1

SYNTHESIS OF 2D MXENE AS FILLER IN POLYIONIC LIQUID

ELECTROLYTE FOR DYE SENSITIZED SOLAR CELL APPLICATION

by

NURULAIN ADIBAH BINTI ROMZI

A thesis
Submitted to the Postgraduate Studies Programme
as a Requirement for the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI PETRONAS
BANDAR SERI ISKANDAR,
PERAK

JUNE 2020
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION i
DEDICATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
ABSTRACT iv
ABSTRAK v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF FIGURES viii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ix
LIST OF SYMBOLS x
LIST OF APPENDICES xi

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of the Problem 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 2
1.3 Objectives of the Study 3
1.4 Scope of the Study 4
1.5 Significance of the Study 5

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6
2.1 Literature 1 6
2.2 Literature 2 7
2.2.1 Literature 2.1 8
2.2.2 Literature 2.2 9
2.3 Literature 3 10
2.4 Literature 4 11

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 12
3.1 Research Design and Procedure 12
3.2 Operational Framework 13
3.3 Subjects or Data Sources 14
3.4 Instrumentation and Data Analysis 15
3.5 Assumptions and Limitations 16
3.6 Research Planning and Schedule (Gantt Chart) 17

4 EXPECTED FINDINGS 18
4.1 Expected Findings 18

REFERENCES 19
Appendices A - C 20
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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Problem

General background of the investigated problems may include introduction of

the research study and its impact to the fundamental and practices of the key
concepts. Students are advice to keep the writing style and format consistent
throughout the thesis. They should use either UK English or US English.

Students are encouraged to use Academic Phrasebank as a general resource

for academic writing. The resource can be found at
http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/. It aims to provide some examples
phraseological "nuts and bolts" of writing. This website is useful for international
students whose English is not their first language. Many phrases in the website could
assist students to think and write their ideas appropriately. The examples of phrases
also may help students avoid plagiarism and enhanced their scientific writing skills.
However, students need to be aware that these phrasebank is not discipline specific,
and it does not claim to be comprehensive.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

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This subsection should consist of thesis statement (statement of issues),

identified solutions, 5Ws (what, who when, where and why) the problems occurs,
vision of your study and concluding remarks of the problems.

The statement should begin with clear description of the issues including
vision, issue statement and method used to solve the problem.

The description then followed by the 5Ws of the problems that comprises
words to keep the effort focused, represent solvable problems.

For problem statement, one should use words such as identify, define, relate,
describe, review, justify, indicate, formulate, explain, compare, contrast, suggest,
interpret, analyze, assess, construct, apply, demonstrate, illustrate, categorize,
deduce, create, resolve, debate, propose, differentiate, argue, derive, design, evaluate,
establish, conceptualize, suggest, integrate, compile, develop, challenge, consolidate,
clarify, criticize, ascertain, appraise, calculate, recommend. These words show some
examples of good outcomes based verb. Verbs such as understand, explore,
investigate, examine and discuss are poor verbs as they describe processes, not
outcomes. It is not convincing when discuss something endlessly without ever
having to make recommendations, draw conclusions or offer a result. Students might
be exploring, examining or discussing as part of the process, but they cannot be the
end result of the research, which should be more tangible.

In some cases the postgraduate students are required to formulate their

hypothesis in the problem statement section. For that case, the following discussion
will emphasize the fundamental of hypothesis.

1.2.1 What is Hypothesis?

In Douthwaite (2005, June 2), the hypothesis can be defined as ‘a reasonable

scientific proposal’. It is not a statement of fact, but a statement that takes us beyond
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the known facts and logically anticipates the substance of new knowledge. The
hypothesis has two essential elements: it must be based on the known facts and it
must be testable. The first criterion can be checked by reading the literature and
talking with your supervisor; the second criterion is fulfilled by your experiments.

If the thesis work is based on several sets of experiments, with each set
leading to a separate manuscript (and most thesis are like this), then each of these
sets of experiments with need its own specific hypothesis. These specific hypotheses
should be unified by a single general hypothesis that can be defined in a single
sentence. The general hypothesis is the guide-line through the thesis writing. It will
probably take students to several attempts to formulate it successfully (and when
students have clarified this, they will probably wish that they had done so four years
ago). If students cannot formulate a general hypothesis that defines the purpose of
their thesis work, then they can always take solace in the fact that there are many
other careers to choose from outside science.

The general hypothesis can be included in the summary at the beginning of

the thesis. Students do not necessarily have to include it here, but it should at least be
prominent in their mind (and preferably hanging above desk where it can be seen)
when writing the sections of thesis. They should ask themselves when writing
whether what they are putting onto paper is relevant to testing the general hypothesis
(or in the case of each manuscript, whether the material is relevant to the
manuscript’s specific hypothesis). If the material is not relevant, consider leaving it
out. If you cannot leave the material out, consider reformulating your hypothesis.

In real experiments, real hypotheses should be written before the actual

experiment (Access Excellence @ the National Health Museum, 2010). The
following explanation may answer some questions on what is the hypotheses all
about.

What is a Real Hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a tentative statement that proposes a possible explanation to
some phenomenon or event. A useful hypothesis is a testable statement which may
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include a prediction. A hypotheses should not be confused with a theory. Theories

are general explanations based on a large amount of data. For example, the theory of
evolution applies to all living things and is based on wide range of observations.
However, there are many things about evolution that are not fully understood such as
gaps in the fossil record. Many hypotheses have been proposed and tested.

When are Hypotheses Used?

The key word is testable. That is, you will perform a test of how two
variables might be related. This is when you are doing a real experiment. You are
testing variables. Usually, a hypothesis is based on some previous observation such
as noticing that in November many trees undergo color changes in their leaves and
the average daily temperatures are dropping. Are these two events connected? How?
Any laboratory procedure you follow without a hypothesis is really not an
experiment. It is just an exercise or demonstration of what is already known.

How are Hypotheses Written?

(1) Chocolate may cause pimples.
(2) Salt in soil may affect plant growth.
(3) Plant growth may be affected by the color of the light.
(4) Bacterial growth may be affected by temperature.
(5) Ultra violet light may cause skin cancer.
(6) Temperature may cause leaves to change color.

All of these are examples of hypotheses because they use the tentative word
“may”. However, their form is not particularly useful. Using the word “may” does
not suggest how you would go about proving it. If these statements had not been
written carefully, they may not have even been hypotheses at all. For example, if we
say "Trees will change color when it gets cold" we are making a prediction. Or if we
write, "Ultraviolet light causes skin cancer" could be a conclusion. One way to
prevent making such easy mistakes is to formalize the form of the hypothesis.

Examples of Formalized Hypotheses

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If skin cancer is related to ultraviolet light, then people with a high exposure to uv
light will have a higher frequency of skin cancer.
If leaf color change is related to temperature, then exposing plants to low
temperatures will result in changes in leaf color.
Notice that these statements contain the words, if and then. They are necessary in a
formalized hypothesis. But not all if-then statements are hypotheses. For example, "If
I play the lottery, then I will get rich." This is a simple prediction. In a formalized
hypothesis, a tentative relationship is stated. For example, if the frequency of
winning is related to frequency of buying lottery tickets. "Then" is followed by a
prediction of what will happen if you increase or decrease the frequency of buying
lottery tickets. If you always ask yourself that if one thing is related to another, then
you should be able to test it.

Formalized hypotheses contain two variables. One is "independent" and the

other is "dependent." The independent variable is the one you, the "scientist" control
and the dependent variable is the one that you observe and/or measure the results. In
the statements above the dependent variable is blue and the independent variable is
red. The ultimate value of a formalized hypothesis is it forces us to think about what
results we should look for in an experiment (Ed 603 - Lesson 6 - Formulation and
statement of a research hypothesis).

According to Gay (1996, page 61), a hypothesis is a tentative explanation for

certain behaviors, phenomena, or events that have occurred or will occur.
(1) The hypothesis states the researcher's expectations concerning the
relationship between the variables in the research problem.
(2) The hypothesis is a refinement of the research problem. It is the most specific
statement of the problem.
(3) The hypothesis states what the researcher thinks the outcome of the study will
be.
(4) The researcher collects data that either supports the hypothesis or does not
support it.
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(5) The hypothesis is formulated following the review of related literature and
prior to the execution of the study. The related literature leads the researcher
to expect a certain relationship.
(6) "A good hypothesis states as clearly and concisely as possible the expected
relationship (or differencce) between two variables and defines those
variables in operational, measurable terms." (Gay 1996, page 62).
(7) "A well-stated and defined hypothesis must be (and will be if well-formulated
and stated) testable. It should be possible to support or not support the
hypothesis by collecting and analyzing data." (Gay, 1996, page 62).

Helmenstine (2010) says that words have precise meanings in science. For
example, 'theory', 'law', and 'hypothesis' don't all mean the same thing. Outside of
science, you might say something is 'just a theory', meaning it's supposition that may
or may not be true. In science, a theory is an explanation that generally is accepted to
be true. Here's a closer look at these important, commonly misused terms.

Table 1.1 Description of hypothesis, theory and law

Hypothesis Theory Law
A hypothesis is an educated A scientific theory summarizes a A law generalizes a body of
guess, based on observation. hypothesis or group of observations. At the time it is
Usually, a hypothesis can be hypotheses that have been made, no exceptions have
supported or refuted through supported with repeated been found to a law. Scientific
experimentation or more testing. A theory is valid as laws explain things, but they
observation. A hypothesis can long as there is no evidence to do not describe them. One
be disproven, but not proven to dispute it. Therefore, theories way to tell a law and a theory
be true. can be disproven. Basically, if apart is to ask if the
Example: If you see no evidence accumulates to description gives you a means
difference in the cleaning support a hypothesis, then the to explain 'why'.
ability of various laundry hypothesis can become Example: Consider Newton's
detergents, you might accepted as a good explanation Law of Gravity. Newton
hypothesize that cleaning of a phenomenon. One could use this law to predict
effectiveness is not affected by definition of a theory is to say the behavior of a dropped
which detergent you use. You it's an accepted hypothesis. object, but he couldn't explain
can see this hypothesis can be Example: It is known that on why it happened.
disproven if a stain is removed June 30, 1908 in Tunguska, As you can see, there is no
by one detergent and not Siberia, there was an explosion 'proof' or absolute 'truth' in
another. On the other hand, you equivalent to the detonation of science. The closest we get
cannot prove the hypothesis. about 15 million tons of TNT. are facts, which are
Even if you never see a Many hypotheses have been indisputable observations.
difference in the cleanliness of proposed for what caused the Note, however, if you define
your clothes after trying a explosion. It is theorized that proof as arriving at a logical
thousand detergents, there the explosion was caused by a conclusion, based on the
might be one you haven't tried natural extraterrestrial evidence, then there is 'proof'
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that could be different.
phenomenon, and was not
caused by man. Is this theory a
fact? No. The event is a
recorded fact. Is this this theory
generally accepted to be true,
based on evidence to-date?
Yes. Can this theory be shown
to be false and be discarded?
Yes.
in science. I work under the
definition that to prove
something implies it can
never be wrong, which is
different. If you're asked to
define hypothesis, theory, and
law, keep in mind the
definitions of proof and of
these words can vary slightly
depending on the scientific
discipline. What is important
is to realize they don't all
mean the same thing and
cannot be used
interchangeably.

As discussed by Lee (2008, September 17), a dissertation hypothesis is the

one of the most significant section in a dissertation which gives a background of the
entire research in the dissertation. Good dissertation hypothesis writing requires
certain guidelines which should be utilized for proper dissertation hypothesis writing.
It is important that the dissertation hypothesis writing is limited to few words as the
hypothesis is a short statement which explains the purpose of the research and the
argument the dissertation tries to prove. Because most often good dissertation
hypothesis write-up requires that the dissertation hypothesis is not more than two
paragraphs. Ideal dissertation hypothesis writing requires that the dissertation
hypothesis is very short and covers only one page. However limiting the dissertation
hypothesis write-up is not easy. This can be very difficult if the topic of research is
complicated, but the student should always summarize the crux of the research and
must not write in detail as this would make the dissertation hypothesis write-up
process quite difficult. This also defeats the purpose of having a dissertation
hypothesis write-up in the first place.

The dissertation hypothesis write-up is designed to be a summary of the

entire dissertation. Hence it is integral that the dissertation hypothesis write-up
process should cover all of the important parts of the research. It sometimes get very
difficult to write short hypothesis and limiting the length of the hypothesis to one or
two paragraphs, but through the use of clear, short writing techniques any topic can
be brought down to the specific word size. While it is important for students to
include all the relevant aspects of their research in the hypothesis, they however
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should not be tempted to discuss anything that is not directly relevant to the study
including many of their own individual and original ideas. It sum we can say that the
dissertation hypothesis write-up process can be made very easy if there are only to
the point ideas presented in the hypothesis and to achieve this purpose the student
should practice and possess editing skills which can enable a student to prepare a
dissertation hypothesis which has all the relevant ideas included but is very concise
and limited.
As an example following are a good hypothesis of NAPL study written by
Pantazidou (1995).

Figure 1.1 An example of hypothesis of NAPL written in the introduction

1.3 Objectives of the Study

Followings are the objectives proposed for this study: -

(1) To identify the shortcomings of local legislations and guidelines.
(2) To assess the compliance of regulations.
(3) To propose necessary actions.
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Students should provide clear, realistic, achievable, and measureable objectives

appropriate to the level of degree (i.e., Bachelor, Master or PhD). These objectives
should be discussed and approved by their supervisor.

1.4 Scope of the Study

This study covers all employees working at height at SapuraKencana Yard.

The employees include contractors and sub-contractors, managers, supervisors,
foremen, scaffold installers, riggers, welders, grinders, fitters, painters, insulators and
general workers. All employees that are working at height in Yard 2 and Sector 10
are considered as workers at risk.

1.5 Significance of the Study

Students should show the benefits of the conducted study to the targeted
subjects or areas.
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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Since many facts and figures will be included in this chapter, students are
advice to use sign-posting points wisely. Give brief introduction of flow of thought
on what to be covered in this chapter. Show its relevance to the problem statement
and research methodology. Arrange the ideas of reviews from general to specific
theories. Make sure the reviews cover all important aspect of the research
methodology from the existing studies. Discuss the recommended potential studies
closely to the investigated problems. Provide summary of the discussion at the end of
this reviews.

The example of comprehensive reviews can be found in Kamaruddin et al.

(2011). Students are advice to use EndNote program for an effective bibliography
management. The installer of current EndNote program can be downloaded from
cyberubp.utm.my. Use a valid ACID username and password to enter the system.
After successfully installed the program, one should find EndNote menu at the end of
MS Word interface. By using this software students can simply organize and manage
their citations and references almost instantaneously.

Many ways can be used to download bibliographic citations in the EndNote.

All these citations normally can be obtained from a free and subscribed database
provider (e.g., use database subscribed by PSZ UTM). Students can simply download
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the citations via Google Scholar (the easiest way), Scopus, ScienceDirect, and many
other scientific databases.

Under the Insert Citation menu of EndNote, students are able to find the
required reference and insert its citation automatically. The name of authors can be
excluded through the Edit Citation menu or just simply modified from the options of
right click instruction. The style of citations and references for the whole document
should be done in the EndNote program itself using the Edit and Output Styles
menus. Please contact Dr. Samira for any advice or technical support of the EndNote
program (MyUTM Thesis of EndNote style can be provided at no cost).

If students prefer to share their bibliography online, they can use Mendeley.
Mendeley is a free reference manager and academic social network that can help
students organize their research, collaborate with others online, and discover the
latest research. Students may find the differences between Mendeley and some other
bibliography from http://www.mendeley.com/compare-mendeley/.

2.2 Literature 1

2.3 Literature 2

2.4 Literature 3
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CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design and Procedure

3.2 Operational Framework

The operational framework must follow the stated hypothesis in the statement
of the problem section. Students can present their ideas of operational framework
using flowchart.

3.3 Subjects or Data Sources

3.4 Instrumentation and Data Analysis

3.5 Assumptions and Limitations

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3.6 Research Planning and Schedule (Gantt Chart)

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Table 3.1. Research planning and schedule (Gantt Chart)

No. Activities 2013 2014
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Literatures review
2 Analysis of existing study
3 Submission of research proposal
4 Appointment of supervisor
5 Research proposal presentation
6 Questionnaires/interviews
7 Preparation of compliance checklist
8 Site assessment using the checklist
9 Data collection and statistical analysis
10 Analysis and evaluation
11 Project presentation
12 Writing up
13 Final editing of thesis
14 Final thesis submission
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CHAPTER 4

EXPECTED FINDINGS

4.1 Expected Findings

What are the expected findings that can reflect the stated objectives?

This template was prepared strictly for science, engineering and technology
students who plan in preparing their research proposal. Students who are preparing
thesis for Bachelor, Master by taught course, Master and PhD by research should
consult this template according to their suggested Research Methodology. Students
from other field of study may find some discrepancies in the given outline.
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REFERENCES

Access Excellence @ the National Health Museum Writing hypotheses: A student

lesson. The National Health Museum 2010 [cited 11 January 2010. Available
from http://www.accessexcellence.org/LC/TL/filson/writhypo.php.

Douthwaite, S. Hints on composing a PhD thesis 2005, June 2 [cited 11 January

2010. Available from http://www1.sdu.dk/Nat/bmb/PhD_srd.pdf.

Ed 603 - Lesson 6 - Formulation and statement of a research hypothesis [cited 11

January 2010. Available from
http://www.mnstate.edu/wasson/ed603/ed603lesson6.htm.

Helmenstine, A.M. Scientific hypothesis, theory, law definitions 2010 [cited 11

January 2010. Available from
http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemistry101/a/lawtheory.htm.

Kamaruddin, S.A., Sulaiman, W.N.A., Rahman, N.A., Zakaria, M.P., Mustaffar, M.,
and Sa'ari, R. (2011). A review of laboratory and numerical simulations of
hydrocarbons migration in subsurface environments. Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology. 4 (3), 191-214.

Lee, D. How to write a dissertation hypothesis 2008, September 17 [cited 11

January 2010. Available from http://www.articlesbase.com/tutoring-
articles/how-to-write-a-dissertation-hypothesis-566843.html.

Pantazidou, M. LNAPL infiltration in the vadose zone: Comparisons of physical and

numerical simulations. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 1995 [cited
11 January 2010. Available from
http://esd.lbl.gov/TOUGH+/proceedings/1995/Pantanzidou.pdf.