14 Chapter 1 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of Momentum Transport

Table 1.1-1 Summary of Units for Quantities

Related to Eq. 1.l-2
--

SI c.g.s. British

Note: The pascal, Pa, is the same as N/m2, and the newton,
-
N, is the same as kg m/s2. The abbreviation for "centipoise"
is "cp."

Table 1.1-2 Viscosity of Water and Air at 1atm Pressure

Water (liq.)"
Temperature Viscosity Kinematic viscosity Viscosity Kinematic viscosity
T ("C) p (mPa s) v (cm2/s) p (mPa. s) v (cm2/s)
1.787 0.01787
1.0019 0.010037
0.6530 0.006581
0.4665 0.004744
0.3548 0.003651
0.2821 0.002944
Talculated from the results of R. C. Hardy and R. L. Cottington, J. Research Nut. Bur. Standards, 42,
573-578 (1949); and J. F. Swidells, J. R. Coe, Jr., and T. B. Godfrey, J. Research Naf. Bur. Standards, 48,l-31
(1952).
Calculated from "Tables of Thermal Properties of Gases," National Bureau of Standards Circular 464
(1955), Chapter 2.

Table 1.1-3 Viscosities of Some Gases and Liquids at Atmospheric Pressurea

- - --

Temperature Viscosity Temperature Viscosity

Gases T CC) p (mPa s) Liquids T rC) p (mPa. s)

(C&&,O O
25
C6H6 20
Br2 25
Hg 20
C2H50H 0
25
50
H2S0, 25
Glycerol 25
T a l u e s taken from N. A. Lange, Handbook of Chemistry, McGraw-Hill, New York, 15th edition
(1999),Tables 5.16 and 5.18.
H. L. Johnston and K. E. McKloskey, J. Phys. Chern., 44,1038-1058 (1940).
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. (1999).
Landolt-Bornstein Zahlenwerfe und Funktionen, Springer (1969).
 $1.1 Newton's Law of Viscosity (Molecular Transport of Momentum) 15

Table 1.1-4 Viscosities of Some Liquid Metals

Temperature Viscosity
Metal T ("(3 p (mPa s)

- - - --

Data taken from The Reactor Handbook, Vol. 2, Atomic

Energy Commission AECD-3646, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (May 1955), pp. 258
et seq.

given for pure fluids at 1 atm pressure. Note that for gases at low density, the viscosity
increases with increasing temperature, whereas for liquids the viscosity usually decreases
with increasing temperature. In gases the momentum is transported by the molecules in
free flight between collisions, but in liquids the transport takes place predominantly by
virtue of the intermoIecular forces that pairs of molecules experience as they wind their
way around among their neighbors. In g51.4 and 1.5 we give some elementary kinetic
theory arguments to explain the temperature dependence of viscosity.

Compute the steady-state momentum flux T,, in lbf/ft? when the lower plate velocity V in Fig.
1.1-1is I ft/s in the positive x direction, the plate separation Y is 0.001 ft, and the fluid viscos-
Calculation of ity p is 0.7 cp.
Momentum Flux
SOLUTION
Since T ~ ,is desired in British units, we should convert the viscosity into that system of units.
Thus, making use of Appendix F, we find p = (0.7 cp)(2.0886 X = 1.46 x Ibf s/ft2.
The velocity profile is linear so that
dv, - Av, - -1.0 ft/s
= -10oos-~
dy Ay 0.001 ft
Substitution into Eq. 1.1-2 gives
 9.1 Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction (Molecular Energy Transport) 269

Table 9.1-1 Summary of Units for Quantities in Eqs. 9.1-2 and 9

SI c.g.s. British

call cm2- s Btu/hr. ft2

C F
cm ft
cal/cm - s . C Btu/hr. ft .F
cal/C ga Btu/F lb,
cm2/ s ft2/s
g/cm. s Ib,/ft - hr
-

-
Note: The watt (W) is the same as J/s, the joule (J) is the same as N m,
the newton (N) is kg. m/s2, and the Pascal (Pa) is N/m2. For more
information on interconversion of units, see Appendix F.

ductivity of gases, liquids, liquid metals, and solids are given in Tables 9.1-2, 9.1-3,
9.1-4, and 9.1-5. In making calculations, experimental values should be used when
possible. In the absence of experimental data, one can make estimates by using the
methods outlined in the next several sections or by consulting various engineering
handbook^.^

Table 9.1-2 Thermal Conductivities, Heat Capacities, and Prandtl Numbers of Some
Common Gases at 1 atm Pressuren

Temperature Thermal conductivity Heat capacity Prandtl number

Gas T (K) k ( W / m . K) C, (J/kg K) Pr (-4

T a k e n from J. 0.Hirschfelder, C. F. Curtiss, and R. B. Bird, Molecular Theory of Gases and Liquids, Wiley,
New York, 2nd corrected printing (1964), Table 8.4-10. The k values are measured, the& values are
calculated from spectroscopic data, and p is calculated from Eq. 1.4-18. The values of C,, for H, represent
a 3: 1ortho-para mixture.

For example, W. M. Rohsenow, J. P. Hartnett, and Y. I. Cho, eds., Handbook of Heat Transfer,
McGraw-Hill, New York (1998); Landolt-Bornstein, Zahlenwerte und Funktionen, Vol. II,5, Springer
(1968-1969).
270 Chapter 9 Thermal Conductivity and the Mechanisms of Energy Transport

Table 9.1-3 Thermal Conductivities, Heat Capacities, and Prandtl Numbers

for Some Nonmetallic Liquids at Their Saturation Pressuresa

Thermal Heat Prandtl

Temperature conductivity Viscosity capacity number
T k x lo4 S,x lop3 Pr
Liquid (K) (W/m K) (Pa . s) U/kg + K) (-1
1-Pentene

CCl,

(C2H5)20

C2H50H

Glycerol

H2O

aThe entries in this table were prepared from functions provided by T. E. Daubert, R. P. Danner,
H. M. Sibul, C. C. Stebbins, J. L. Oscarson, R. L. Rowley, W. V. Wilding, M. E. Adams, T. L.
Marshall, and N. A. Zundel, DIPPRB Data Compilation of Pure Compound Properties, Design Institute
for Physical Property Data@,AIChE, New York, NY (2000).

A plastic panel of area A = 1 ft2 and thickness Y = 0.252 in. was found to conduct heat at a
rate of 3.0 W at steady state with temperatures To = 24.00"C and T, = 26.00"C imposed on the
Measurement of two main surfaces. What is the thermal conductivity of the plastic in cal/cm. s K at 25"C?
Thermal Conductivity
SOLUTION
First convert units with the aid of Appendix F:
A = 144 in.2 X (2.54)' = 929 cm2
Y = 0.252 in. X 2.54 = 0.640 cm
Q = 3.0 W X 0.23901 = 0.717 cal/s
AT = 26.00 - 24.00 = 2.00K
Substitution into Eq. 9.1-1 then gives

For AT as small as 2 degrees C, it is reasonable to assume that the value of k applies at the
average temperature, which in this case is 25°C. See Problem 10B.12 and 10C.l for methods of
accounting for the variation of k with temperature.
Table 9.1-4 Thermal Conductivities, Heat Capacities, and Prandtl Numbers of Some Liquid
Metals at Atmospheric Pressurea
Temperature Thermal conductivity Heat capacity Prandtl numberc
Metal T (K) k (W/m K) c, (J/kg .K) Pr (-)

" Data taken from Liquid Metals Handbook, 2nd edition, US. Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C. (1952), and from E. R. G. Eckert and R. M. Drake, Jr., Heat and Mass Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 2nd edition (19591, Appendix A.
* Based on an extrapolated heat capacity.
' 56%Na by weight, 44% K by weight.

Table 9.1-5 Experimental Values of Thermal Conductivities of Some Solidsa

Temperature Thermal conductivity
Substance T (K) k (W/m. K)
Aluminum

Cadmium

Copper

Steel

Tin

Brick (common red)

Concrete (stone)
Earth's crust (average)
Glass (soda)
Graphite
Sand (dry)
Wood (fir)
parallel to axis
normal to axis
" Data taken from the Reactor Handbook, Vol. 2, Atomic Energy Commission AECD-3646,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (May 19551, pp. 1766 et seq.
 6j17.1 Fick's Law of Binary Diffusion (Molecular Mass Transport) 517

Table 17.1-1 Experimental Diffusivitiesaand Limiting Schmidt

Numbersbof Gas Pairs at 1 Atmosphere Pressure

Gas pair Temperature 9AB Sc

A-B (K) (cm2/s) x ~ + 1 xB+l

a Unless otherwise indicated, the values are taken from J. 0.Hirschfelder,

C. F. Curtiss, and R. B. Bird, Molecular T h e o y of Gases and Liquids, 2nd corrected
printing, Wiley, New York (1964), p. 579. All values are given for 1atmosphere
pressure.
Calculated using the Lennard-Jonesparameters of Table E.1. The parameters
for sulfur hexafluoride were obtained from second virial coefficient data.
' Values of aAB for the water and ammonia mixtures are taken from the
tabulation of R. C. Reid, J. M. Prausnitz, and B. E. Poling, The Properties of Gases
and Liquids, 4th edition, McGraw-Hill, New York (1987).
Values of %,, for the hydrocarbon-hydrocarbon pairs are taken from S. Gotoh,
M. Manner, J. P. Sdrensen, and W. E. Stewart, J. Chem. Eng. Data, 19,169-171
(1974).
"Values of p for water and ammonia were calculated from functions provided
by T. E. Daubert, R. P. Danner, H. M. Sibul, C. C. Stebbins, J. L. Oscarson,
R. L. Rowley, W. V. Wilding, M. E. Adams, T. L. Marshall, and N. A. Zundel,
DIPPR@,Data Compilation of Pure Compound Properties, Design Institute for
Physical Property Datao, AIChE, New York, N.Y. (2000).
518 Chapter 17 Diffusivity and the Mechanisms of Mass Transport

Table 17.1-2 Experimental Diffusivities in the Liquid state"'

Chlorobenzene Bromobenzene 10.10 0.0332

0.2642
0.5122
0.7617
0.9652
39.92 0.0332
0.2642
0.5122
0.7617
0.9652
Water 0.131
0.222
0.358
0.454
0.524
Ethanol Water 0.026
0.266
0.408
0.680
0.880
0.944

a The data for the first two pairs are taken from a review article by P. A. Johnson and A. L. Babb, Chem.
Reus., 56,387453 (1956). Other summaries of experimental results may be found in: P. W. M. Rutten,
Diffusion in Liquids, Delft University Press, Delft, The Netherlands (1992); L. J. Gosting, Adv. in Protein
Chem., Vol. X I , Academic Press, New York (1956); A. Vignes, I. E. C. Funliamentals, 5,189-199 (1966).
The ethanol-water data were taken from M. T. Tyn and W. F. Calus, J. Chem. Eng. Data, 20,310-316
(1975).

Table 17.1-3 Experimental Diffusivities in the Solid Statea

Si02
Pyrex

" It is presumed that in each of the above pairs, component A is present

only in very small amounts. The data are taken from R. M. Barrer, Diffusion
in and through Solids, Macmillan, New York (1941), pp. 141,222, and 275.
 s17.1 Fick's Law of Binary Diffusion (Molecular Mass Transport) 519

Table 17.1-4 Experimental Diffusivities of Gases in Polymers."

Diffusivities, 9AB,are given in units of l o p 6(cm2/s).The values
for N2and O2are for 298K, and those for C02and H2are for
198K.

Polybutadiene 1.1 1.5 1.05 9.6

Silicone rubber 15 25 15 75
Trans-l,4-polyisoprene 0.50 0.70 0.47 5.0
Polystyrene 0.06 0.11 0.06 4.4
" Excerpted horn D. W. van Krevelen, Properties of Polymers, 3rd edition,
Elsevier, Amsterdam (1990), pp. 544-545. Another relevant reference is
S. Pauly, in Polymer Handbook, 4th edition (J. Brandrup and E. H.
Immergut, eds.), Wiley-Interscience, New York (1999), Chapter VI.

In this section we have discussed the diffusion that occurs as a result of a concen-
tration gradient in the system. We refer to this kind of diffusion as concentration diffusion
or ordinay diffusion. There are, however, other kinds of diffusion: thermal diflusion,
which results from a temperature gradient; pressure diffusion, resulting from a pressure
gradient; and forced diffusion,which is caused by unequal external forces acting on the
chemical species. For the time being, we consider only concentration diffusion, and we
postpone discussion of the other mechanisms to Chapter 24. Also, in that chapter we
discuss the use of activity, rather than concentration, as the driving force for ordinary
diffusion.

Calculate the steady-state mass flux jAyof helium for the system of Fig. 17.1-1 at 500K. The
partial pressure of helium is 1 atm at y = 0 and zero at the upper surface of the plate. The
Difisionof thickness Y of the pyrex plate is mm, and its density p'B' is 2.6 g/cm3. The solubility and
through Pyrex Glass diffusivity of helium in pyrex are reported7as 0.0084 volumes of gaseous helium per volume
of glass, and 9,, = 0.2 X cm2/s, respectively. Show that the neglect of the mass average
velocity implicit in Eq. 17.1-1is reasonable.

SOLUTION The mass concentration of helium in the glass at the lower surface is obtained from the solu-
bility data and the ideal gas law:

The mass fraction of helium in the solid phase at the lower surface is then

C. C. Van Voorhis, Phys. Rev. 23,557 (1924),as reported by R. M. Barrer, Diffusion in and through
Solids, corrected printing, Cambridge University Press (1951).