NATIONAL AVIATION UNIVERSITY

Faculty of Aeronavigation, Electronics and Telecommunications

Term paper
from discipline «Signals and processes in telecommunication system»

Theme: Electric signals and their characteristics

Perform by: student from group TK-210 department of telecommunication systems

Yana Zhezhel.

Supervisor: docent Golubnychiy A.

Kyiv 2019

NATIONAL AVIATION UNIVERSITY

 Faculty of Aeronavigation, Electronics and Telecommunications
TASKS
for the implementation of the course project
student Zhezhel Yana
Theme of the course project: Electric signals and their characteristics
1. Term of project implementation: from 01.10.19 to 16.12.19,
2. Output data to the project: Types of signal;
- Gaussian impulse;
- Ideal low frequency signal;
3. Stages of work on a term project:
studying the types of electrical signals and their characteristics
4. List of compulsory graphic material:
- graphs of the studied characteristics;
- research results;
5. Task given by _____________________ (______________)
(signature of the supervisor) ( L. F. of the supervisor )

“_______” ____________ 2019

6. Accepted the task for execution _________________

(signature of the student )

2
 Contents
TASKS..........................................................................................................................................................2
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................4
1. THEORETICAL INFORMATION.......................................................................................................5
Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals.[1].......................................................................................5
Transformations of the independent variable.[2]......................................................................................6
Examples of Transformations of the Independent Variable:[3]..............................................................6
Periodic Signals.[4]......................................................................................................................................8
Even and Odd Signals.[5]............................................................................................................................8
Exponential and sinusoidal signals.[6].......................................................................................................9
Discrete-time complex exponential and sinusoidal signals.[7]................................................................10
Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals.[8].....................................................................................10
Electric signal.[8].......................................................................................................................................11
Pulse.[6]......................................................................................................................................................11
Analog and Discrete Signals[7].................................................................................................................12
Deterministic and Random Signals[1].....................................................................................................12
Demodulation and decoding[7].................................................................................................................13
2. PRACTICAL PART.............................................................................................................................16
Gaussian impulse.......................................................................................................................................16
2.2 Gaussian impulse.................................................................................................................................19
Ideal low frequency signal........................................................................................................................21
2.4 Ideal low frequency signal...................................................................................................................24
Conclusions....................................................................................................................................................27
References:.....................................................................................................................................................28

3
 Introduction

A message encoded by changing the voltage of an electric current is called an elec-

tronic signal. The use of electric current for this purpose is known as electronics.
Electronic signals may be analog or digital signals. Analog signals consist of con-
tinuously changing voltage in an electric circuit.[1]

Signals are classified into the following categories:

 Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals.
 Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals.
 Even and Odd Signals.
 Periodic and Non-periodic Signals.
 Energy and Power Signals.
 Real and Imaginary Signals.

In telecommunication, a standard test signal is a single-frequency signal with sta-

ndardized level used for testing the peak power transmission capability and for me-
asuring the total harmonic distortion of circuits or parts of an electric circuit.[1]

Today, the field has become even more daunting and complex with the addition of
circuit, systems and signal analysis and design languages and software, from MA-
TLAB and Simulink to NumPy, VHDL, PSpice, Verilog and even Assembly lan-
guage. Students are expected to understand the tools as well as the mathematics,
physics, circuit analysis, and transformations between the 8 domains.Because me- 
chanical engineering topics like friction, dampening etc. have very close analogies
in signal science (inductance, resistance, voltage, etc.), many of the tools originally
used in ME transformations (Laplace and Fourier transforms, Lagrangians, samp-
ling theory, probability, difference equations, etc.) have now been applied to sig-
nals, circuits, systems and their components, analysis and design in EE. Dynamical
systems that involve noise, filtering and other random or chaotic attractors and re-
pellors have now placed stochastic sciences and statistics between the more deter-
ministic discrete and continuous functions in the field. (Deterministic as used here
means signals that are completely determined as functions of time).

4
 1. THEORETICAL INFORMATION

Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals.[1]

Continuous-time signal: the variable of time is continuous. A speech signal as a
function of time is a continuous-time signal.

Fig. 1.1 Graphical representation of

continuoustime signal.

Fig. 1.2 Graphical representation of

discrete-time signal.

To distinguish between continuous-time and discrete-time signals we use symbol t

to denote the continuous variable and n to denote the discrete-time variable. And
for continuous-time signals we will enclose the independent variable in parenthe-
ses (·), for discrete-time signals we will enclose the independent variable in bracket
[·].A discrete-time signal x n][ may represent a phenomenon for which the indepe-
ndent variable is inherently discrete. A discrete-time signal x n][ may represents
5
successive samples of an underlying phenomenon for which the independent vari-
able is continuous. For example, the processing of speech on a digital computer re-
quires the use of a discrete time sequence representing the values of the continuous
time speech signal at discrete points of time.

Transformations of the independent variable.[2]

In many situations, it is important to consider signals related by a modification of
the independent variable. These modifications will usually lead to reflection, sca-
ling, and shift.

Examples of Transformations of the Independent Variable:[3]

Fig.1.3Discrete-time signals related by a time shift

Fig.1.4 Continuous-time signals related by a time shift.

6
 Fig.1.5 A discrete-time signal.

Fig.1.6 A continuous-time signal.

Fig.1.7 Continuous-time signals related by time scaling.

7
Periodic Signals.[4]

Fig.1.8 Continuous-time periodic signal.

Fig.1.9 Discrete-time periodic signal.

Even and Odd Signals.[5]

In addition to their use in representing physical phenomena such as the time shift
in a radar signal and the reversal of an audio tape, transformations of the indepe-
ndent variable are extremely useful in examining some of the important properties
that signal may possess. An important fact is that any signal can be decomposed
into a sum of two signals, one of which is even and one of which is odd.

Fig.1.10 An even continuous-time signal; (b) an odd continuous-time signal.

8
Exponential and sinusoidal signals.[6]

Fig.1.11 The continuous-time complex exponential signal.

The sinusoidal signal is also a periodic signal with a fundamental period of T 0 .

Fig.1.12 Continuous-time sinusoidal signal.

Fig.1.13 Growing sinusoidal signal; (b) decaying sinusoidal signal.

9
Discrete-time complex exponential and sinusoidal signals.[7]

Fig.1.14 Real Exponential Signal.

Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals.[8]

A signal is said to be non-deterministic if there is uncertainty with respect to its va-
lue at some instant of time. Non-deterministic signals are random in nature hence
they are called random signals. Random signals cannot be described by a mathe-
matical equation.

Fig.1.15

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A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no uncertainty with respect to its va-
lue at any instant of time. Or, signals which can be defined exactly by a mathe-
matical formula are known as deterministic signals.

Fig.1.16

Electric signal.[8]
Electric signal - a signal in the form of an electrical action, the effective value of
which is current or voltage, which can be transmitted as a message or as informa-
tion. By their nature, all signals are analogue (DC or AC), digital or pulsed.Ho-
wever, it is customary for .To distinguish between analog and digital signals.Mo-
dern systems use corrective devices, the action of which is based on the use of
special electrical signals that are added to the error signal. A special place in me-
asuring technology is occupied by electrical measurements. Modern radio engine-
ering, energy (including nuclear) and electronics rely on the measurement of ele-
ctrical quantities. Most non-electrical quantities are easily converted to electrical
ones for the purpose of using electrical signals to indicate, record measurement
information, process control, and transmit measurement results over long distan-
ces.

Pulse.[6]
Pulse shapes can arise out of a process called pulse-shaping. Optimum pulse shape
depends on the application.

Gaussian pulse

A Gaussian pulse is shaped as a Gaussian function and is produced by a Gaussian

filter. It has the properties of maximum steepness of transition with no overshoot
and minimum group delay.

11
Rectangular pulse

These can be found in pulse waves, square waves, boxcar functions, and rectangular

functions. In digital signals the up and down transitions between high and low levels
are called the rising edge and the falling edge. In digital systems the detection of these
sides or action taken in response is termed edge-triggered, rising or falling depending
on which side of rectangular pulse. A digital timing diagram is an example of a well-
ordered collection of rectangular pulses.

Analog and Discrete Signals[7]

An analog signal x(t) is a continuous function of time; that is, x(t) is uniquely defined
for all t. Ail electrical analog signal arises when a physical waveform (e.g., speech) is
converted into an electrical signal by means of a transducer. By comparison, a discre-
te signal x(kT) is one that exists only at discrete times; it is characterized by a seque-
nce of numbers defined for each time, kT, where k is an integer and 7* is a fixed time
interval.

Deterministic and Random Signals[1]

A signal can be classified as deterministic, meaning that there is no uncertainty with
respect to its value at any time, or as random, meaning that there is some degree of
uncertainty before the signal actually occurs. Deterministic signals or waveforms are
modeled by explicit mathematical expressions, such as x(t) = 5 cos 10/. For a random
waveform it is not possible to write such an explicit expression. However, when exa-
mined over a long period, a random waveform, also referred to as a random process,
may exhibit certain regularities that can be described in terms of probabilities and sta-
tistical averages. Such a model, in the form of a probabilistic description of the ran-
dom process, is particularly useful for characterizing signals and noise in communi-
cation systems.

12
Demodulation and decoding[7]
The transmitted message in the receiver is usually restored to one sequence. Initially,
the signal is demodulated. In transmission systems continuous messages are restored
as a result of demodulation a signal that reflects the transmitted message. This signal
is then received at playback or recording device. In radio broadcasting, such a device
may be a loudspeaker or a tape recorder. In discrete message transmission systems as
a result of demodulation, the sequence of signal elements is converted to a sequence
of code characters, after which this sequence is converted to the sequence of message
items that the recipient receives. This is a transformation called decoding.Demodu-
lation and decoding should not be assumed to be just operations reverse modulation
and coding that is executed over received from the channel signal. As a result of vari-
ous distortions and interference, a signal is received may be significantly different
from the one submitted. Therefore, you can always express a number assumptions
(hypotheses) about what message was transmitted. The task of the receiving device
is to decide which one is possible messages were indeed transmitted by the source.
To do this, you need to analyze the received signal during which it undergoes vario-
us transformations (signal processing). One of the problems of communication theo-
ry is to find the rules for optimal signal processing, in which the decision on the tra-
nsmitted message is the most reliable. These rules depend on channel properties and
transmission methods (encoding and modulation). Sometimes optimal processing
rules are difficult for equipment simplification uses a different, not optimal treatment.
Electric signal.[7]

Electric signal - a signal in the form of an electrical action, the effective value of whi-
ch is current or voltage, which can be transmitted as a message or as information. By
their nature, all signals are analogue (DC or AC), digital or pulsed. However, it is cus-
tomary for .To distinguish between analog and digital signals. There is a need for co-
ntrol systems to combine the use of electrical signals to obtain information with a
pne- umatic or hydraulic control signal. All this can be easily implemented only with
13
typi- cal unified automation tools. Modern systems use corrective devices, the action
of which is based on the use of special electrical signals that are added to the error
sig- nal. In a wide variety of fields of scientific and practical activity, it is imperative
to use electrical signals that generate various types of encoders, converters, circuit
dia- grams, etc., mostly low-power, unsuitable for controlling actuators
(motors).Increa- sing the power of the signals to the desired value is performed by
amplifiers. The amplifier is called a device designed to increase the power of
electrical signals wi- thout changing their shape, by consuming energy from power
sources. A special pla-ce in measuring technology is occupied by electrical
measurements. Modern radio engineering, energy (including nuclear) and electronics
rely on the measurement of electrical quantities. Most non-electrical quantities are
easily converted to electrical ones for the purpose of using electrical signals to
indicate, record measurement info- rmation, process control, and transmit
measurement results over long distances. Modern types.[6]

Digital modulation provides much more information capacity and ensures

compa- tibility with a variety of digital data services. In addition, with its help,
information security is enhanced, the quality of communication systems is improved,
and access to them is accelerated. There are a number of limitations with which de-
velopers of any systems collide: the permissible power and width of the frequency
band, a given noise level of communication systems. Every day the number of users
of communication systems increases, and the demand for them grows, which requires
an increase in radio resource. Digital modulation is noticeably different from analog
in that the carrier transmits large amounts of information in it. Before developers of
digital radio communication systemsthere is such a main task - to find a compromise
between the bandwidth of the broadcast data and the complexity of the system in te-
chnical terms. For this, it is appropriate to use different modulation methods to obtain
the desired result. Radio communication can also be organized using the simplest tra-

14
nsmitter and receiver circuits, but for such communication a frequency spectrum pro-
portional to the number of users will be used. For more complex receivers and trans-
mitters, a smaller frequency band is required to broadcast information in the same vo-
lume. To move to spectral-efficient transmission methods, it is necessary to compli-
cate the equipment accordingly. This problem does not depend on the type of commu-
nication.

15
 2. PRACTICAL PART
Gaussian impulse

A is the amplitude of the signal, and α is the indicator coefficient

Fig.2.1. The form of a Gaussian impulse

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 Fig.2.2. Signal correlation function

Fig.2.3. Spectral power density of the signal (W/Hz)

17
Fig.2.4. Spectral power density of the signal (dBW/Hz)

Fig.2.5. Bandwidth

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2.2 Gaussian impulse

A is the amplitude of the signal, and α is the indicator coefficient

Fig.2.1 The form of a Gaussian impulse

Fig.2.2 Signal correlation function

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 Fig.2.3 Spectral power density of the signal (W/Hz)

Fig.2.4 Spectral power density of the signal (dBW/Hz)

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 Fig.2.5 Bandwidth

Ideal low frequency signal

Fig.2.1 Ideal low frequency signal

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 Fig.2.2 Signal correlation function

Fig.2.3 Spectral power density of the signal (W/Hz)

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Fig.2.4 Spectral power density of the signal (dBW/Hz)

Fig.2.5 Bandwidth

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2.4 Ideal low frequency signal

Fig.2.1 Ideal low frequency signal

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 Fig.2.2 Signal correlation function

Fig.2.3 Spectral power density of the signal (W/Hz)

25
Fig.2.4 Spectral power density of the signal (dBW/Hz)

Fig.2.5 Bandwidth

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 Conclusions
During all term, I was studying signals and impulses.Signals are classified as a
Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals,Deterministic and Non-deterministic
Signals,Even and Odd Signals,Periodic and Non-periodic Signals,Energy and Power
Signals,Real and Imaginary Signals. A message encoded by changing the voltage of
an electric current is called an electronic signal. The use of electric current for this
purpose is known as electronics.All known information I putted up(theoretical infor-
mation).Due to practical part of my course work, I got acquainted with MathCad.
I performed practical tasks there and I hope I coped with this task.Also I read a per-
fect book which is specialized in signals and impulses – Bernard Sklar “Gigital Co-
mmunications”.Thanks to this book I found all necessary information.

Signal Bandwidth, Hz
Parameters of Δt , D
№ P Q , dB Δf 0,5 Δf η Δf 0
x(t ) signal s , W , dB △ f −15 dB
1 Gaussian А = 1.2 V 0.5 0.114144 - 11.009101 - 6.30 10 11.302 0
17.4242 7831
impulse α = 103 s-2 76
2 Gaussian А = 1.2V 0.5 0.072191 - - 6.00000 9.97 10 23.382 0
71.824001 0 3555
impulse α=
2,5·103 s-2
3 Symmetrical А = 1,2 V 0.5 0.187030 - 8.864507 6.00000 7.51 7.6 7.396 0
triangular 0 5356
В = 7,5 Hz
pulse
4 Symmetrical А = 1,5 V 0.5 0.123072 - -2.579417 0.00534 11.5 3.6 11.476 0
triangular 1 2223
В = 11,5 4
pulse
Hz

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 References:
1. Digital Communications. Fundamentals and Applications (Second Edition).
BERNARD SKLAR. Communications Engineering Services, Tarzana,
California and University of California, Los Angeles
2. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/signals_and_systems/signals_classification.htm
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_time_and_continuous_time
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signaling_(telecommunications)
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse_(signal_processing)
6. https://studopedia.su/8_54895_klasifikatsiya-signaliv-elektrozvyazku.html
7. Konakhovych H.F., Machalin I.O., Puzyrenko O.YU. Teoriya elektrychnoho
zv'yazku. Navch. posibnyk. (vyd 2-e, vypr. i dop.) - K.: TOV "NVP
"Interservis"", 2013. - 368 s.
8. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/electrical-signal

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