come into existence. Its taste was different from
the taste of the Restoration society which had a cynical attitude
towards love, virtue and morality. The eighteenth century loved
to see virtue triumphant on the stage, and expected its
playwrights to instruct the audience in morals. In such an age
the cynicism and vulgarity of the Restoration stage could not be

157
Unit - X revived. Sheridan, therefore revived the comedy of Vanbrugh
The School for and Congreve without their coarseness and cynicism.
Scandal - Sheridan 10.17.3. Sheridan’s wit and humour

Sheridan revives in his plays the sparkling and

exhilarating wit of the masters of the comedy of manners. In his
anti-sentimental zeal he attacks the hypocrisy of the
sentimentalists, particularly in ‘The school for Scandal’. Their
hypocrisy is ridiculed in this play through the character of
Joseph. Still, Sheridan is unable to shake off completely the
influence of his age. While ridiculing sentimentalism and
sentimentalists, he himself gives high credit to the good heart
hidden beneath a dissipated exterior. The redeeming feature of
Charles, the profligate, is his good heart, his sincere gratitude to
his benefactor and sympathy for a relation in distress.
Repentance of a sinner, or reform of a rake are common enough
themes in the sentimental comedy; and though Charles does not
repent for his misdeeds, at the end of the play he at least
promises to make an attempt to reform himself.

10.17.4. No moral purpose

Sheridan’s comedies are free from the moral purpose of

the sentimental drama. There is no conscious effort in them at
moral instruction, no declamatory tirades to convey moral
lessons. Still, a purpose is to be discovered in ‘The School for
Scandal’ which is to expose the folly and wickedness of
irresponsible scandal mongering. Sheridan wants to purge
society and social life of scandals and scandal-mongers.

10.17.5. An element of sentiment

Thus we see that though. Sheridan revives the tradition

of the comedy of manners in the eighteenth century, he is not
able to free himself entirely from the influence of his age. In the

158
type of comedy he writes there is no room for sentiment. But Unit - X
sentiment does exist in his plays. He does not go wholly against The School for
the taste of the eighteenth century audience which loved Scandal - Sheridan
sentiment and its presentation on the stage. They also wanted a
play to praise virtue and lash vice, and the vice that is lashed in
The School for Scandal is scandal-mongering.

Check Your Progress

1. Who was Lady Sneerwell?

............................................................................
..................................................................................
2. Name the agent of Lady Sneerwell who spread the
scandals?

............................................................................
..................................................................................
3. Who has acted as a sort of guardian to two young
men (Joseph and Charles) after their father’s death?

............................................................................
..................................................................................
4. Why did Joseph want to marry Maria?

............................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
5. Which character was presented as a poet by
Sheridan?

............................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................

159
Unit - X
6. Why did Sir Peter Teazle marry a young girl from
The School for countryside?
Scandal - Sheridan
............................................................................
..................................................................................
7. Who is the beloved of Charles?

............................................................................
..................................................................................
8. Who goes to Charles’ house as Mr. Premium?

............................................................................
..................................................................................
9. Who informed Joseph that Sir Oliver has arrived
and will be with him in a quarter of an hour?

............................................................................
..................................................................................
10. Who disguised himself as Mr. Stanley?

............................................................................
..................................................................................

10.18. LET US SUM UP

The sentimental comedy, however, did not put an end to

the older tradition of true comedy. Many people still went to the
theatre for amusement rather that instruction, and the spirit of
the Restoration comedy still prevailed in some of the plays of
the time. But the leaders of the anti-sentimental movement were
Goldsmith and Sheridan, Goldsmith did not write his plays in the
style of the comedy of manners, but he kept alive in them the
spirit of laughter. He wrote two comedies which have many

160
weaknesses. The plot has several improbabilities. It was Unit - X
Sheridan who revived the Restoration comedy in the eighteenth The School for
century. He writes his plays in the style of the master of the Scandal - Sheridan
‘manner’ school. But in an age marked by the triumph of
sentimentalism, he could not be as outspoken and frank in the
depiction of license as were the earlier dramatists.

10.19. KEY WORDS

portrait – a painted picture, drawing or photograph of a person

or animal

scandal – malicious gossip

rail – find fault

calumny – false statements about a person, made to damage his

character

antipathy – strong and settled dislike

perverseness – wrong doing

waywardness – wickedness

deportment – behavior

Cupid – Roman God of love

extravagant – wasting money

mischief – crime

lampoon – a piece of writing attacking or ridiculing somebody

tempers – temperament

profligate – very immoral

161
Unit - X 10.20. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
The School for
1. A rich widow and chief of the scandal group
Scandal - Sheridan
2. Mr. Snake

3. Sir Peter Teazle

4. She was the only heiress of a considerable property

5. Sir Benjamin Backbite

6. He hated the ways of the society of London

7. Maria

8. Sir Oliver

9. Rowley

10. Sir Oliver

LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS

Robert Herring – Sheridan and Goldsmith

A.C. Ward – Artificial Comedies of Manners

Allardyce Nicoll – Anti-Sentimental Comedy

Dr.V.Vijayalakshmi
Professor
Department of English
Urumu Dhanalakshmi College
Trichy.

162