A Report

On
Digital sensor using Transducers

BY
SUBHAM PAL (25301616006)
SNEHASIS NASKAR (25301616008)

A REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS OF HU-381: TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL EINGINERING

SIR J.C. BOSE SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to WBUT and recognised by UGC

1,Khan Road, p.o-Mankundu, Hooghly, pin-712139, W.B, India

DECEMBER-2017
 CERTIFICATE BY THE SUPERVISORS

Dr. Srima Nandi, Ph.D Mr. Anik Goswami, M.Tech

Assistant Profess and Head, Department of Electrical

Department of Humanities, Engineering

Supreme knowledge Foundation Supreme Knowledge

Group of Institutions, Foundation Group of Institutions

Mankundu, Hooghly Mankundu,Hooghly

This is to certify that the technical report on “Digital sensor using Transducers”
is record of work done by the candidate Subham Pal during the period July 2017
to December 2017 at Supreme Knowledge Foundation Group of Institutions
affiliated to Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology(formerly
Known as West Bengal University of Technology).

........................................ .......................................

Signature Signature

(Dr.Srima Nandi) (Mr.AnikGoswami)

i
 Acknowledgement

I express my sage sense of gratitude and indebtedness Mrs. Srima Nandi,HOD

of Humanities from the of my heart who had given me a change to flourish in
this beautiful project

I would like to thank Mr.Anik Goswami for giving me such a wonderful

Opportunity to expand my knowledge for my own branch and giving me
guidelines to Present a report. He helped me a lot to make understandable to
present my project.

Secondly, I would like to thank my friends who helped me as I went through my

work and helped to modify and eliminate some of the irrelevant or un-necessary
Stuffs.

Thirdly, I would like to thank my parents who helped me to make my work

more Organized and well-stacked till the end.

Next, I would thank Microsoft for developing such a wonderful tool like MS
Word. It helped my work a lot to remain error-free.

Last but clearly not the least; I would thank The Almighty for giving me
strength to complete my report on time.

iii
 PREFACE
As a part of the B.Tech curriculum and in order to gain practical knowledge in
the field of engineering, we are required to make a report on ‘Digital Sensor
using Transducers’.

The basic objectives behind doing this project report are to get knowledge
instruments of different tools.

In this technical report we have included various concepts, effects and

implications regarding digital sensor.

Doing this technical report has helped us to enhance our knowledge regarding
the work into the attitude of experience. We have undergone many experiences
related to our topic and gained ideas and concepts regarding it. Through this
report we come to know about the importance of team work and rule of
devotion towards the work.

iv
CONTENTS

Page No.

PREFACE………………………………………………………………….iv

CHAPTER-1 :

1.1 Introduction………………………………………..........1
1.2 Definition …………….................................................1
1.3 What is Electrical Transducer…………………………1
1.4 Types of Transducer…………………………………2-3
1.5 Work of Transducer…………………………………..3-7
CHAPTER-2:

2. LITERATURE SURVEY……………………………….8

CHAPTER-3:

3.1 Introduction of sensor…………………………………9

3.2Types of Sensor……………………………………10-12

CHAPTER-4:

4.1 Objectives…………………………………………….13

4.2Circuit Diagram……………………………….............13

4.3 Component requirement ……………………………..14

CHAPTER-5:

5.1 Methodology ……......................................................15

5.2 Future Scope…............................................................16

5.3 Conclusion……………………………………………17

5.3.1 Advantages of Transducers and Sensor…………….17

5.3.2 Disadvantages of Transducers and sensor………….17

5.4 References…………………………………………….18

iv
 CHAPTER 1
Introduction of Transducers
1.1 Introduction
Digital Sensor using Transducers is the main part of the field of Science and
technology. Now a days the devices we use depends on Sensors and
transducers.

There are two methods of measurement of any physical quantity

1) The direct method and

2) The indirect method.

In the direct method any physical quantity like length, mass, etc are measured
directly by some instruments like the measuring tape, weighing scale etc. In the
indirect method of measurements some transducing devise, called transducer, is
used, which is coupled to a chain of the connecting apparatus that forms the part
of the measuring system. In this system the quantity which is to be measured
(input) is converted into some other measurable quantity (output) by the
transducer. Many types of devices which are in use in our daily life helps us in
many purposes.

1.2 Definition
Transducers are the mechanical, electrical, electronic, or electromechanical
devices that convert one form of the energy or the property that cannot be
measured directly into the other form of energy or property that can be
measured easily. The signal given to the transducers is called as input , this is
the parameter that is to be measured but cannot be measured directly. The signal
obtained from the transducer is called as output, which can be measured easily.
The transducer selected for the measuring system is such that the output
obtained is proportional to the input. Since the output can be measured easily by
the available instruments, the scale can be calibrated between the values of the
output and the input.

1.3 What are Electrical Transducers?

The transducers that convert the mechanical input signals of the physical
quantity into electrical output signals are called as electrical transducers. The
input given to the electrical transducers can be in the form of the displacement,
strain, velocity, temperature, flow etc and the output obtained from them can be
in the form of current, voltage and change in resistance, inductance and
capacitance. The output can be measured easily and it is calibrated against the
input, thus enabling the measurement of the value of the input.

1
 Fig. 1

1.4 Types of Electrical transducers

1) Primary transducer: changes “real world” parameter into electrical signal.
2) Secondary transducer: converts electrical signal into analog or digital values.

Fig. 2 Fig. 3

1.4.1 Examples of Electrical Transducers

Here are some of commonly used electrical transducers:

1) Potentiometers: They convert the change in displacement into change in the

resistance, which can be measured easily.

[2]
2) Bridge circuits: These convert the physical quantity to be measured into the
voltage.

3) Wheatstone bridge: It converts the displacement produced by the physical

quantity to the current in the circuit.

4) Capacitive sensors or Variable Capacitance Transducers: These comprise of

the two parallel plates between which there is dielectric material like air. The
change in distance between the two plates produced by the displacement results
in change in capacitance, which can be easily measured.

5) Resistive sensors or Variable Resistance Transducers: There is change in the

resistance of these sensors when certain physical quantity is applied to it. It is
most commonly used in resistance thermometers or thermistors for
measurement of temperature.

6) Magnetic sensors: The input given to these sensors is in the form of

displacement and the output obtained is in the form of change in inductance or
reluctance and production of the eddy currents.

7) Piezoelectric transducers: When force is applied to these transducers, they

produce voltage that can be measured easily. They are used for measurement of
pressure, acceleration and force.

8) Strain gauges: When strain gauges are strained or stretched there is change in
their resistance. They consist of the long wire and are able to detect very small
displacements produced by the applied force or pressure.

9) Photo electric transducers: When the light is applied to these transducers they
produce voltage.

10) Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT): LVDT is the transformer

consisting of the primary and the secondary coil. It converts the displacement
into the change in resistance
11) Ultrasonic Transducers: These transducers use the ultrasonic or ultrasound
waves to measure parameters like fluid level, flow rate etc.

1.5 How does a Transducer Work?

There are two operation taking place in transducers:

1) It changes the “real world” parameter into electrical signal.

2) It converts electrical signal into analog or digital values.
There are numerous types of transducers and they have different types of
applications. Let us see the example of use of transducer for different
applications.
3
5.1 Thermometer
In our day-to-day life we have to measure the temperature many times and the
most common devise used for this purpose is the thermometer. The temperature
of the surroundings or body cannot be measured directly, so we need a device
which can measure the temperature of the surrounding. Thermometer is the
device that measures the surroundings temperature.

5.1.1 Principle
We know that liquids tend to get expand when heated and contracts when
cooled. This property of the liquids is used to measure the temperature in
thermometers, which is type of transducer.

5.1.2 Working
In thermometers there is thin capillary tubing and small bulb at the bottom,
which is filled with highly temperature sensitive liquid called mercury. When
the temperature of the bulb of the thermometer increases, the mercury tends to
expand and fill the capillary tube to certain level depending on the temperature.
The thermal expansion of mercury is proportional to the temperature of the
mercury, so more is the bulb temperature more is expansion of the fluid. Thus if
the bulb temperature is higher, mercury will expand to higher levels in the
capillary and if its temperature is lesser, the rise in level will also be lesser.
Now, outside the capillary tubing, the scale is marked that indicates the
temperature of the body. This scale is marked from the standard scale obtained
by considering the extent of expansion of mercury at various temperatures. Thus
the level of the mercury in the capillary indicates the temperature of the body.

5.2 Strain Gauge

A strain gauge is a device used to measure the strain of an object. When
external forces are applied to a stationary object, stress and strain are the result.
Stress is defined as the object's internal resisting forces, and strain is defined as
the displacement and deformation that occur. For a uniform distribution of
internal resisting forces, stress can be calculated by dividing the force (F)
applied by the unit area (A).

5.2.1 Principle
The majority of strain gauges are foil types, available in a wide choice of shapes
and sizes to suit a variety of applications. They consist of a pattern of resistive
foil which is mounted on a backing material. They operate on the principle that
as the foil is subjected to stress, the resistance of the foil changes in a defined
way.

4
5.2.2 Working
A strain gauge takes advantage of the physical property of electrical
conductance and its dependence on not merely the electrical conductivity of a
conductor, which is a property of its material, but also the conductor's geometry.
When an electrical conductor is stretched within the limits of its elasticity such
that it does not break or permanently deform, it will become narrower and
longer, changes that increase its electrical resistance end-to-end. Conversely,
when a conductor is compressed such that it does not buckle, it will broaden and
shorten changes that decrease its electrical resistance end-to-end. From the
measured electrical resistance of the strain gauge, the amount of applied stress
may be inferred. A typical strain gauge arranges a long, thin conductive strip in
a zig-zag pattern of parallel lines such that a small amount of stress in the
direction of the orientation of the parallel lines results in a multiplicatively
larger strain over the effective length of the conductor—and hence a
multiplicatively larger change in resistance—than would be observed with a
single straight-line conductive wire.

5.3 Wheatstone bridge

A Wheatstone bridge is used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by
balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown
component. Its operation is similar to the original potentiometer. The
Wheatstone bridge is a circuit that consists of a power source connected across
four components that are resistive. The Wheatstone bridge is commonly shown
is a shape of a diamond. Typical Wheatstone bridge is shown in the fig.

Fig. 4

5.3.1 Principle
The bridge network has two terminals from which an output is taken. When
there is no voltage difference between the output terminals, the bridge is
balanced. Hence Wheatstone bridge works on the principle that when the
resistance ratio between the series resistors at the left & right branches of the
bridge is equal then the bridge is said to be balanced.

5
5.3.2 Working

Rx is the unknown resistance to be measured; R1, R2 and R3 are resistors of

known resistance and the resistance of R2 is adjustable. If the ratio of the two
resistances in the known leg(R2 / R1) is equal to the ratio of the two in the
unknown leg (Rx / R3), then the voltage between the two midpoints (B and D)
will be zero and no current will flow through the galvanometer Vg. R2 is varied
until this condition is reached. The direction of the current indicates whether R2
is too high or too low.
Detecting zero current can be done to extremely high accuracy (see
galvanometer). Therefore, if R1, R2 and R3 are known to high precision, then
Rx can be measured to high precision. Very small changes in Rx disrupt the
balance and are readily detected. At the point of balance, the ratio of R2 / R1 =
Rx / R3
Therefore,
Alternatively, if R1, R2, and R3 are known, but R2 is not adjustable, the voltage
difference across or current flow through the meter can be used to calculate the
value of Rx, using Kirchhoff's circuit laws (also known as Kirchhoff's rules).

5.4 LVDT(Linear Variable Differential Transformer)

The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a type of electrical
transformer used for measuring linear displacement. The transformer has three
solenoidal coils placed end-to-end around a tube. The center coil is the primary,
and the two outer coils are the secondaries. A cylindrical ferromagnetic core,
attached to the object whose position is to be measured, slides along the axis of
the tube.

5.4.1 Principle
The LVDT is composed of three coils whose cross section is shown in Fig. The
central emitter coil, driven with a sinusoidal signal at a frequency between 10
and 20kHz, mounted between two larger receiver coils; the two receiver coils
are identical, counter-wound and connected either in series or in parallel. The
emitter is mounted on the IP table while the two receivers are attached on a
reference structure; when the emitter is exactly in the mid point between the
twin receiver coils, no net signal is induced. When the table movements move
the emitter coil in a direction, a sinusoidal signal appears on the receiver coils.
This signal has amplitude roughly proportional to the displacement from the
center position. If the coil is moved in the opposite direction, the sign of the
induced sinusoid is changed.

6
 Fig.5
5.4.2 Working

An alternating current is driven through the primary, causing a voltage to be

induced in each secondary proportional to its mutual inductance with the
primary. The frequency is usually in the range 1 to 10 kHz. As the core moves,
these mutual inductances change, causing the voltages induced in the
secondaries to change. The coils are connected in reverse series, so that the
output voltage is the difference (hence "differential") between the two
secondary voltages. When the core is in its central position, equidistant between
the two secondaries, equal but opposite voltages are induced in these two coils,
so the output voltage is zero. When the core is displaced in one direction, the
voltage in one coil increases as the other decreases, causing the output voltage
to increase from zero to a maximum. This voltage is in phase with the primary
voltage. When the core moves in the other direction, the output voltage also
increases from zero to a maximum, but its phase is opposite to that of the
primary. The magnitude of the output voltage is proportional to the distance
moved by the core (up to its limit of travel), which is why the device is
described as "linear". The phase of the voltage indicates the direction of the
displacement. Because the sliding core does not touch the inside of the tube, it
can move without friction, making the LVDT a highly reliable device.

7
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

"Digital Sensor Using Transducer" The project actually helps us to get better
idea about signal and communication with the physical variables. Of course,
devices that produce nonelectric output signals also exist, and can be the only
solution in some applications. For example, pneumatic sensing/transmitting
systems are used in industrial plants—such as those with explosive
environments—where electrical signals are unsafe. This project concentrates on
sensors and transducers that operate on electrical signals. The number of
available sensing techniques and transducer as well as variety of sensors is
enormous.

1) In 2002, A. Pease, I. Miles, and J. Li, "The Suggested Upper Merged

Ontology: A Large Ontology for Semantic Web and its Applications," in
Working Notes of the AAAI-2002 Workshop on Ontologies and the Semantic
Web, Edmonton, Canada, 2002.

2)D. Russomanno, C. Kothari, and O. Thomas presented "Sensor ontologies:

from shallow to deep models," presented at the Thirty-Seventh Southeastern
Symposium on System Theory, 2005.

3)D. Russomanno, C. Kothari, and O. Thomas build a sensor and shows “A

practical approach leveraging ISO and OGC models," presented at the 2005
International Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 2005.

4)In 2007, M. Eid, R. Liscano, and A. E. Saddikshows "A universal ontology

for sensor networks data," presented at the IEEE International Conference on
Computational Intelligence for Measurement Systems and Applications,

5) H. Neuhaus and M. Compton, "The semantic sensor network ontology: A

generic language to describe sensor assets," presented at the AGILE Workshop:
Challenges in Geospatial Data Harmonization, 2009.

8
 CHAPTER 3
INTRODUCTION OF SENSOR
3. Introduction

There are many variables which affect our daily life. Those are detecting many
phenomena which happened in nature and real world. Technologies are
developing now a days. In case of technology the important part is Sensor.

Sensors are used in practical life to detect or improve any kind of signal. And
smart phones, laptops or many types devices are use sensor.

3.1Definitions

American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Definition A device which

provides a usable output in response to a specified measured a sensor acquires a
physical parameter and converts it into a signal suitable for processing (e.g.
optical, electrical, mechanical)

Sensors are omnipresent. They embedded in our bodies, automobiles, airplanes,

cellular telephones, radios, chemical plants, industrial plants and countless other
applications. Without the use of sensors, there would be no automation!
Input Signal Output Signal

Sensor

Fig. 3.1

9
3.2Types of Sensor

1. Temperature Sensor:-

Temperature sensors appear in building, chemical process plants, engines,

appliances, computers, and many other devices that require temperature
monitoring. Many physical phenomena depend on temperature, so we can often
measure temperature indirectly by measuring pressure, volume, electrical
resistance, and strain

Fig. 3.2

R= R 0 [ 1 + α ( T-T 0)]

1 1

R= R 0 e
γ
[ T
−
T0 ]
Fig. 3.3

Where the R is the resistance and T is temperature. Here its follow the rule of
Negative Temperature coefficient (NTC), that’s mean the resistance, is
inversely proportional to temperature.

10
 2.Accelerometer:-

Accelerometers are used to measure along one axis and is insensitive to

orthogonal directions

Vibrations, blasts, impacts, shock waves

Air bags, washing machines, heart monitors, car alarms

Fig. 3.4

2. Light Sensor:-

Light sensors are used in cameras, infrared detectors, and ambient lighting
applications. Sensor is composed of photoconductor such as a photo resistor,
photodiode, or phototransistor

Fig. 3.5

11
 3. Magnetic Field Sensor:-

Magnetic Field sensors are used for power steering, security, and current
measurements on transmission lines.

Fig. 3.6

5. Ultrasonic Sensor:-

Ultrasonic sensors are used for position measurements. Sound waves emitted
are in the range of 2-13 MHz Sound Navigation And Ranging (SONAR) Radio
Diction And Ranging (RADAR) – ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Fig. 3.7

12
 CHAPTER 4

4.1 OBJECTIVES

Objectives of this project are as follows:-

1) To explain the difference between Transducer and Sensor.
2) Described types of Sensor and include at least one micro sensor.
3) To describe the operation of Sensor and Transducer.

4.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

13
 4.3 COMPONENTS REQUIRMENTS

1.A 9 V battery

2. 7805 IC [5 V regulator]

3.Bread Board

4.Connecting wires

5.LM 35

6. LM 358 op amp IC

7. A 1 kilo ohm resistors

8.10k POT

9.LED
14
 CHAPTER 5

5.1 METHODOLOGY

Plug the 7805 IC into the bread board. According to the pin numbers of 7805 -
Pin1 is input, Pin2 is GND and Pin3 is Output when the hump of the IC is
facing you. Give the input of 9 V across P1 and P2. Take the output across P3
and make the power rails with a 5 V supply. 

LM358: It is a low power OPAMP IC which can amplify low level signals to
readable high levels. It works on 5V supply and can give a max. Saturated
output of ~4V.
(i) OUT1: Output pin of the OPAMP1.
(ii) IN-: This is inverting input to the OPAMP1. Whatever input given, gets
inverted to negative The IC has two set of OPAMPs. Pin description
is as follows: Value. Then output will be –ve. When this pin is used,
the IN+ should be grounded when used in open loop mode.
(iii) IN+: This is non-Inverting input to the OPAMP 1. The output is +ve
when an input is given to this pin. When this pin is used, the other input pin, ie,
IN- must be grounded when used in Open loop mode.

(iv) VCC: This is the main power supply to the IC. It can be 3V to 32V max.
Depending upon supply voltage, the max output voltage varies. If,
5V supply, output can be ~4V. To this terminal, Positive of battery
or source is connected.
(v) GND: This is where we need to connect Negative terminal of the battery. If
we use the IC for AC signals, then instead of calling it GND, we call it –VEE
Connect POT (10KOhms) variable pin to pin 1 and any fixed pin to pin 2 of
LM358 OPAMP. Since we need to make the sensing above the room
temperature, we will set the position of the variable end by turning the pot and
adjust the LED to be having minimum glow later when battery is connected.
Connect a 1KOhm resistor between pin 2 and ground , which acts as feedback
path.
Ground pin 3 of LM358 and connect pin2 of temperature sensor IC(LM35) to
pin 3 of the OPAMP. Connect pin 1 of Temperature sensor IC to VCC and Pin3
of it to ground. Connect an LED anode to pin1 of LM358 OPAMP and its
cathode to ground (-ve) in breadboard. After made this circuit when
temperature increases, the led started to glow and slowly its brightness increases

15
.

5.2 FUTURE SCOPE

We expect that our project can help people in a big field in the future. The
concept of this project can grow the knowledge among the students about the
idea of science and technology.

1) In future the project can be help us to measure any mechanical experimental

analysis. These will be used for analysis stress, Residual stress, Variation
measurement and Torque measurementetc.

2) The project can be used as a diagnosis on machines and failure analysis,

generate diagnostics of passive filters and these will help us to automatic
measurement in machine tools.

3)In future there are large demand of electronic devices and their equipment,
these project will help to make any type of circuits and create an independent
and logical preparation of electronic or electrical devices.

16
5.3 CONCLUSION
Measuring any physical quantity with a electrical transducer and sensor is very
easy and convenient. The digital sensor, transducer illustrates the concept of a
measurement of any physical quantity, which can be extremely accurate. By
means of a sensor, a complex electrical quantity, such as watts, can be measured
at a convenient location For remote indication of watts or variables, a Digital
sensor using transducer can reduce the number of signal wires to be laid
between source and indicator from as many as nine to two. Hence it can reduce
the cost of a project to a large extent.

5.3.1 Advantages:-

Advantages of this project work are

1) The signal can be converted into digital form and can be stored for further
reference.

2) Display of the data is possible on a CRO.

3) Reading of analog data with the help of electrical digital sensor transducer
has less loss involved as compared to the mechanical transducers.

4) The biggest advantage of the LVDT(Linear variable Differential

Transformer) is that the output obtained from it is proportional to the
displacement of mechanical member whose displacement is being measured.

5) LVDT is insensitive to the temperature and the chang the temperature.

5.3.1 Disadvantages:-

The only disadvantages of this project is

1) They are affected by temperature and humidity.

2) Difficulties to designing

3) Capacitive Proximity Sensors are not accurate compare to inductive Sensor

17
5.4 Reference:-
[1]http//www.engineergarbage.com/Tranducer and sensor,
[2]http//www.electronic project.com/tutorial,
[3]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working Function of sensor
[4]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xykhYUvPj1c&t=16s,
[5]http://www.studymafia.com//m.tech project transducers

18