Formula

 General expression of Internal Energy= ΔU = q + w

Where; U = internal energy,

Q=heat,

w is work

 General expression of Work= W = Pex.ΔV

Where ;W =work,
Pex = external pressure,
ΔV = change in the volume
V2
 Work at reversible processes W = −RT ln V2
V1
Wher;eV2 = final volume
V1-=volume at the beginning of process
 Expansion against constant pressure;

Where ;W = work,
Pex i=external pressure ,
V2 = final volume
V1 = the volume at the beginning of process
 Reversible expansion; The total work of reversible expansion is

Where; W = work
P = pressure and V is volume
  Isothermal reversible expansion

Where; w=work
n=number of moles
T = temperature
V =volume
 Determining the calorimeter constant, the constant C in the relation

Where; q=heat
C = Calorimeter constant
T = temperature
δU
 Heat capacity at constant volume : Cv =( )
δT V
ΔU = n.Cv.ΔT
Qv = n.Cv.ΔT
Also Qv =ΔU

Where; U = internal energy

n = number of moles
Cv = heat capacity at constant volume
T =temperature.
∂H
 Heat capacity at constant pressure : Cp= ( )
∂T p.
ΔU = n.Cp.ΔT
Qp = n.Cp.ΔT
Cp = Cv + R
• for an unimolecular atom ; Cv = 3/2 R and Cp = 5/2 R
• for an bimolecular atom ; Cv = 5/2 R and Cp = 7/2 R
• for an multimolecular atom ; Cv = 7/2 R and Cp = 9/2 R

Where;U =internal energy,

n =number of moles
Cp= heat capacity at constant pressure
T=temperature.

 For a perfect gas, the heat capacities are related by Cp − CV = nR.

Where;Cp= heat capacity at constant pressure

Cv =heat capacity at constant volume
n =is number of moles
  The enthalpy is defined as H = U + pV.

Where ;H = enthalpy,
U = enternal energy
, P = pressure
V = volume
 The enthalpy change is the energy transferred as heat at constant pressure, ∆H = qp.
Where;H= enthalpy
q =heat
P = pressure
 During a reversible adiabatic change, the temperature of a perfect gas varies according to
Vi
Tf = Ti( )1/c, c = CV,m/R
Vf

Whre; T= temperature,
V= volume
Cv heat capacity at constant volume.

 Enthalpy changes are additive, as in ∆subHø= ∆fusHø + ∆vapHø.

Where; ∆subHø = enthalpy change of sublimation

∆fusHø= enthalpy change of fusion
+ ∆vapHø. = enthalpy change of vaporization

 The enthalpy change for a process and its reverse are related by ∆forwardHø = −∆reverseHø.

Where; ∆forwardHø= enthalpy change forward

= −∆reverseHø= = enthalpy change reverse

 The standard reaction enthalpy may be estimated by combining enthalpies of formation,
∆rH ø= ∑Productsν∆fHø− ∑Reactantsν∆fHø.

Where; ∆rH ø= standard reaction enthalpy

∑Productsν∆fHø= standard reaction enthalpy of product
− ∑Reactantsν∆fHø.= standard reaction enthalpy of reactants
 The temperature dependence of the reaction enthalpy is given by Kirchhoff’s law,
T2
ø ø
∆rH (T2) = ∆rH (T1) +∫ ∆ rC pdT.
T1

Where H= enthalpy
∆rHø= standard reaction enthalpy
T= temperature

∂U
 The internal pressure is defined as πT = ( )T . For aperfect gas, πT = 0.
∂V
Where π = Pi
T= temperature
∂ U=∂derivative of internal enegy
∂ V = ∂ derivative of volume.
∂T
 The Joule–Thomson coefficient is defined as µ = ( )H.
∂P
Where: µ= chemical potential
∂ T = ∂ derivative of temperature
∂ P=∂ derivative of pressure
H= enthalpy
∂T
 The isothermal Joule–Thomson coefficient is defined as µT = ( ) = −Cpµ.
∂P T
Where: µ= chemical potential
∂ T = ∂ derivative of temperature
∂ P=∂ derivative of pressure
T= temperature
Cp= heat capacity at constant pressure