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Surveying PDF
Surveying PDF
SÖNMEZ SAYILI
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING
(An Introduction to GEOMATICS)
1. SURVEYING-GEOMATICS
1.1. Definition
Science, art and technology of determining the relative positions of points above, on or
beneath the earth’s surface or of establishing such points.
A discipline which encompasses (include) all methods for measuring and collecting
information about the physical earth and our environment, processing that information, and
disseminating a variety of resulting products to a wide range of clients.
1- Population expands.
2- Land values appreciate.
3- Natural resources divindle.
4- Human setivities continue to stress the quality of our land, water and air.
Using
1- modern ground, aerial and satellite technologies.
2- computers for data processing.
3- compemporary surveyors.
1) Determination of the size and shape of the earth and measurement of all data needed to
define the size, position, shape, and contour of any part of the earth.
2) Positioning of objects in space, and positioning and monitoring of physical features,
structures, and engineering works on, above, or below the surface of the earth.
3) Determination of the positions of boundaries of public or private land, including
national and international boundaries, and registration of those lands with appropriate
authorities.
4) Design, establishment, and administration of land and geographic information
systems, and the collection, storage, analysis and management of data within those
systems.
5) Study of the natural and social environment, measurement of land and marine
resources, and the use of the data in planning of development in urban, rural, and
regional areas.
6) Planning development, and re-development of property, whether urban or rural and
whether land or buildings.
7) Assessment of value and the management of property, whether urban or rural and
whether land or buildings.
8) Planning, measurement, and management of construction works, including estimation
of costs.
9) Production of maps, files, charts, and reports.
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
1.5. Geomatics :
The name is used for surveying in U.S.A. / Canada / United Kingdom / Australia.
- Recent technologies provided surveyors new tools for measuring and/or collecting
information, for computing, and for displaying and disseminating information.
- Increasing concerns about the environment locally, regionally and globally, and this
has greatly exacerbated efforts in monitoring, managing and regulating the use of our
land, water, air and other natural resources.
Geodetic Plane
- Field measurements for geodetic surveys are usually performed to a higher order of
accuracy than those of plane surveys.
- Geodetic surveying, the curved surface of the earth is considered by performing the
computations on an ellipsoid.
- It is now becoming common to do geodetic computations in a three-dimensional,
earth-centered Cartesian coordinate systems.
- Geodetic methods : to determine relative positions of widely spaced monuments and
to compute lengths and directions of the long lines between them.
These monuments serve as the basis for referencing other subordinate surveys of lesser extent.
In early geodetic surveys, painstaking efforts were employed to accurately measure angles
and distances.
Angles were observed using precise ground-base theodolites, and the distances were
measured using special tapes made from metal having a low coefficient of thermal expantion.
From these basic measurements, the relative positions of monuments were computed.
Later electronic instruments were used for measuring the angles and distances.
GPS can provide the needed positions with much greater accuracy, speed and economy.
Plane surveying, except for leveling, the reference base for field work and computations is
assumed to be a flat horizontal surface.
For areas of limited size the surface of our vast ellipsoid is actually nearly flat.
Distance : Angle :
5 mile (5 x 1609.344 m = 8046.72 m) 75 mile2 ≅ 194 km2
5 mile ≅ 8 km
0.02 ft ≅ 0.61 cm
Difference between sum of the three ellipsoidal angles and three plane angles is about 1
second.
For plane survey calculations algebra, plane and analytical geometry and plane trigonometry.
1- Agronomy
2- Archeology
3- Astronomy
4- Forestry
5- Geography
6- Geology
7- Geophysics
8- Landscape architecture
9- Meteorology
10- Paleontology
11- Seismology
12- Military and civil engineering
- control surveys
- topographic surveys
- land, boundary and cadastral surveys
- hydrographic surveys
- route surveys
- as-built surveys
- mine surveys
- solar surveys
- optical tooling
The system is based upon observations made on electromagnetic signals transmitted from a
constellation of 24 satellites, each of which circling the earth in a precisely known orbit.
GPS receivers not only capture the satellite signals but they also measure the precise instant of
time the signals are received.
Distances ranges from the satellites to the receivers are determined from the timing and signal
information, enabling accurate receiver positions to be computed.
In digital photogrammetry, the aerial photos are prepared as a raster of pixels (picture
elements), each of which has its raster row and column location and its density, stored
digitally. To obtain this raster of image information, photographs taken with traditional film
cameras can be scanned, or a new type of digital camera can be used to capture the images
directly in raster format. Positional information, maps, and other products are then
automatically produced digitally from the raster information using computerized softcopy
stereoplotters.
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
Surveyors (geomatic engineers) generally are involved in both field and office work.
1- Field work
making measurements with various types of instruments.
a) determine the relative locations of points.
b) to set out stakes in accordance with planned locations to guide building and
construction operations.
2- Office work
a) research and analysis in preparing for surveys.
b) computing and processing the data obtained from field measurements.
c) preparing maps, plots, charts, reports and other documents.
for protection
a) wear safety vests
b) fluorescent orange color
c) flagging material
d) cones and barricades
e) drunks
f) large brimmed hats
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
g) sun glasses
h) sun eremes
1- Horizontal angles
2- Horizontal distances
3- Vertical (or zenith) angles
4- Vertical distances
5- Slope distances
Units in surveying
- length
- area
- volume
- angle
1° = 60 minutes
1 minute = 1’ = 60 seconds
Division of seconds are tenths, hundreths, thousandths
100 m
78,376 78, 38
78, 37 49 78, 37
Correct Incorrect
46 , 7418 46 , 7
1 , 03 1,0
375 , 0 375 , 0
Field notes
measurements
sketches
descriptions
other items of miscellaneous information
Accuracy :
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
Arrangement :
Clarity : to ensure clarity of sketches and tabulations to minimize the possibility of mistakes
and omissions
1- Project name, location, date, time of day, starting and finishing times
2- Weather
3- Party (personal names)
4- Instrument type and number
Control of the measurement and storage operations is maintained through the data collector’s
keyboard.
For clarification of the notes, the operator inputs point identifiers and other descriptive
information along with the measurement as they are being recorded automatically.
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
Example : The distance across a river can be found by observing the lenght of a line on one
side, the angle at each end of this line to a point on the other side and then computing the
distance by one of the standart trigonometric formulas
An error is the difference between an observed value (X), for a quantity and its true
value(X)
E=X-X
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
1- no observation is exact
2- every observation contains error
3- the true value of an observation is never known
and therefore,
4- the exact error present is always unknown
4.4 MISTAKES
Large mistakes ( kaba hatalar) must be detected by careful and systematic checking of all
work and eliminating by repeating some or all of the measurements. But, unfortunately, some
mistakes are so small that can not be detected. The worst position is if you can not find out the
mistake(s), and if you are back from the field. And you have still doubt on the measurements.
Then the measurement must be repeated again at the same field.
Systematic errors (biases) result from the factor which comprise the
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
Accidental errors :
The magnitudes and algebric signs of random errors are matters of chance. There is no
absolute way to compute or eliminate them
A discrepancy is the difference between to observed values of the same quantity. A small
discrepancy indicates there are probably no mistakes and random errors are small.
Accuracy denotes the absolute nearnes of observed quantities to their true values
The difference between precision and accuracy is shown below
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
Mistakes that do occur can be corrected only if discovered. Comparing several observations
of the same quantity is one of the best ways to identify mistakes.
Example :
567.91
576.95
567.88
567.90
567.93
Systematic errors can be calculated and proper corrections applied to the observations
Example:
A leveling instrument out of adjustment causes incorrect readings, but if all bachsights and
foresights are made the same length, the error cancel in differantial leveling.
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
5. LEVELING
5.1. THEORY AND METHODS
Leveling is the general term applied to any of the various processes by which elevations of
points or differences in elevation are determined
5.2. DEFINITIONS
Vertical line : A line that follows the direction of gravity as indicated by a plumb line
Horizontal line : A line in horizontal plane. In plane surveying, a line perpendicular to the
vertical
Level surface : A curved surface that every point is perpendicular to the local plumb line (the
direction in which gravity acts)
Vertical datum : Any level surface to which elevations are referred.This is the surface that is
arbitrarily assigned an elevation of zero
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
Elevation : The distance measured along a vertical line from a vertical datum to a point or an
object
Geoid : A particular level surface which serves as a datum for elevations and astronomical
observations
A and B on a level line. Vertical rod B. Reading by means of a telescope with its line of sight
AD horizontal.
Earth’s curvature would cause a higher reading as the length of BD
Light rays passing through the atmosphere are bent or refracted towards the earth surface (fig
4.3)
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
AH (in fig4.2) is bent to the curved form AR. Hence the reading or a rod held at R is
diminished by length RH
- atmospheric conditions
- length of line
- angle of sight line
Rm= 0.011 K2
Rm = refraction in meters
K = distance in kilometers
hm= 0.0675 K2
5.4.1. TAPING
HI = elev + BS
828. 42 = 820.00 + (Backsight) 8.42
elev = HI - FS
827.22 = 828.42 - 1.20 (Foresight)
Barometer : measures air pressure and is used to find relative elevations of points on the earth
surface.
A change in elevation
1000 ft (304.8 m) correspond 1 inch (2.54 cm) change of mercury in atmospheric pressure.
Since atmospheric pressure depending upon changes in weather conditions and the speed of
the person carrying a barometer, this methods has some disadvantages
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
S = slope distance
z = zenith angle
α = vertical angle
V = elevation difference
V = S . cos z
V = S . sin α
V = H . cot z
V = H . tan α
∆ elev = hi + V + r
hi = height of instrument
r = reading on the road
H = horizontal distance
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
zm = zenith angle
αm = vertical angle
∆ elev = hi + V + (C-R) - r
a- Categories of levels
1- dumpy levels
2- tilting levels
3- automatic levels
4- digital levels
They differ from each other somewhat in design. All have two common components :
Recently
5.6. TELESCOPES
The telescopes of leveling instruments define the line of sight and magnify the view of a
graduated rod against a refence retide (ağ) thereby enabling accurate readings to be obtained.
components
Objective lens : Its optical axis reasonably concentric with the tube axis. Main function is to
gather incoming light rays and direct them toward the negative focusing lens.
Negative lens : It is located between the objective lens and retide and mounted so its optical
axis coincides with that of the objective lens. Its function is to focus rays of light that pass
through the objective lens onto the retide plane.
Reticle : The reticle consists in a pair of perpendicular reference lines (cross hairs)
mounted at the principal focus of the objective optical system. The point of intersection of
cross hairs, together with the optical center of the objective system, forms the so-called line of
sight (line of collumanition)
5.7. FOCUSSING
Level vials are used to orient many different surveying instruments with respect to the
direction of gravity.
- tube vials
- circular vials (bull’s eye)
Tube vials : used on tilting levels to precisely orient the line of sight horizontal prior to
making rod readings.
Bull’s eye : used on tilting an automatic levels for quick, rough leveling after which precise
leveling occurs.
Uniformly spaced graduations etched on the tube’s exterior surface and spaced 2mm apart,
locate the bubble’s relative position. The axis of the level vial is an imaginary longitudinal
line tangent to the upper inside surface at its midpoint.
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
Coincidence-type tube level vial used on precise equipment. The bubble is centered by
bringing the two ends together to form a smooth curve. This arrangement enables bubble
centering to be done more accurately.
Bull’s eye level vials are spherical in shape. The vial is graduated with concentric circles
having 2 mm spacing (in some kinds). They are used also on total station instruments.
20’’ 2 mm
206.265’’/ rad = R
2 mm x 206.265’’/ rad
R= = 20.625 m ≈ 20.6 meter
20’’
- ball-and-socket arrangement (on some tilting levels) permits the head to be tilted and
quickly locked nearly level.
- precise level in preparation for readings is then obtained by carefully centering a
telescope bubble.
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
This level type incorporate a-self-leveling feature. Most instruments have a three-screw
leveling head. After the bull’s eye bubble is manually centered, an automatic compensator
takes over, levels the line of sight, and keeps it level.
The newest type of automatic level, the electronic digital level (EDL) is :
An operator accomplishes rough leveling with a bull’s eye bubble. With its telescope and
cross hairs, the instrument could be used to obtain readings manually. EDL is designed to
operate by employing electronic digital image processing.
After leveling the instrument, its telescope is turned toward a special bar-coded rod and
focused. At the press of a button, the image of bar codes in the telescope’s field of view is
captured and processed.
Maximum range : 100 m.
Accurate in rod reading = ± 0.5 mm
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
5.12. TRIPODS
Hand level is especially valuable in quickly checking proposed locations for instrument setups
in differential leveling.
Through normal use and wear, all leveling instruments will likely become mal adjusted from
time to time
In perfect adjustment, the axis of the level vial and the line of sight must be parallel. If not,
collimation error exists.
The collimation error will not cause errors in differential leveling as long as backsight and
foresight distances are balanced.
RB – ra – rb + RA
ε=
2
Corrected reading R = RA - 2ε
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
6. DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
• Distance measuring is generally regarded as the most fundamental of all surveying
observations.
• Angles may be read but at least one line must be measured to supplement the angles in
locating points.
• In plane surveying;
the distance between two points
means horizontal distance
• If the points are at different elevations, the distance is the horizontal length between
vertical lines at the points.
1. Pacing
2. Odometer readings
3. Optical rangefinders
4. Tacheometry (stadia)
5. Subtence bars
6. Taping *
7. Electronic distance measurement (EDM) *
8. Satellite systems *
6.1.1. PACING : Distances obtained by pacing are sufficiently accurate for many purposes in
surveying, engineering, geology, agriculture, forestry and military field sketching
• Experienced pacers can measure 30-50 meter distances with an accuracy of 0.5 to 1
meter.
1 1 1
= +
f f1 f2
6.1.4. TACHEOMETRY; is a surveying method used to quickly determine the horizontal
distance to, and elevation of, a point.
This indirect distance measuring procedure involves using a theodolite to read the horizontal
angle subtended by two targets precisely spaced at a fixed distance apart on a subtence bar.
The unknown distance is computed from the known target spacing and the measured
horizontal angle.
Introduction :
Two problems :
1. lining in
2. applying tension
3. plumbing
4. marking tape lengths
5. reading the tape
6. recording the distance
The hand level is a simple instrument used to keep the tape ends at equal elevations when
measuring over rough terrain (d).
Pocket thermometer
1. Lining in :
- Use range poles, mark the line at both ends.
- Taping requires a minimum of two people (a forwarded tapeperson and a rear
tapeperson)
2. Applying tension : For accurate results, the tape must be straight and at same
elevations.
3. Plumbing : weeds, brush, obstacles and surface irregularities give difficulties
by laying a tape on the ground. Then hold the tape above the ground in a
horizontal position.
4. Marking tape lengths :
rear person call out = stick
forward tapeperson answer = stuck
when one length of a tape is properly applied in line on ground.
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
H = L . cos α
H = √ L 2 – d2
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005 ASSOC. PROF. DR. SÖNMEZ SAYILI
1. Instrumental errors : actual length can be different from nominal length because of a
defect in manufacture or repair on as a result of kinks.
2. Natural errors : the horizontal distance of a tape varies because of effects of
temperature, wind and weight of tape itself.
3. Personal errors : Tapepersons may be careless in setting pins, reading tape or
manupulating equipment.
CT = k (T1-T) L