Joining of Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastics

for Automotive Applications

Gordon Kelly
Department of Aeronautical and Vehicle Engineering
Royal Institute of Technology
SE–100 44 Stockholm, Sweden

TRITA-AVE.2004:25
ISBN 91-7283-824-8
 Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications iii

Abstract
The introduction of carbon-fibre reinforced plastics in load bearing automotive struc-
tures provides a great potential to reduce vehicle weight and fuel consumption. To
enable the manufacture and assembly of composite structural parts, reliable and
cost-effective joining technologies must be developed. This thesis addresses several
aspects of joining and load introduction in carbon-fibre reinforced plastics based on
non-crimp fabric reinforcement.
The bearing strength of carbon fibre/epoxy laminates was investigated consid-
ering the effects of bolt-hole clearance. The laminate failure modes and ultimate
bearing strength were found to be significantly dependent upon the laminate stack-
ing sequence, geometry and lateral clamping load. Significant reduction in bearing
strength at 4% hole deformation was found for both pin-loaded and clamped lami-
nates. The ultimate strength of the joints was found to be independent of the initial
bolt-hole clearance.
The behaviour of hybrid (bolted/bonded) joints was investigated both numeri-
cally and experimentally. A three-dimensional non-linear finite element model was
developed to predict the load transfer distribution in the joints. The effect of the
joint geometry and adhesive material properties on the load transfer was determined
through a parameter study. An experimental investigation was undertaken to deter-
mine the strength, failure mechanisms and fatigue life of hybrid joints. The joints
were shown to have greater strength, stiffness and fatigue life in comparison to adhe-
sive bonded joints. However, the benefits were only observed in joint designs which
allowed for load sharing between the adhesive and the bolt.
The effect of the environment on the durability of bonded and hybrid joints was
investigated. The strength and fatigue life of the joints was found to decrease sig-
nificantly with increased ageing time. Hybrid joints demonstrated increased fatigue
life in comparison to adhesive bonded joints after ageing in a cyclic freeze/thaw
environment.
The strength and failure mechanisms of composite laminates subject to localised
transverse loading were investigated considering the effect of the specimen size,
stacking sequence and material system. Damage was found to initiate in the lami-
nates at low load levels, typically 20-30% of the ultimate failure load. The dominant
initial failure mode was intralaminar shear failure, which occurred in sub-surface
plies. Two different macromechanical failure modes were identified, fastener pull-
through failure and global collapse of the laminate. The damage patterns and ulti-
mate failure mode were found to depend upon the laminate stacking sequence and
resin system. Finite element analysis was used to analyse the stress distribution
within the laminates and predict first-ply failure.
 Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications v

Dissertation
This thesis contains an introduction to the research area and the following appended
papers:

Paper A
Kelly G. and Hallström S., Bearing strength of carbon fibre/epoxy laminates: Effects
of bolt-hole clearance, Composites Part B, 35, p331-343, (2004).

Paper B
Kelly G., Load transfer in hybrid (bonded/bolted) composite single-lap joints, To
appear in Journal of Composite Structures.

Paper C
Kelly G., Quasi-static strength and fatigue resistance of hybrid (bonded/bolted)
composite single-lap joints, Submitted for publication.

Paper D
Kelly G., Effect of the environment on the durability of bonded and hybrid (bonded/
bolted) composite single-lap joints, Submitted for publication.

Paper E
Kelly G. and Hallström S., Strength and failure mechanisms of composite lami-
nates subject to localised transverse loading, To appear in Journal of Composite
Structures.
 Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications vii

Division of work between the authors

Paper A
Kelly performed the experiments, numerical simulations and wrote the paper. Hall-
ström supported the work and contributed to the paper with valuable comments
and suggestions.

Paper E
Kelly performed the experiments, numerical simulations and wrote the paper. Hall-
ström supported the work, assisted in interpreting the results and made valuable
suggestions regarding the structure and content of the paper.
 Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications ix

Contents

Preface i

Abstract iii

Dissertation v

Division of work between the authors vii

1. Introduction 1
1.1. Materials for structural automotive parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2. Joining techniques for composite laminates 6

2.1. Mechanical fastening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2. Adhesive bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3. Hybrid joining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3. Localised transverse loading in composite laminates 20

4. Future work 21

References 23

Paper A A1–A24

Paper B B1–B14

Paper C C1–C19

Paper D D1–D18

Paper E E1–E23
 Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications 1

1. Introduction
Polymer composite materials are being used in a wide range of structural applica-
tions in the aerospace, construction and automotive industries due to their light
weight and high specific stiffness and strength. A variety of materials are being
used ranging from lower performance glass fibre/polyester, used in small sail boats
and domestic products, to high performance carbon fibre/epoxy systems used in
military aircraft and spacecraft. One sector where the use of composite materials is
still evolving is the automotive industry. Composite materials offer great potential
in reducing vehicle weight, thus increasing fuel efficiency and reducing CO2 emis-
sions. It is estimated that a reduction in vehicle weight of 100 kg would reduce fuel
consumption by approximately 0.3-0.4 litres per 100 km [1,2]. In addition to weight
reduction, the number of individual parts can be significantly reduced making the
high-volume composite car concept cost-effective. Current use of composite materi-
als in high-volume automotive structures is limited to secondary exterior structures
such as body panels, wheel housings or energy absorbing bumpers. Body panels
are commonly made from sheet moulding compound (SMC) which is based on ther-
moset matrix reinforced by discontinuous glass fibre. Bumpers and front panels have
been made from glass mat thermoplastic (GMT) which is commonly discontinuous
glass fibre reinforced polypropylene. Both SMC and GMT composites are based
on a randomly oriented, discontinuous glass mat reinforcement with a maximum
fibre volume content of around 30%. Both can be compared with the fast stamp-
ing processes used to manufacture semi-finished sheet metal parts. Their structural
efficiency is typically low being only slightly higher than steel in the case of plate
bending. However, the advantages of good formability, high energy absorption and
resistance to corrosion makes GMT and SMC appropriate for exterior automotive
components. A typical example of a composite automotive structure is the Ford
Explorer Sport Trac cargo area illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1: The Ford Explorer Sport Trac with SMC cargo area.

The Ford Explorer Sport Trac features a scratch-resistant, corrosion-proof SMC

cargo area with integrated liner and side panels which have allowed for a reduction
2 G.Kelly

in weight of 20% in comparison to a sheet steel solution.

However, there is a greater potential to utilise the benefits of polymer composite
materials in automotive structures. Introduction of fibre reinforced plastics in the
body structure could decrease the mass by 50-67% compared to current metallic
body structures. In comparison, the potential of alternative materials such as high
strength steel and aluminium are 25-35% and 40-55% respectively [3, 4]. Reducing
the weight of an automotive body structure can, in theory, lead to a secondary
weight reduction of other key systems. The chassis, gears and brakes can be designed
lighter [5] and the potential exists to utilise new, alternative power-train systems.
Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) offers high specific stiffness and strength
in comparison with materials such as steel and aluminium. CFRP parts are currently
used in significant volumes in high end sport vehicles which are produced in volumes
under 500 units/year. A typical example of the use of lightweight materials in load
carrying automotive structures is the CFRP monocoque and engine carrier of the
Porsche Carrera GT. The vehicle design, floor panel and passenger cell are shown
in Figure 2. The composite parts are made from layers of carbon preimpregnated
with an epoxy matrix. The layers are laid up in a mould before being sealed in
a bag and placed under vacuum. The sealed part is then placed in an autoclave
where it is subjected to a specified temperature and pressure cycle required to cure
the matrix material. The passenger cell also incorporates sandwich structures where
layers of composite material are placed on either side of a plastic or aluminium foam
material to provide an extremely stiff and lightweight part. The engine carrier at
the rear of the car is bolted to the passenger cell to form the main load carrying
structure. The external body panels are bolted to the chassis structure and are non-
structural parts. The manufacturing process is labour intensive and not suitable for
high volume production.

Figure 2: The CFRP monocoque structure in the Porsche Carrera GT.

In addition to the use of lightweight composite materials in high end sports vehi-
 Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications 3

cles, technologies are being developed to allow these materials to be utilised in higher
volume road vehicles. However, the current use of large structural composite parts
in passenger cars has been limited to concept vehicles. European automotive man-
ufacturers have presented demonstrator parts which have been developed to prove
technologies and concepts. The BMW Z22 concept car has a CFRP occupant com-
partment and aluminium space frame structure. The body structure comprises of
approximately 20 components including the CFRP side frame as shown in Figure 3.
The side frame is manufactured using a liquid moulding technique. The weight of
the occupant compartment is reduced by approximately 50% in comparison to a
steel-based construction [6].

(a) BMW Z22 concept car. (b) CFRP side frame.

Figure 3: BMW Z22 concept car with carbon fibre reinforced plastic side panel.

The CFRP floor panel shown in Figure 4 was developed within the European
Union financed research project TECABS [7] (Technologies for Carbon Fibre Re-
inforced Modular Automotive Body Structures). Automotive manufacturers within
the project consortium include Volkswagen, Renault and Volvo. The demonstrator
part was designed and manufactured with the number of parts and weight reduced
by 30% and 50% respectively utilising technologies which allow for 50 units/day
production. The part utilises technological advances in heavy tow carbon fibre,
preform technology and resin transfer moulding (RTM).
An example of lightweight construction in series production is the CFRP roof
structure of the BMW M3 CSL. The roof structure is manufactured in three stages
with the first stage involving the preforming of carbon fibre fabric as shown in
Figure 5(a). The second stage involves the resin injection process (RTM) where the
preformed fabric is placed into a closed mould and resin is injected into the material
under pressure. Finally, the part is cured in a heated mould before being removed
by a robot and coated with clear paint (see Fig 5(b)). The CFRP roof is 6 kg
(50%) lighter than the conventional roof and due to its location, it lowers the car’s
centre of gravity. In addition to the roof structure, the M3 CSL includes additional
lightweight components made from composite materials. CFRP is used for the front
apron, doors and side trim, air intake, central console and diffusers. Glass fibre
reinforced plastic (GFRP) is used for the rear bumper support, front seats and the
4 G.Kelly

Figure 4: CFRP floor panel demonstrator part developed within the TECABS project [7].

support structure for the through loading facility. The rear lid with the integrated
spoiler is made from SMC. Altogether, the integration of the lightweight structural
components has led to a reduction in vehicle weight of 200 kg in comparison to the
M3 series production model [8].

(a) Preform manufacture for the CFRP (b) Automated part removal from the
roof. RTM mould.

Figure 5: Series production of the CFRP roof in the BMW M3 CSL.

The introduction of load bearing composite parts in automotive structures places

new demands on materials, manufacture and assembly processes. In order to realise
high-volume production of composite automotive body structures, new material and
manufacturing concepts will have to be utilised. The following section presents the
current most promising material system for production of structural automotive
parts in fibre reinforced plastics.
 Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications 5

1.1. Materials for structural automotive parts

The introduction of high performance reinforced plastic components in automotive
structures will be significantly dependent upon the raw material costs and the man-
ufacturing process. While Formula 1 cars and luxury sports cars can motivate the
use of materials and technologies developed within the aerospace industry, new sys-
tems will have to be developed if polymer composite materials are to compete with
metallic materials in the production of high-volume vehicles. A potential solution
to manufacture composite automotive structures involves the use of liquid moulding
techniques together with non-crimp fabric (NCF) reinforcement. Non-crimp fabric
reinforcement is manufactured from fibre tows which are placed side by side to form a
layer. The layers are subsequently stacked on top of each other and stitched through
their total thickness. The resulting mat commonly consists of 2 to 4 layers and can
be easily handled and draped. The manufacturing of multi-axial reinforcement from
non-crimp fabric material is illustrated in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Manufacturing of multi-axial non-crimp fabric reinforcement.

Non-crimp fabrics also provide additional advantages such as unlimited shelf-life,

high deposition rates and relatively low cost. However, there is a general concern
that the mechanical properties of laminates made from non-crimp fabrics are lower
in comparison with laminates made from pre-preg material. A number of studies
have been conducted [9–15] and comparisons made to pre-preg laminates. Further
research is required in order to quantify the difference in material properties based
on relevant base data.
A liquid moulding technique which can be used to mass produce large, complex,
composite parts is resin transfer moulding (RTM). The process involves the infusion
of a reinforcement mat with low viscosity resin which is injected under pressure.
The dry (unimpregnated) reinforcement is commonly pre-shaped and oriented into
a skeleton of the actual part known as a preform, which is inserted into a matched
die mould. The mould is then closed, allowing the resin to be injected. Heat is
applied to the mould to activate polymerisation mechanisms that cure the resin and
6 G.Kelly

solidify the part. Once the part develops sufficient handling or green strength, it is
moved or demoulded. Several benefits offered by the RTM process are :
• good laminate surface quality
• ability to manufacture large, complex shapes
• integration of ribs, cores and inserts
• use of a wide range of resin systems and reinforcements
• controllable fibre volume fraction
A major challenge in the design of structural automotive parts made from fi-
bre reinforced plastics is the joining and load introduction aspect. This can arise
through joining composite parts to metallic space-frames, or in attachment of sec-
ondary structures such as seat mountings and suspension systems. Introducing loads
into composite laminates has been found to be more complicated than in metallic
materials due to material anisotropy, poor interlaminar strength and the absence of
local stress relief such as plasticity. While a number of load attachments and joints
can be integrated into the components which are manufactured by RTM, the need
to join or attach secondary structures is unavoidable. Thus, the development of
joining techniques for composite structures is necessary.

2. Joining techniques for composite laminates

The joining of composite laminates has been traditionally achieved by mechanical
fastening or adhesive bonding. In selecting which method to adopt, the following
aspects should be considered:
• Structural/material constraints - material thickness, dissimilar materials, load
type, load level, stress concentrations, operating temperature and environmen-
tal exposure.
• Design/aesthetic constraints - weight, disassembly and need for smooth exter-
nal joint surface.
• Manufacturing constraints - assembly time, cost, surface preparation and hole
drilling.
A qualitative comparison of mechanical fastening and adhesive bonding of com-
posite laminates was presented by Åström [16]. In addition to adhesive bonding
and mechanical fastening, hybrid joints combining both techniques offer alternative
design possibilities. Joints can be designed where the adhesive and bolt share the
load with the load transfer distribution depending on the joint design and operating
environment. Limited published literature exists on the topic of hybrid joints in
composite laminates. This has resulted in a lack of knowledge regarding the load
transfer in the joints and the strength and fatigue life. Paper B and Paper C in
this thesis are aimed at addressing this through characterising the load transfer,
strength, failure and fatigue life of hybrid single-lap joints with CFRP adherends.
A summary of the important factors affecting the design of mechanically fas-
tened, adhesive bonded and hybrid joints are presented in the following sections.
 Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications 7

2.1. Mechanical fastening

Mechanically fastened joints, where two or more components are joined using bolts
or rivets have been the subject of intense research during the last 30 years. The the-
oretical and experimental research has mainly focused on high performance joints
tailored to the aerospace industry. Significant contributions to the development of
mechanically fastened joints in composite laminates have been published in sympo-
sium proceedings [17], comprehensive texts [18] and literature reviews [19–21].

Single-lap joint Double-lap joint

Single-strap joint

Figure 7: Mechanically fastened joint configurations.

Typical mechanically fastened joint configurations are shown in Figure 7. The

most commonly used joint configuration is the single-lap joint. While the structural
performance of the joint may be poor as a result of the eccentric load path, the
joint is cost-effective and relatively simple to manufacture. This makes the single-
lap joints attractive to the automotive industry and therefore the main part of this
thesis is devoted to this joint configuration.
There are many factors which influence the behaviour of fastened joints in com-
posite materials. These factors have been highlighted by a number of authors [20–22]
as :

1. Material parameters - fibre type and form, fibre orientation, resin type, stack-
ing sequence and fibre volume fraction.

2. Design parameters - joint type, laminate thickness, geometry (width, hole

diameter, edge distance etc.), load direction and loading type.

3. Fastener parameters - fastener type, fastener size, fastener material, fastener

pattern, clamping force, washer size, fastener/hole fit.

Relevant material, design and fastener parameters which are of interest when
joining composite laminates in automotive applications are investigated in Paper A
of this thesis.

Laminate bearing strength

The laminate bearing strength is a key factor governing the design of mechanically
fastened joints. The maximum load which can be transferred by the fastened joint
8 G.Kelly

is governed by the ultimate bearing strength (σbu ) of the laminate, which is defined
as
Pu
σbu = (1)
dt
u
where P is the ultimate failure load, d the hole diameter and t the thickness of
the laminate. A common test used to determine the bearing strength composite
laminates is the pin bearing test, as shown in Figure 8. Relevant test standards
which describe procedures to perform material bearing strength tests are ASTM [23]
and ASTM D5961/D5961 M [24]. The pin bearing test essentially involves replacing
the fastener by a pin in a double lap joint configuration. Measurement of the load
and hole deformation is used to characterise the bearing strength of the material.
The bearing strength can be determined by measuring in the stress at 4% hole
deformation as outlined in [23] or by using the 2% offset strength procedure outlined
in [24].

washer

pin

Laminate

Figure 8: Pin bearing test set-up to measure material bearing strength.

There are several factors which influence the bearing strength of composite lami-
nates. The joint geometry, laminate stacking sequence, clamping load and bolt-hole
clearance have been shown to affect the laminate bearing strength. The effects of
each of these factors are discussed in the following sections.

Geometrical effects
Geometrical parameters such as the bolt hole diameter d, laminate thickness t, width
w and edge distance e have been shown to significantly affect the strength of bolted
joints in composite laminates [25–30]. The commonly adopted terminology for joint
geometrical parameters is illustrated in Figure 9.
The bearing strength of a composite laminate has been shown to vary with the
ratio of edge distance to bolt diameter ratio (e/d ) as shown in Figure 10. At lower
 Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications 9

Bearing plane

Figure 9: Geometry related terminology for bolted joints in composite laminates.

values of e/d, the laminate fails in shear out mode where the high shear stress
concentration at 90◦ to the bearing plane results in the material behind the hole
being displaced. Shear-out failure can occur at larger end distances in laminates
containing a high percentage of fibres in the 0◦ direction. At larger end distances,
the material fails in bearing mode where compression loading leads to elongation of
the hole. At higher values of e/d, the bearing strength remains essentially constant.

800

700
Shear-out Failure
Ultimate Bearing Strength σb (MPa)

600
u

500
Bearing Failure

400

300

200
[0/45/90/-45] s pin-loaded
?
[0/45/90/-45] s clamped T=5Nm
100 ?
[0/45/90/-45] s2 pin-loaded
?
[0/45/90/-45] s2 clamped T=5Nm

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
e/d

Figure 10: Effect of the e/d ratio on the laminate bearing strength (from [30]).

The effect of the width to diameter ratio (w/d ) on the bearing strength is shown
in Figure 11. For small values of w/d, net-section failure occurs with the laminate
fracturing in a direction perpendicular to the direction of applied loading. As the
w/d ratio is increased, a transition to bearing failure mode occurs. At higher values
of w/d, the laminate bearing strength remains unchanged.
The necessary values of e/d and w/d to achieve bearing failure have been shown
to be strongly dependent upon the laminate stacking sequence. Collings [25] deter-
mined the required ratios for a number of different stacking sequences for CFRP
laminates as listed in Table 1. Similar results for the [0◦ /90◦ ] and [0◦ / ± 45◦ ] lami-
10 G.Kelly

800

700

Ultimate Bearing Strength σb (MPa)

600
Net-section Failure
u

500 Bearing Failure

400

300

200
[0/45/90/-45] s pin-loaded
?
[0/45/90/-45] clamped T=5Nm
? s
100 [0/45/90/-45] s2pin-loaded
?
[0/45/90/-45]s2 clamped T=5Nm

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
w/d

Figure 11: Effect of the w/d ratio on the laminate bearing strength (from [30]).

nates have been shown by other authors [20, 31]. However, these values are depen-
dent on the relative proportions of plies in each direction and may therefore differ
depending on the tested laminate.

Table 1: Required w/d and e/d ratios for bolted joints in CFRP [25].

Stacking Sequence w/d e/d

[0◦ /90◦ ] >4 >5
[±45◦ ] ≥8 >4
[0 / ± 45◦ ]
◦
≥4 ≥4
[0◦ /60◦ ] ≥4 ≥4

Effect of stacking sequence

The laminate stacking sequence allows the designer to tailor laminates for applied
loads and this possibility has been used extensively in the design of composite joints.
Stacking sequence has been shown to influence the strength of joints significantly
with regard to both strength and failure mode. Collings [25] in his early work
reported that while stacking sequences had a lesser effect on the shear-out and net-
section strengths, the bearing strength was sensitive to stacking sequence. Subse-
quent research has shown that all failure modes are dependent on stacking sequence.
Arnold [22] and Hamada [32] expressed the importance of 0◦ plies on the bearing
strength with Hamada proposing that the strength was dependent on the degree
of interlaminar fracture versus fibre buckling in the 0◦ plies. The pseudo-clamping
effect obtained through employing plies at 90◦ to the load direction at the outer
surfaces, has been shown both experimentally [22, 33, 34] and numerically [33, 35]
for both GFRP and CFRP laminates. Applying 90◦ plies at the outer surface acts
in reducing interlaminar normal stresses and impedes delamination. In contrast to
 Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications 11

the consensus in the published literature, Hamada [32] found that the highest joint
strengths were achieved through adopting 0◦ on the outer surfaces of the laminate.
The role of ±45 plies in diffusing the load path in bolted joints has been reported
by a number of authors [22, 27, 32]. This has led to the current belief that efficient
joint design is only achieved when quasi-isotropic stacking sequences are used. Hart-
Smith suggested the stacking sequence design guideline illustrated in Figure 12.
The diagram has resulted from the author’s comprehensive experimental research
on joints in carbon fibre-epoxy laminates. Hart-Smith [27] also reported the effect of
reducing stress concentrations through use of glass fibre strips around bolt holes in
CFRP. Through locally substituting 0◦ CFRP fibres by softer GFRP strips (about
four hole diameters wide), experimental evidence has shown the improved strength
of bolted joints in these hybrid laminates.

Figure 12: Selection of ply stacking sequence for fibrous composites [28].

It has also been reported [36] that plies of similar orientation should be dis-
persed throughout the laminate and not ‘blocked’ in order to achieve higher bearing
strength. Thus the most efficient laminates, considering all possible failure modes,
have a dispersed quasi-isotropic stacking sequence. Cross-ply laminates have been
studied in tension by Marshall et al. [35] and in bending by Chen and Lee [33]
with both papers concluding that [90◦n /0◦n ]s laminates exhibit higher ultimate joint
strength compared to [0◦n /90◦n ]s laminates.

Lateral clamping load

The effect of lateral (through-thickness) load around the bolt hole has been shown
to be beneficial with regard to joint bearing strength [20, 25–28, 30, 31, 35, 37, 38].
Collings [25] assumed the stress induced by clamping to be constant over the washer
area and given by
T
σzz = π (2)
0.2 d 4 (D2 − d2 )
where T is the applied torque, D is the outer diameter of the washer, d is the hole
diameter and ‘0.2’ is a torque coefficient determined by Stewart [39]. Strength im-
12 G.Kelly

provements for 3 mm thick CFRP laminates of up to 170% were found for a constant
lateral pressure of 22 MPa [25]. It was noted that little further improvement was
achieved through increasing the lateral pressure. In contrast, Smith et al. [31] found
that for 1 mm CFRP laminates covering a range of stacking sequences, pressures
greater than 35 MPa were required to achieve maximum bearing strength. Akay [40]
supported the latter findings in a study on various woven and unidirectional CFRP
laminates. Slightly different behaviour was discovered for aramid fibre reinforced
plastic (AFRP) laminates with Akay and Kong Ah Mun [38] reporting that bear-
ing strengths could be increased by approximately 100% by mere finger-tightening
(1-2 MPa) in comparison to the pin-loaded condition. Transition from bearing to
tensile failure was also noted upon applying finger-tight lateral pressure. Similar
transitions have also been noted for CFRP [40] but at significantly higher lateral
pressures (>25 MPa) depending on the stacking sequence.

Bolt-hole clearance

The clearance between the bolt and the hole significantly influences the behaviour
of mechanically fastened joints. Several authors have investigated the effect of bolt-
hole clearance on the behaviour of mechanically fastened joints in composite lami-
nates [41–48]. In general, increased clearance was found to reduce the contact area
between the bolt and the hole thus increasing the stress levels. However, it is diffi-
cult to compare the results from different authors as the problem is non-linear being
dependent upon the applied load, friction and the bolt-hole contact area.
The majority of the published work in this area has considered the pin-loaded
joint representing a double-lap joint configuration. However, the effect of bolt-hole
clearance in a single-lap joint is potentially more important as the clearance allows
the bolt to rotate in the hole. Bolt rotation has a detrimental effect on joint perfor-
mance as a result of the reduction in the bolt-hole contact area. Ireman [47] investi-
gated the effect of different design parameters on the strength of a CFRP/aluminium
single bolt, single-lap joint using a three dimensional finite element model. While
clearance was found to decrease the joint strength, the laminate thickness, friction,
clamping force and bolt configuration were found to have a stronger influence on the
joint strength. The effect of clearance in single-bolt, single-lap joints has been in-
vestigated by McCarthy et al. [48]. CFRP joints were manufactured with clearances
ranging between neat-fit and 240 µm. The 2% offset strength, ultimate strength and
ultimate strain were determined according to ASTM D5961/D5961M [24]. Increased
bolt-hole clearance was found to decrease the joint stiffness and increase the ulti-
mate failure strain. The effect of clearance on the 2% offset strength and ultimate
strength was found to be small for the clearance levels considered. An alternative
definition of strength was derived based on a decrease in the joint stiffness.
Bolt-hole clearance can significantly affect the load distribution in multi-row
joints. A neat fit between the bolt and the hole will ensure that the load is transferred
immediately. In contrast, the load transfer is delayed in clearance fit joints until
contact has been established. Stanley et al. [49] investigated the load distribution
in multi-row single-lap joints concluding that relatively small amounts of clearance
can have substantial effects on the bolt load distribution.
With mass production of modular composite automotive structures, the manu-
 Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications 13

facturing and assembly tolerances will become important parameters which will have
to be considered in the design process. While larger tolerances may be advantageous
for automated manufacture and assembly operations, knowledge of the subsequent
effect on the mechanical properties of fastened structures is necessary. The effects
of bolt-hole clearance on the bearing strength of carbon fibre epoxy laminates was
investigated in Paper A.

2.2. Adhesive bonding

Adhesive bonding has been used for many years as a method of providing high
strength structural joints. Kutscha and Hofer [50] and Kutscha [51] reviewed much
of the early research in this field prior to 1969 including many of the classical an-
alytical methods. Lehman and Hawly [52] also provided one of the earlier papers
analysing and comparing different joint configurations. Oplinger [53] and Vinson [54]
have since provided general reviews of the technology of adhesive bonded joints in
composite structures. The science of adhesive bonding encompasses many fields such
as surface physics, chemistry and mechanics. Research in these fields has led to the
proposal of different theories which describe the mechanisms governing adhesion.
The theories are presented in the comprehensive text by Kinloch [55].

Single-lap joint Double-lap joint

Stepped-lap joint Scarf joint

Figure 13: Adhesive bonded joint configurations.

A wide variety of joint configurations are possible when bonding composite struc-
tures. Figure 13 illustrates the most common joint configurations. The single-lap
and double-lap configurations are the most commonly found joints in practice and
are applicable for joining relatively thin adherends. The more advanced stepped-
lap and scarf configurations are used to transfer high loads in joints with thicker
adherends. The manufacture of stepped-lap and scarf joints is more complicated,
requiring low machining tolerances.
The most extensively studied joint configuration in terms of experimental and
theoretical research is the single-lap joint. The joint is illustrated in more detail in
Figure 14. The joint is commonly used due to its simple design and easy assembly
in a similar manner to the mechanically fastened single-lap joint. Figure 14 also
highlights the stress distribution in the adhesive as a result of in-plane loading.
The highest stresses occur at the ends of the overlap as shown. As the load is not
collinear in the joint, a moment is generated at the overlap and the joint rotates
when deformed. This rotation induces additional peel stresses on the adhesive which
14 G.Kelly

can reduce the strength of the joint significantly. Methods to limit or overcome peel
stresses and increase joint strength are discussed in a later section discussing end
effects. Additional factors affecting the strength of bonded joints are discussed in
the following sections.

x=0

Load path through the joint

Undeformed joint

Deformed joint

45
Shear stress
40 Peel stress
35

30
25
Stress (MPa)

20

15
10

−5

−10
−15 -10 −5 0 5 10 15
x (mm)

Stress distribution in the adhesive

Figure 14: Structural behaviour of bonded single-lap joints.

Factors affecting the strength of bonded joints

There are many factors which affect the strength of adhesive bonded joints. In
the following sections, the most important factors affecting the strength of bonded
single-lap joints in automotive applications are discussed.

Overlap length
The overlap length of an adhesive joint defines the length by which the adherends
overlap one another. The overlap length is an important design parameter which
influences joint rotation, the adhesive stress distribution and ultimately the strength
of the joint. Increasing the overlap length will serve to reduce the rotation of the
joint. The effect of the overlap length on the stress state in an adhesive joint has been
studied by Hart-Smith [56–58] and Grant [59,60] within research programs aimed at
developing design philosophies for aircraft construction. Hart-Smith’s work within
the PABST (Primary Adhesive Bonded Structures) program and ESDU (Engineer-
ing Science Data Unit) programs based on Grant’s work at British Aerospace have
 Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications 15

served to provide guidelines with regard to overlap lengths in adhesive joints together
with analysis techniques for several common joint configurations. The effect of over-
lap length on the adhesive shear stress in a single-lap joint is shown in Figure 15.

50

45

40

35
Shear Stress(MPa)

30

25

20

15

10

0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15

Overlap length, L (mm)

Figure 15: Shear stress distribution in a bonded single-lap joint.

The magnitude of the shear stress in the adhesive is shown to increase with
decreasing overlap length. The stress in the central region of the overlap is low
with the peak stresses occurring at the ends of the overlap. In the case of short
overlap joints, the adhesive may yield along the entire bond line when the maximum
theoretical load has been applied. Increasing the overlap length allows for an “elastic
trough” to develop at the centre section of the joint. The length over which the bond
yields is constant and dependent upon the load being transferred. Further increase
in the overlap length serves only to increase the size of the elastic region and reduce
the stress at the centre of the joint. The design philosophy adopted by Hart-Smith
in the PABST program was that the adhesive should never be the weak link in the
structure. The elastic trough region is deemed essential if the joint is to overcome
the effects of creep and the plastic zones are designed to be long enough to support
the ultimate load under the worst operating conditions. A combination of moisture
and high temperature provide the worst operating conditions for adhesives due to
the softening which takes place. It was recommended that the minimum operating
stress (in the elastic trough region) be no greater than 10% of the adhesive shear
strength. While an overlap length to adherend thickness ratio of 8:1 is suitable for
laboratory lap-shear testing, a ratio of 80:1 was chosen in the PABST program as a
design criterion for aircraft structures.
16 G.Kelly

End effects
Critical regions exist at the ends of the overlap region in bonded joints. The maxi-
mum stress occurs in these regions as illustrated in Figure 15. Several authors [61–64]
have modified the adherend or adhesive geometry at the end of the overlap as a
means of increasing the joint strength.
Adams and Harris [64] investigated the modification of the overlap ends in alu-
minium/epoxy single-lap joints. The performance of joints with square edged ad-
herends (basic design in Fig. 16), rounded adherends and adhesive fillets were com-
pared. The joints with the square edges demonstrated the lowest strength with a
strength increase of 28% being observed in the joints with the adhesive fillet. The
highest strength was found in the joints with the rounded adherends and adhesive
fillet where a strength increase of 60% was observed in comparison to the square
edged joints. The strength predictions from finite element analysis were found to be
in good agreement with the experimental results.
An additional problem which can be alleviated through tapering the adherends
at the ends of the overlap is that of peeling stress. Hart-Smith [61] showed that
profiling the adherend could reduce the peel stresses, change the failure mode, and
hence increase the joint strength. The author noted that the taper must be con-
tinued to a fine edge if the benefits are to be gained. Adherend tapering may be
difficult to accomplish in practice for thin adherends. Hildebrand [63] and Adams et
al. [62] investigated various joint designs for single and double-lap joints respec-
tively. A selection of alternative designs for the ends of the overlap region are shown
in Figure 16.

Basic design Adhesive fillet Outside taper

Inside taper Inside taper and adhesive fillet

Figure 16: Alternative modifications to the end of adhesive lap joints (Redrawn from [62]).

The possibility to modify to the ends of the overlap depends on the adherend
thickness, the manufacturing process and cost. In general, adherend tapering may
be difficult to achieve but ensuring a well profiled fillet is essential in the design of
a good adhesive joint.

Effect of the surface ply fibre orientation

One factor which can easily be overlooked when designing joints is the orientation
of the fibre direction in the surface ply. The surface ply fibre orientation has an
important influence on the resulting joint strength. Ideally, the fibre orientation of
the surface ply should be aligned in the direction of applied loading. However, when
manufacturing large complex shapes with a minimal number of preforms, the surface
 Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications 17

fibre directions may be dictated by part manufacture considerations. As joints may

be required at different locations in the same structure, the surface fibre directions
may differ resulting in non optimal surface fibre directions for some bonded surfaces.
The load-displacement response of bonded joints with surface fibre directions
in the loading direction and perpendicular to the load direction is illustrated in
Figure 17.

14

12

10
Fracture load (kN)

Surface ply parallel

8 to the load direction

4
Surface ply perpendicular
to the load direction
2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Grip displacement (mm)

Figure 17: Effect of the surface ply orientation on joint strength. Single-lap joint with
CFRP adherends [0/45/90/-45]s and Epibond 1590 A/B adhesive.

When the surface fibre direction coincides with the loading direction, the strain
on the surface of the laminate is limited due to presence of the fibres. The strength
of the ply is also highest in the fibre direction. Hence, the reduced strain and
high strength act to transfer the load from the adhesive into the laminate in an
efficient manner. In contrast, the surface strain in the loading direction of joints
with the surface ply aligned perpendicular to the direction of the applied load is
higher due to the absence of any reinforcement with the strain being governed by
the matrix mechanical properties. The strength is also significantly lower which
results in fracture and delamination of the surface ply at relatively low load levels.
As shown in Figure 17 for the case of a single-lap joint bonded with Epibond 1590
A/B epoxy adhesive, the surface fibre orientation can result in a decrease in strength
of approximately 50%. A possible alleviation of the surface ply orientation problem
in complex structures made using a limited number of preforms is to use a woven
fabric on the surface of the laminate.

Surface preparation techniques

Surface preparation of the adherends is of critical importance when adhesive bond-
ing. Polymers are low surface energy materials and adhesives do not bond easily
to polymer surfaces. The adhesion is also affected by the additives contained in
18 G.Kelly

many industrial materials including plasticisers and anti-oxidants. Release agents

used during manufacture also serve to contaminate the bonding surfaces. A number
of techniques to improve the bonding of polymers and polymer matrix composites
have been developed. These methods essentially remove or modify the low molecu-
lar weight layer which exists at the surface of many polymeric materials. It is also
beneficial to modify the surface topology to allow capillary action by the adhesive
on the surface. Several of the most commonly used surface preparation methods
for polymer-matrix composites are solvent wiping and abrasion, corona discharge
treatment, cold plasma treatment and use of peel ply during composite laminate
manufacture. The surface preparation technique adopted for the laminate in this
thesis was solvent wiping and abrasion.

Fatigue behaviour and environmental effects

The performance of adhesive bonded joints has been investigated extensively during
the last 30 years which has led to an increased understanding of the joint behaviour
and factors affecting joint strength. However, significant challenges remain to de-
velop theoretical models to allow prediction of the behaviour of aged joints and joints
subject to fatigue loading. The effects of temperature and moisture have been shown
to decrease the strength and fatigue resistance of adhesive bonded joints [65–79].
The environment can alter the properties of the adhesive, the composite laminate
or the adhesive/adherend interface. The combination of elevated temperature and
moisture is particularly detrimental with moisture diffusing into the material at a
faster rate due to the increased mobility of the polymer chains.
One practical problem of conducting environmental tests is the long exposure
times which are required. In order to overcome time constraints, laboratory ageing
conditions are commonly modified to allow for shorter ageing times. In order to
predict the long term performance of adhesive bonded joints, accelerated ageing is
often performed by subjecting the joints to more severe conditions than would be
expected in normal service. The ageing of adhesive bonded joints may be accelerated
by environmental conditions such as mechanical stress, high temperature, moisture
and aggressive media. While providing a useful guide to the long-term behaviour
of joints, care must be taken to ensure that accelerated ageing does not introduce
additional factors such as different failure modes than those encountered during
service.
The strength and fatigue resistance of CFRP single-lap joints with a structural
polyurethane adhesive were investigated in Paper D. Accelerated ageing of the joints
was performed in different environments considering the effects of constant and cyclic
temperature and humidity levels. The effect of environmental ageing was found to
decrease the strength and shorten the fatigue life of the joints significantly. Both the
polyurethane adhesive and carbon fibre/epoxy laminates were affected by ageing in
cyclic freeze/thaw and hot/wet environments.
Currently there are no generalised models developed due to the vast range of
adherend and adhesive materials available. The joint configurations, environmen-
tal conditions and material history are also factors which make prediction of joint
performance a significant challenge.
 Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications 19

2.3. Hybrid joining

An alternative method to mechanical fastening and adhesive bonding is hybrid join-

ing which combines both techniques. Previous investigations of hybrid joints in
composite laminates have focused on aerospace applications and not considered the
technique to offer any significant benefits except for limiting damage propagation in
adhesive bonded joints [80–82]. However, the combination of mechanical fastening
and adhesive bonding has potential advantages in production of automotive struc-
tures with the parts being fixed in position during the bonding process, allowing
the joined part to continue to the next stage in production without having to wait
for the adhesive to harden. Another important factor is the behaviour of joints dur-
ing crash loading. Bonded joints with relatively short overlap lengths can debond
causing separation of the parts. Hybrid joining provides an alternative method to
absorb energy during crash loading and can limit part separation.
A hybrid single-lap joint is illustrated schematically in Figure 18. The distribu-
tion of load between the adhesive and the bolt is related to the relative displacement
between the adherends. The adhesive provides the stiffest load path and thus trans-
fers the majority of the applied load. However, as the joint deforms and the relative
displacement between the adherends increases, load is transfered to the bolt. The
aim of Paper B was to investigate the parameters which govern load transfer in hy-
brid joints and identify joint configurations where the technique is viable. A finite
element simulation model was developed and used to predict the load distribution
in hybrid joints. A parameter study highlighted the effect of the joint geometry and
adhesive material behaviour on the load transferred by the adhesive and the bolt.

Bolt
Adherend

Adhesive

Figure 18: Hybrid (bolted/bonded) single-lap joint.

In addition to predicting the load transfer in hybrid joints, it is important to

characterise the strength and fatigue life of hybrid joints. The strength, failure
modes and fatigue life of hybrid joints were investigated in Paper C. It was shown
that the joints could be designed to have greater strength and fatigue life in com-
parison to adhesive bonded joints. However, it was found that benefits were only
obtained in joints which allowed for load sharing between the bolt and adhesive.
The relative strengths of the bolted and bonded joints was also shown to influence
the ultimate failure mode and fatigue life.
In Paper D, hybrid joints demonstrated extended fatigue life in comparison to
adhesive bonded joints when the joints were subject to environmental ageing.
20 G.Kelly

3. Localised transverse loading in composite lam-

inates
Attachments in CFRP structures often require that loads are introduced into the
laminate in the transverse or thickness direction. This is arguably the most difficult
load case for composite laminates, given the poor interlaminar and through-thickness
strength of the material. Localised transverse loads are commonly avoided in com-
posite laminates and this is reflected in the volume of published literature.
Important contributions regarding this topic have been made by Waters and
Williams [83] and by Banbury et al. [84,85]. Waters and Williams [86] conducted an
early experimental investigation of bolt push-through failure in composite laminates.
The authors investigated the response and failure modes of a wide range of composite
laminates. Clamped circular specimens of diameter 25.4 mm and 50.8 mm were
loaded in the transverse direction through a countersunk fastener. The characteristic
failure modes were found to be intralaminar fibre failure in the vicinity of the bolt
hole and intralaminar and interlaminar matrix failure in the laminate interior. It was
also concluded that the strength of transversely loaded composite laminates could
be improved through the use of tough resins, high-strain fibres and low modulus
adhesive interleaving.
Banbury and Kelly [84] conducted a two part study investigating the pull-through
strength of carbon fibre reinforced epoxy laminates made from woven fabric and
unidirectional tape pre-preg material. The authors provided a detailed investiga-
tion of the observed failure modes and discussed the mechanisms responsible for
pull-through failure. The internal damage pattern in the laminates was likened to
that observed in composite laminates subject to low velocity impact. Failure was
attributed to a critical level of matrix strain which was independent of the laminate
and fastener geometry or material type for a given resin system. The authors also
conducted a two-dimensional axi-symmetric finite element analysis to simulate the
fastener pull-through tests [85]. A progressive damage model based on the maximum
strain criterion was used to predict failure in the laminates although no consider-
ation was given to interlaminar failure modes. The results from the model were
consistent with the experimental observations and the predicted failure loads were
shown to be in good agreement with the experimentally determined values.
The introduction of localised transverse loads in composite laminates based on
non-crimp fabric reinforcement was investigated in Paper E. The effect of the lami-
nate stacking sequence, resin system and specimen size on the strength and failure
mechanisms were investigated experimentally. In addition, a three dimensional fi-
nite element model was developed to analyse the stress distribution in the laminate
and predict the first-ply failure load.
There is currently no widely accepted test method for evaluating the perfor-
mance of transverse load introductions. Two different methods are suggested in the
Composite Materials Handbook (MIL-HDBK-17) [87], however, it is acknowledged
that these methods may not be representative of actual load introductions. The first
method is an adaptation of MIL-STD-1312 Test 8 and this method is suggested for
screening purposes only. The second proposed method is similar to that employed
in Paper E and this method is more suitable for design purposes.
 Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications 21

4. Future work
Localised transverse loading remains a challenge in designing automotive structures
using laminated composite materials. The work performed in Paper E highlighted
that damage initiates in composite laminates at low load levels. The propagation
of damage during fatigue loading and residual strength are topics which need to be
explored. The attachment of secondary structures may involve loading the laminate
in the thickness direction. Future research in this area should focus on transferring
the load into the plane of the laminate with a tailored geometry or fibre reinforcement
architecture. Textile reinforcement with fibres in three directions offer a potential
solution to this problem.
Future automotive structures will be modular and incorporate a variety of dif-
ferent materials, each tailored to meet the required structural demands. The de-
velopment of technologies for joining multi-material structures combining metallic,
plastic and composite parts will be necessary. Adhesive bonding and hybrid join-
ing are attractive methods to join such structures in a cost-effective manner. As
a continuation of the work presented in Paper B and Paper C in this thesis, the
next step would be to apply the outlined principles on joints with different adherend
materials.
 Joining of CFRP for Automotive Applications 23

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