CELESTIAL AND TERESTIAL NAVIGATION FUN 1

SHAPE :Earth is not a sphere. It's an Oblate Spheroid. Equatorial radius (6378.137 Km) is more than Polar
radius(6356.75 Km) by 21.387 Km

AXIS :The axis of the earth is the diameter about which Earth rotates.

POLES :The two points where the axis cuts the Earth surface. The upper one is called North pole and the lower is
called the South pole

GREAT CIRCLE :Great Circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere, the plane of which passes through the cente of the
sphere. There will be only one great circle through any two points on the sphere except the points are the ends of a
diameter. In latter case, infinite great circle can be possible.

SMALL CIRCLE Small circle is a circle on the surface of sphere, the plane of which does not pass through the centre
of the sphere.

EQUATOR The equator is a great circle on the surface of the Earth, the plane of which is perpendicular to the Earth's
axis. The equator divides the earth into North and South hemisphere.

PARALLEL OF LATITUDE Parallel of latitude are small circle on the Earth's surface, the planes of which are parallel to
the equator.

MERIDIANS Meridians are semi-great circle on the Earth, joining the two poles. Meridians cross the equator and
parallel of latitudes at right angles.

PRIME MERIDIAN The meridian which passes through equator. Prime Meridian has the value of zero degree
longitude. The other meridians names EAST or WEST from the Prime Meridian.

LATITUDE :Latitude of a place is the arc of a meridian, or the angle at the centre of the Earth, measured between
the equator and the parallel of latitude passing through that place. Latitude of place can have only value between 0
degree and 90 degree N or S.

LONGITUDE Longitude of a place is the arc of the equator, or the angle at geographic pole, contained between the
Prime Meridian and the Meridian passing through that place. Longitude of a place can have value between 0 degree
and 180 degree E or W. Longitude 180E and 180W refer to the same meridian.

D'lat (Difference in Latitudes) The d'lat between two places is the arc of a meridian or the angle at the centre of
Earth contained between parallel of latitudes through the two places.

D'lat is named North or South according to the direction from the first place to the second.

Eg: 1. D'lat from 10N to 20N is 10N

2. D'lat from 15S to 30S is 15S

D'long (Difference in Longitudes) The d'long between two places is the shorter arc of the equator of the angle at
the poles contained between the meridians through the two places.

D'long is named East or West according to the direction from the first place to the second place.

Eg: 1. D'long from 050E to 070E is 020E

2. D'long from 050W to 100W is 050W

3. D'long from 070E to 050E is 020W

Nautical Mile Nautical mile at any place is the length of the arc of a meridian subtending an angle of 1' at the
centre of curvature of that place.
At poles where the curvature is least, the nautical mile measures 1861.7m while at equator, where the curvature is
largest, the nautical mile measures 1842.9m. This is so because the Earth being flattened at the poles and the bulged
at the equator, the centre of curvature of the polar region will be further away from the Earth's surface than the
centre of curvature of the equatorial region.

Knot It's a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour.

Geographical Mile It is the length of the arc of the equator subtending an angle of 1' at the centre of the Earth.
It is of constant length, equals to 1855.3m.

Statute Mile It's an arbitrary measure of length equal to 5280 ft.

CHARTS
Nautical Chart

A nautical chart represents part of the spherical earth on a plane surface. It shows water depth, the shoreline of
adjacent land, topographic features, aids to navigation, and other navigational information. It is a work area on
which the navigator plots courses, ascertains positions, and views the relationship of the ship to the surrounding
area. It assists the navigator in avoiding dangers and arriving safely at his destination.

PROJECTION
Developable and Non Developable

Because a cartographer cannot transfer a sphere to a flat surface without distortion, he must project the surface of a
sphere onto a developable surface. A developable surface is one that can be flattened to form a plane. This process
is known as chart projection

Orthomorphic

If the immediate neighbourhood of any point represented, the scale along the meridian, along any radial line and
along the parallel of latitude are all equal i.e the scale is same in all direction at any point.

Mercator Chart

Navigators most often use the plane conformal projection known as the Mercator projection. The Mercator
projection is not perspective, and its parallels can be derived mathematically as well as projected geometrically. Its
distinguishing feature is that both the meridians and parallels are expanded at the same ratio with increased
latitude. The expansion is equal to the secant of the latitude, with a small correction for the ellipticity of the earth.
Since the secant of 90° is infinity, the projection cannot include the poles. Since the projection is conformal,
expansion is the same in all directions and angles are correctly shown. Rhumb lines appear as straight lines, the
directions of which can be measured directly on the chart. Distances can also be measured directly if the spread of
latitude is small. Great circles, except meridians and the equator, appear as curved lines concave to the equator.
Small areas appear in their correct shape but of increased size unless they are near the equator.

Meridional Parts

Meridional parts for any latitude is the length of meridian between the Equator and that latitude, on a MERCATOR
CHART measured in units of longitude scale.

DMP ( Difference in Meridional Parts )

DMP between two latitude is the length of a meridian between those latitude on a MERCATOR CHART expressed in
units of longitude scale.

Advantages of Mercator Chart

1. Rhumb line courses are easily laid off as a straight line

2. Distance are easily measured.

3. Distance and position line can be transferred correctly from one part of the chart to another as parallel lines.

Disadvantages of Mercator Chart

1. Great Circle will be curved line.

2. Polar region cannot be represented

3. Areas cannot be compared due to distortion.

4. The scale of distance is of varying unit.

Gnomonic Chart

It is constructed on the gnomonic or tangential projection.

A gnomonic map projection displays all great circles as straight lines, resulting in any straight line segment on a
gnomonic map showing a geodesic, the shortest route between the segment's two endpoints. This is achieved by
casting surface points of the sphere onto a tangent plane, each landing where a ray from the center of the sphere
passes through the point on the surface and then on to the plane. No distortion occurs at the tangent point, but
distortion increases rapidly away from it. Medians appear as straight lines converging towards the poles. Compass
roses are not shown on gnomonic charts as they would be valid for that particular location.

Advantages Of Gnomonic Chart

1. All areas of the world can be presented including Polar region

2. Great circles are easily laid off as a straight line.

Disadvantages Of Gnomonic Chart

1.Rhumb line courses and bearing cannot be laid off easily as they appeared as curved.

2. Distances and courses measurement are difficult.

3. Bearing and position lines cannot be transferred from one part of the chart to another as parallel lines.

Natural Scale

It is the ratio to the distance between two points on the chart to the actual distances between same points in Earth.

E.g Natural Scale 1:50000 means

1 unit on chart equals to 50000 units on Earth between same points.

Chart Correction
1. Refer the latest fortnightly NTM.

2. Go though index, see the chart affected list

3. Note down the chart number and notice number

4. See whether the correction is T or P

5. If Temporary correction, use pencil

6. If Permanent correction , use indelible magenta ink

7. After correction, an entry is made on the bottom left of the chart

8.Cross the appropriate NM number through in pencil in NP133A as you complete each update.

COMPASS ERROR
DIRECTIONAL REFERENCE

Relative Bearings (R) = bearings measured with reference to the ship’s longitudinal axis.

Magnetic Bearings (M) = bearings measured with respect to magnetic north.

True Bearings (T) = bearings measured with respect to true of geographic north

Ship’s Head ( or heading)

It's s special bearing denoting the direction in which the ship is pointing.

TRUE AND MAGNETIC

The true north pole and the magnetic north pole are not in the same place. Since they are offset from each other
there are two different angular measurements we can use. Our choice depends on what type of navigation we are
doing. In celestial navigation we would use true north but for navigating around the bay or between islands we'd
probably use magnetic north. Magnetic has an advantage because our magnetic compass aligns itself with this field.
However, we will still need to be aware of true north. It is good practice to stick with one or the other and label them
correctly when plotting a course on a nautical chart.

The outer rose (circle)

This represents true bearings on the chart where '0', at the top of the rose, always points to true north. True north is
often represented by a star icon, a symbol of the north star, also known as Polaris. True north represents the axis
about which the Earth rotates on a daily basis. A line drawn through '0' and '180' will always point to the north and
south poles. A line drawn through '270' and '90' will always point east and west and be parallel to lines of latitude on
the chart.

The inner rose (circle)

This represents magnetic bearings on the chart where '0', in the upper part of the rose, points to the magnetic north
pole at the time the chart was printed. Since the magnetic poles are moving and shifting we need a way to be able to
update the chart to know where the magnetic pole is now. This is accomplished by reading the inside of the rose
where an annual increase or decrease is written. In the below rose we can see that 8' (the slash after the 8
represents minutes of degrees) must be subtracted from the variation every year after 1985 in order to be accurate.

VARIATION

The angle between magnetic meridian and geographic meridian is known as Variation. Variation is different at
different places. It is termed East, if the Magnetic North lies to the East or right of True North and West if lies West
or left of True North.

The value of the variation at a place is not constant. It changes because the position of the magnetic poles of the
Earth is constantly changing. This change is called Secular change.

DEVIATION

It is the angle between the magnetic meridian and North-South line of the compass card.

Deviation is termed Easterly, if the compass North lies East or right of Magnetic North and Westerly if lies left or
west of Magnetic North.
COMPASS ERROR

Compass Error is the algebaric sum of the deviation and the variation.

Sailing
Departure :Departure between two places is the east-west distance between them in nautical miles.

When the two places are on the same latitude the departure is the distance between them along their parallel of
latitude.

But when two places are in different latitudes, then the departure lies in along the mean latitude.

Mean Latitude :The mean latitude (Lm) is half the arithmetical sum of the latitudes of two places on the same side of
the equator. It is labeled N or S to indicate its position north or south of the equator. If a course line crosses the
equator, solve each course line segment separately.

Middle Latitude

Middle Latitude between two places is the latitude in which the true departure lies, when sailing between them.

Parallel Sailing

When the starting and the destination positions are on the same latitude, the ship could sail along a rhumb line, due
East or West. Sailing in this manner is therefore called parallel sailing.

cos lat = dep/d'long

Plane Sailing

Plane sailing is sailing along the rhumb line from one position to another, which are not situated on the same
latitude.

Tan Co = dep/d'lat

and, Cos Co = d'lat/dist

Mercator Sailing

Mercator Sailing is another method of Rhumb Line Sailing. It is used to find the course and distance between two
positions that are in different latitudes from the large D. Lat. and distance. It is similar to plane sailing, except
that plane sailing is used for small distances. Also, in Mercator sailing, the D. Lat. is expressed in Longitude units,
which is the difference of meridional parts (D.M.P.), whereas in plane sailing, the D. Long. is expressed in latitude
units or nautical miles.

Tan Co = d'long/DMP

Cos Co = D'lat/Dist

Middle Latitude Sailing

Middle-latitude sailing combines plane sailing and parallel sailing. Plane sailing is used to find difference of latitude
and departure when course and distance are known,or vice versa. Parallel sailing is used to inter-convert departure
and difference of longitude.

CELESTIAL system
Celestial Sphere

The celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere of gigantic radius with the earth located at its center.

Celestial Poles

The north and south celestial poles are the two imaginary points in the sky where the Earth's axis of rotation,
indefinitely extended, intersects the celestial sphere.

Equinoctial (Celestial Equator)

The celestial equator is a great circle on the imaginary celestial sphere, in the same plane as the Earth's equator. In
other words, it is a projection of the terrestrial equator out into space.

Parallel Of Declination

These are the small circles on the celestial sphere, the plane of which are parallel to that of Equinoctial

Celestial Meridians

These are the semi great circles on the celestial sphere, the plane of which pass through the celestial poles.

Ecliptic

This is a path of the sun appears to take among the stars due to the annual revolution of the earth in its orbit. It is
considered a great circle of the celestial sphere, inclined at an angle of about 23 deg 17 min to the Celestial Equator,
but undergoing a continuous slight change. This angle is called obliquity of the ecliptic. This inclination is due to the
fact that the axis of rotation of the earth is not perpendicular to its orbit. It is this inclination which causes the sun to
appear to move north and south during the year, giving the earth it's season and changing length of periods of
daylight. First Point Of Aries

On 21st March, at Vernal Equinox, the Sun appears to cross the Equinoctial from South to North at a point on the
Celestial Sphere. This point is called First Point Of Aries.

First Point Of Libra

On 23rd September, at Autumnal Equinox, the Sun appears to cross the Equinoctial from North to South at a point
on the Celestial Sphere. This point is called First Point Of Libra.

Zenith And Nadir

Zenith - The point on the celestial sphere vertically overhead of an observer.

Nadir - The point on the celestial sphere vertically below of the observer or 180 from the zenith.

Vertical Circle

These are the great circle on the Celestial sphere passing through the observer's Zenith and Nadir

Prime Vertical

It is the Vertical Circle passing through the East and West points of the observer rational horizon

Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA)

It is the arc of the equinoctial or tha angle at the celestial poles contained between the celestial meridian of the First
Point of Aries and that through the body, measured westwards from Aries.

Right Ascension (RA)

It is the arc of the equinoctial or the angle at the celestial poles contained between the Celestial Meridian of the first
point of Aries and through the body, measured eastward from Aries.

SHA + RA = 360 degree

Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA)

It is the arc of the Equinoctial or the angle at the celestial poles contained between celestial meridian of Greenwich
and that of the body, measured westward from Greenwich.

Local Hour Angle (LHA)

It is the arc of the Equinoctial or the angle at the celestial poles contained between observer's celestial meridian and
celestial meridian through that of the body, measured westward from the observer.

Rational Horizon

The observer's rational horizon is a great circle on the celestial sphere, every point on which is 90 degree away from
his zenith.

True Altitude

True Altitude of a body is the arc of the vertical circle through that body contained between the rational horizon and
the centre of the body.

Zenith Distance

ZD of the body is the arc of the vertical circle through the body contained between the observer's zenith and the
centre of the body.

ZD + Altitude = 90 degree

Azimuth

The azimuth of a celestial body is the arc of the observer's rational horizon or thr angle at his zenith contained
between the observer's celestial meridian and the vertical circle through that body.

Amplitude

The amplitude of a celestial body is the arc of the observer's rational horizon or thr angle at his zenith contained
between the observer's prime vertical and the vertical circle through that body, when the body is at observer's
rational horizon i.e at sunrise or sunset.

SOLAR SYSTEM
Solar system consists of the Sun, the planets, the planetary satellites, asteroids, comets and meteors.

Sun has a dia (865,000 miles) of more than 700 times larger than all the other bodies taken together. It is the only
body of the solar system which radiates light. It rotates about its own axis, completing one rotation in about 25 days.

There are eight non-luminous planets which we see only because they reflect light and they exhibit phases like the
moon.

In order of distance from the sun, they are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. All
planets revolve about the Sun in anti-clockwise direction in elliptical orbits. They also rotate on their own axis in the
direction.

Kepler's Second Law (Law of Equal Areas)

A line from the planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal amounts of time.

With elliptical orbits a planet is sometimes closer to the sun than it is at other times. The point at which it is closest is
called perihelion. The point at which a planet is farthest is called aphelion. Kepler's second law basically says that the
planets speed is not constant – moving slowest at aphelion and fastest at perihelion. The law allows an astronomer
to calculate the orbital speed of a planet at any point.

Kepler's Third Law (Law Of Harmonics)

The period of a planet's orbit squared is proportional to its average distance from the sun cubed.

The average distance of a planet from the sun is equal to its semimajor axis (a). If the period (P) is measured in years
and the semimajor axis (a) is given in astronomical units (the earth sun distance is 1 AU) then Kepler's 3rd can be
written:

P^2 = a^3.

Apparent Motion Of The Sun

During the year the earth moves around the sun. As a result, the sun appears to move around the sky once with
respect to the stars as seen from Earth.

Earth takes about 365 and a quarter days to travel once around the sun. Since the earth moves around the sun and
we are resident on the earth, it means that the sun appears to shift in the sky about 1 degree per day. This number
is calculated by taking the total degrees in a circle (360 deg, since the earth moves 360 degrees around the sun) and
dividing that amount by the total number of days in a year (365.2422). The result is 360 deg / 365.2422 days to
equal about 1 degree per day.

The plane of the earth's orbit is called the ecliptic. Since the earth orbits the sun, the sun is also on the ecliptic. As a
result, the sun appears to us to move around the sky on the ecliptic.

Since SHA is a westward measurement from First point of Aries, and since the Sun appears to move eastwards on the
celestial sphere, the SHA of the Sun reduces constantly by about 1°/day.

Apparent Motion Of Superior Planets

Earth and Jupiter (Superior Planet) are moving eastward in their orbits, the Earth moves faster according to Kepler's
Third Law. Thus as viewed from Earth, it appears to stop its apparent eastward motion and then appears to move
westward. Thereafter, as the Earth continues to move in its orbit, Jupiter once again appears to sop and then move
eastward on the celestial sphere. Thus, it can be seen that superior planets exhibit a large apparent direct (eastward)
motion followed by a small backward or retrogade motion westwards, once again followed by a large direct motion
and so on.

Apparent Motion Of Inferior Planets

An inferior planet, such as Venus moves at faster rate in its orbit than the Earth. If the Earth was stationary, Venus
would appear to swing forward and backward in the same sector of sky. But since the Earth itself moves eastward in
its orbit, this whole sector continuously swings eastward, Thus, inferior planet also exhibit a large apparent direct
motion followed by a smaller retrograde motion.

Elongation Of Planet or Moon

It is the angle at the centre of the Earth contained between the centre of the Sun and the centre of the planet or the
Moon, measured along the plane of the ecliptic.
A planet can be at an eastern or western elongation, depending on whether the planet lies to the east or west of the
Sun as seen from the Earth. The elongation of a superior planet can vary from 0° to 180°. Inferior planets, however,
range between 0° and a greatest elongation

● Conjunction - An elongation of 0° (co-linear with the Earth and the Sun). An inferior conjunction occurs when the
planet lies between the Earth and the Sun. A superior conjunction occurs when the planet lies on the opposite side
of the Sun to the Earth. Only inferior planets can be at inferior conjunction.

● Opposition - An elongation of 180° (co-linear with the Earth and the Sun). At opposition, a planet lies on the
observer's meridian at apparent midnight. Inferior planets can never be at opposition.

● Quadrature - An elongation of 90°. A planet can be at either eastern or western quadrature, depending on
whether the planet lies to the east or the west of the Sun when viewed from the Earth. Inferior planets can never be
at quadrature.

Maximum Elongation

The maximum elongation of a given planet occurs when the inner planet's position, in its orbital path to the Sun, is at
tangent to the observer on Earth.

Venus as a Morning and Evening Star

When the Venus is in conjunction with the Sun, as at V1, to an observer on the Earth, they would appear to rise,
culminate and set together.

Morning Star - When Venus has a westerly elongation i.e at V2. Venus would be visible to observer on Earth at Z1.
Here Venus would be visible till the Sun rises. For Sun to rise, the Earth would have to rotate further, till the observer
is brought to Z2. Once the Sun rises, Venus would be no longer visible with the naked eyes. Venus would be visible
only before sunrise

Evening Star - When Venus has an Easterly Elongation i.e at V3. A person on Earth at Z3 would experience sunset.
Here Venus and Sun both would be above horizon but due to brilliance of Sun, Venus would not be visible. When
Earth would rotate further, so that the observer would come at Z3. Here Sun would set and would go below the
horizon but Venus would still be above horizon and visible. Venus would be visible only in the evening after sunset.

EARTH-MOON SYSTEM
Barycentre

Earth and Moon revolve about each other around the common centre of gravity of the Earth Moon system. This
point is called Barycentre.

Sidereal Period Of the Moon

It is the period of the time taken by the Moon to complete one revolution of 360° around the Earth. It is of constant
duration which equals to 27 days 07 Hrs 43 Mins 12 seconds i.e. 27.33 days (approx).

Synodic Period Of the Moon

It is the period of time between two consecutive New Moons or two consecutive Full Moons. It has an average
length of about 29 days 12 hrs 44 mins.

The length of synodic period is not constant. It can have maximum variation of about 13 Hrs from the mean value,
due to eccentricity of the Moon's orbit and that of the Earth's orbit. Nodes

The orbit of the Moon is inclined at an average of about 5° 08' to the plane of ecliptic.

Node - The points at which the Moon's orbit intersects the Ecliptic are called the Moon's Nodes

Ascending Node - The node which the Moon crosses the Ecliptic from South to North.
Descending Node - The node which the Moon crosses the Ecliptic from North to South.

Phases Of Moon
● Waxing - From New Moon to Full Moon, since the visible area of the Moon's illuminated surface is increasing, the
Moon is said to be waxing.

● Waning - From Full Moon to New Moon, since the visible area of the Moon's illuminated surface is decreasing, the
Moon is said to be waning.

● The Age of the Moon - It is the period of the time elapsed, since the last New Moon.

● Harvest Moon - The Full Moon which occurs nearest the autumnal equinox is called the Harvest Moon.

ECLIPSES
Solar Eclipse

A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon gets between Earth and the Sun, and the Moon casts a shadow over Earth. A
solar eclipse can only take place at the phase of new moon, when the moon passes directly between the Sun and
Earth and its shadows fall upon Earth’s surface.

● Types of Solar Eclipse :-

1. Total Solar Eclipse - Within the umbra region, area on the Earth will have complete darkness because the Moon
covers the Moon covers the entire face of the Sun and no light from the Sun reaches that area. This solar eclipse is
called Total Solar Eclipse.

2. Partial Solar Eclipse - A partial eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are not exactly in line and the Moon only
partially obscures the Sun. This phenomenon can usually be seen from a large part of the Earth outside of the track
of an annular or total eclipse.

3. Annular Solar Eclipse - An annular eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are exactly in line, but the apparent size
of the Moon is smaller than that of the Sun. Hence the Sun appears as a very bright ring, or annulus, surrounding the
dark disk of the Moon.

4. Hybrid Solar Eclipse - A hybrid eclipse (also called annular/total eclipse) shifts between a total and annular eclipse.
At certain points on the surface of Earth it appears as a total eclipse, whereas at other points it appears as annular.
Hybrid eclipses are comparatively rare.

Condition For Total Solar Eclipse

i) GHA or SHA of Sun and Moon should be equal

ii) Declination of Sun and Moon should be equal and of the same name

Lunar Eclipse

A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes directly behind the Earth into its umbra (shadow). This can occur only
when the sun, Earth and moon are aligned exactly, or very closely so, with the Earth in the middle. Hence, a lunar
eclipse can occur only the night of a full moon. Lunar eclipses occur when Earth's shadow blocks the sun's light,
which otherwise reflects off the moon.

● Types of Lunar Eclipse :-

1. Total lunar eclipse - When the Moon is entirely within the umbra of the Earth, no light from the Sun reaches any
part of the Moon. The entire Moon then become invisible. Such an occurrence is termed as Total Lunar Eclipse.

2. Penumbral Lunar Eclipse - When the Moon is entirely within the penumbra of the Earth, a part of the Sun's ray fall
over the entire illuminated hemisphere of the Moon. We then see the Full Moon but with greatly diminished
brilliance. Such occurrence is called Peneumbral Lunar Eclpise.

3. Partial Lunar Eclipse - When the Moon is partly within the Umbra and partly within the Penumbra of the Earth,
that part of the Moon within the umbra becomes invisible while that part within penumbra will be visible with very
much diminished brilliance. Such an occurrence is termed as Partial Lunar Eclipse.

Condition For Lunar Eclipse

i) GHA or SHA of Sun and Moon should differ by 180°

ii) Declination of Sun and Moon should be equal and of the opposite name

TIME
The Day

It is the interval between two successive passages of a heavenly body over the same meridian.

Sidereal Day

It is the interval in time between two successive meridian passages of the First point of Aries over the same
meridian.

The sidereal day is the true rotational period of the Earth. It has a duration of 23 Hrs 56 Mins 04.1 sec of Mean
Solar Time.

The Sun makes an apparent revolution of 360° around the Earth in about 365 1/4 days. With reference to the
distant stars and First point of Aries, Sun appears to move eastward by about 1°/day. Therefore from one
meridian passage of the Sun to the next, the Earth has to rotate approximately 361°. Therefore a solar day is
about 4 mins longer than sidereal day.

Apparent Solar Day

It is the interval in time between two successive transits of the True Sun, across the same meridian.

The apparent solar day in not of constant duration. The variation is caused due to :-

i) the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit

ii) the obliquity of the Ecliptic

To complete an apparent solar day, the Earth would therefore have to rotate 360° + a larger angle at perihelion and
360° + smaller angle at aphelion.

The Mean Sun

It is an imaginary body assumed to move along the Equinoctial at a uniform rate, equal to average rate of motion of
the True Sun on the Ecliptic.
Mean Solar Day

It is the interval in time between two successive meridian passages of the Mean Sun across the same meridian.

It is of constant duration of 24 Hrs of Mean Solar Time.

Local Mean Time or Ship's Mean Time (LMT or SMT)

It is the westerly hour angle of the Mean Sun measured from the observer's inferior meridian.

Greenwhich Mean Time (GMT)

It is the westerly hour angle of the Mean Sun measured from the inferior meridian of Greenwhich.

Local Apparent Time or Apparent Time Ship (LAT or ATS)

It is the westerly hour angle of the True Sun measured from the observer's inferior meridian.

Greenwhich Apparent Time (GAT)

It is the westerly hour angle of the True Sun measured from the inferior meridian of Greenwhich.

Local Sidereal Time (LST)

It is the westerly hour angle of the First Point of Aries measured from observer's meridian.

Greencwhich Sidereal Time (GST)

It is the westerly hour angle of the First point of Aries measured from the Greenwhich meridian.

SEXTANT
A sextant is an instrument used to measure the angle between any two visible objects. Its primary use is to
determine the angle between a celestial object and the horizon which is known as the object's altitude.

The angle, and the time when it was measured, can be used to calculate a position line on a nautical chart.

The scale of a sextant has a length of 1/6 turn (60°); hence the sextant's name (sextāns, - antis is the Latin word for -
one sixth.

PRINCIPLE OF SEXTANT

When a ray of light, suffers two successive reflection in the same plane, by two plane mirror, the angle between the
incident ray and the reflected ray is twice the angle between the mirrors.

ERRORS

1. ADJUSTABLE ERRORS

A. ERROR OF PERPENDICULARITY- This is when the index mirror is not perpendicular to the frame of the sextant.

To test for this, place the index arm at about 60° on the arc and hold the sextant horizontally with the arc away from
you at arms length and look into the index mirror. The arc of the sextant should appear to continue unbroken into
the mirror. If there is an error then the two views will appear to be broken.
Turn the first adjustment screw at the back of the Index Glass, until they appear in alignment.

B. SIDE ERROR-

This occurs when the horizon glass/mirror is not perpendicular to the plane of the instrument.

To test for this, first zero the index arm then observe a star through the sextant.Then rotate the tangent adjustment
screw back and forth so that the reflected image passes alternately above and below the direct view. If in changing
from one position to another the reflected image passes directly over the unreflected image, no side error exists. If it
passes to one side, side error exists.

Adjust the 2nd adjustment screw (at the back of the Horizon glass) till there is no horizontal displacement between
them.

C. INDEX ERROR-

When looking through a sextant at the horizon the exact level horizon will seldom be seen to be at 0°. It is caused
when index glass and the horizon glass are not parallel to each other, when the index bar is at zero.

To test , clamp the index bar at zero and holding the sextant vertically, view the horizon through the telescope. If the
true horizon and its reflection appears in the same line, index error is not present.

Adjust the 3rd adjustment screw (at the end of the Horizon glass) to get rid of this error.

2.NON ADJUSTABLE ERRORS

A. Graduation error - Inaccurate graduation of main scale on the arc or micrometer.

B. Shade Error - Shades not being parallel to each other.

C. Centring error - Pivot of the index bar not being coincident with the centre of the circle.

D. Optical error - Due to prismatic errors of mirrors.

Altitude Correction
● Visible Horizon - It is the small circle on the Earth's surface, bounding the observer's field of vision at sea.

● Sensible Horizon - It is the small circle on the Celestial sphere, the plane of which passes through the observer's
eye, and is parallel to the observer's rational horizon.

● Sextant Altitude - It is the altitude of a body, above the visible horizon, as read off from the sextant.

● Observed Altitude - Observed Altitude of a celestial body is the angle at the observer between the body and the
direction to the observer's visible horizon.

● True Altitude - True altitude of the heavenly body is the arc of a vertical circle, or the angle at the centre of the
Earth contained between the plane of the observer's rational horizon and the centre of the body.

● Index Error - It is the instrumental error of the sextant used in measuring altitude. (I.E added it is OFF the arc and
subtracted if ON the arc)

● Dip - It is the angle at the observer between the plane of observer's sensible horizon, and the direction of his
visible horizon. Given in the 1st page of Almanac and it is always -ve

● Apparent Altitude - It is the sextant altitude corrected for Index error and dip.
● Parallax - Parallax corrections are needed if the observed body is a planet, the sun or the moon from the Almanac.
This correction is applied to obtain the altitude of the body above the observer's rational horizon. In the below
figure, angle p is tha parallax.

● Horizontal Parallax - It is the angle at the centre of the body contained between the centre of the Earth and
observer at the surface of the Earth, when the body is on the observer's sensible horizon.

● Refraction - It is extracted from the Nautical Almanac. It allows for the 'bending' of light rays as they travel through
successive layers of varying density air. When passing from rarer medium into denser medium, the ray refracts
towards the normal to the surface of separation between the two media. Since increases the apparent altitude of
the body, refraction correction is always negative. Refraction has a maximum value of 34.5' when the body is on the
horizon and it decreases as the altitude increases.

● Semi-diameter - This correction needed if the observed body is the sun or the moon. In this case either the top or
bottom of the celestial object (known as upper or lower limb) is made to touch the horizon. To obtain the center of
the body this correction is applied. SD of the Sun is tabulated, once for every 3 days, in the ephemeris pages of
Nautical Almanac, whereas it is tabulated for each day for the Moon

Latitude by Meridian Altitude

Altitude of the body is taken when the body is on observer's meridian. Its azimuth at that time would be either 000°
or 180°, hence PL will be 090°---270°.

Procedure :-

1. Find LMT and GMT of the meridian passage of the sun;

2. Use the GMT to extract the declination of the sun;

3. Take the altitude of the sun at LMT, make correction to obtain true altitude, and name it according to the bearing;

4. Calculate the zenith distance and name it opposite to the altitude;

5. Draw the sketch;

6. Apply the declination, zenith distance to obtain the latitude.

PZX triangke
Body (X) is before the meridian

NWSE (outer circle) - Rational Horizon

Z - Zenith of the observer

PZS - Observer Celestial Meridian

P - Elevated Pole

WZE - Observer Prime Vertical

AZA' - Vertical circle through the body

XsXmXr - Declination circle of the body X

WQE - Equinoctial

ZQ - Latitude = NP
QXm - Declination of the Body

PX - Polar Distance

PZ - 90 - ZQ(lat) = co-latitude

A'X - Altitude

ZX - Zenith Distance

Angle PZX - Azimuth

Angle A'ZE - Amplitude

Latitude By Meridian Altitude

For a stationary observer, the meridian altitude of a body will be maximum altitude attained by the body. Since the
body is on the observer's meridian, it's bearing will be exactly North or South and hence PL will run East-West. Since
the body is on the Observer's meridian, therefore LHA will be zero (Refer first fig)

Steps:

Step 1 : Obtain GMT of meridian passage of the body from Almanac using DR Long.

Step 2 : Using GMT, find the Declination of the body.

Step 3 : Get the True Altitude of the body (using Sextant with all the corrections applied)

Step 4 : Subtract 90 degree from True Altitude to get Zenith Distance.

Step 5 : Get the Latitude by adding or subtracting the declination from ZD.

In the above figure, Xm is the body at observer's meridian.

ZXm - Zenith distance of the body

XmQ - Declination of the body

Hence, Latitude(ZQ) = ZXm + XmQ

(Note - This is the case of North Latitude and North Declination. Figure out the concept with other combinations also
i.e S Dec and N Lat ,S Dec and S Lat and N Dec and S Lat.)

Latitude By Lower Meridian Altitude

A body at its lower meridian passage means the body is below the pole as its altitude will be less than that of the
Pole. It also means that the Body is on the inferior meridian passage of the observer's and hence LHA will be 180°.

PX' = PX (radius)

and 90°-PX = Dec(XQ)

NP(Lat) = NX'(T Alt) + X'P(Polar Dist)

And X'P(or XP) = 90°- Dec

If the latitude and declination are of same name, then only body can be visible at lower merdian passage.
Circumpolar Bodies
For a body to be circumpolar, the body should always be above the rational horizon i.e the body should not set.
Therefore, circumpolar bodies will appear when is on observer's meridian and again when on the observer's inferior
meridian.

Conditions for a body to be circumpolar:-

1. Declination should be of same name as the observer's latitude.

2. Lat + Dec >=90°

Upper meridian altitude = NX

Lower meridian altitude = NX'

XX' = NX-NX'

or, Polar Distance (PX) = XX'/2

or, Dec (XQ) = 90° - Polar Dist (PX)

or, Observer's Lat (ZQ=NP)= NX' + X'P

Azimuth
The azimuth of a celestial body is the arc of the observer's rational horizon or thr angle at his zenith contained
between the observer's celestial meridian and the vertical circle through that body.

Calculation :-

Get the LHA(P) and Dec from Almanac, using GMT

●A = tan lat / tan P

(Name Opp to lat when LHA is in between 270 and 90 and same if LHA is in between 90 and 270)

●B = tan dec / sin P

(Name same as declination)

●C = Algebraic Sum of A and B

●tan Az = 1/(C * cos lat)

Naming Of Azimuth (eg - N 35° E)

N/S - same name as of C

E - If body is before the observer's meridian (LHA between 180 and 360)

W - If body is after the observer's meridian (LHA between 0 and 180)

Napier's Rule
Maximum Azimuth
Case 1 - When the declination of the body is opposite to that of observer's latitude

In this case the max azimuth of the body is when the body is on horizon.

Case 2 - When the declination of the body is same of the observer's latitude

Draw a tangent line from zenith to the declination circle. The azimuth in this case will be the maximum azimuth.

Using Napier's rule

or, sin PX = cos (90-PZ) x cos (90-Z)

or, sin (90-dec) = cos lat x coz Az

or, cos dec = cos lat x cos Az

or, This Az is the maximum azimuth of that body

Amplitude The amplitude of a celestial body is the arc of the observer's rational horizon or thr angle at his zenith
contained between the observer's prime vertical and the vertical circle through that body, when the body is at
observer's rational horizon i.e at sunrise or sunset.

Using Napier's rule,

or, sin (90-PX) = cos Z x cos (90-PZ)

or, sin dec = sin (90-Z) x cos lat

or, sin dec = sin amp x cos lat

Hence, sin amp = sin dec x sec lat

TWILIGHT
Rising and Setting Of Celestial Bodies
As the Earth rotates on its axis from west to east, all heavenly bodies appear to rise in the east, move westwards,
gaining in altitude until it is on the observer’s meridian. After culmination, body continues to move westwards
decreasing altitude till it sets over the western horizon.

For a Stationary Observer :

The interval between rising and culmination of a body will be equal to the interval between its culmination and
setting, provided its declination remains unchanged. Also, the amplitude at rising will be equal to that at setting.

For an Observer at North Pole :

His zenith coincides with the celestial North pole, and his rational horizon would coincide with that of equinoctial.

A celestial body with 0° declination would appear to the observer to move along his rational horizon completing a
circle in exactly the same period as the Earth completes a rotation of 360 i.e. 23h 56m 04s of Mean Solar Time.
Body with North declinations would also appear to move along a circle maintaining constant altitudes equal to their
declinations. They would remain above the horizon at all times. Bodies with South declination would always remain
below the horizon and would not therefore be visible.

For an Observer on the Equator :

The rational horizon would be in the plane of the Earth’s axis, passing through the celestial poles.

The equinoctial and all declination circles will bisect at right angles, by his rational horizon.

All celestial bodies whether having N’ly, S’ly or 0° declination will, therefore, remain above the horizon for exactly
half the day and below the horizon for the remaining half.

All bodies will rise and set perpendicular to the horizon.

When the body is on the observer’s celestial meridian, its declination is equal to (90°-True alt) and named same as
the bearing of the body.

For an Observer on the Intermediate North Latitude :

The North celestial pole would be between the zenith and his horizon. The RH will bisect the equinoctial at his east
and west points.

A celestial body with 0° declination would be above the horizon for exactly half the day and below the horizon for
the other half.

The altitude of the celestial pole is equal to the latitude of the observer As the observer’s latitude increases, the
elevated pole approaches his zenith.

Therefore, a major part of the declination circles of bodies with N’ly declination (same name as latitude) would lie
above the horizon and a smaller arc below it. Bodies with N’ly declinations would, therefore, remain above the
horizon for greater part of the day. They would rise and set bearing northwards of his east and west points
respectively.

If the N’ly declination of the body is large enough, its declination circle would lie entirely above the horizon. Such
bodies would not, therefore, rise or set, but would remain above the horizon throughout the day. They are then said
to be circumpolar

Declination circles of bodies with a S’ly declination (of the opposite name to the observer’s latitude) will lie with a
major arc of the circle below the horizon and a minor arc above. They would appear to rise and set bearing
southwards of the observer’s east and west points respectively. If the S’ly declination was large enough, the
declination circle would lie entirely below the horizon and the body would then not be visible during any part of the
day.

Theoretical and Visible Sunrise and Sunset

● Occurs when the True sun’s centre is on the observer’s rational horizon.

● Then the true altitude of the Sun is 0° and the true zenith distance 90°.

● The times of theoretical sunrise or sunset can be obtained by solving the PZX triangle in which ZX is 90°.

● Visible sunrise and sunset are not at True Altitude of 0°, because of corrections for refraction, semi-diameter, dip,
etc.

● Assuming the Sun to be at the sea level, the true altitude of the Sun at visible sunrise and sunset is about 0 40′, the
true zenith distance then is therefore 89° 20.
● Because of this visible sunrise occurs before theoretical sunrise and visible sunset after theoretical sunset.

Calculating the time of Sunrise and Sunset

1. Get the LMT of sunrise/sunset from daily sunrise/sunset column from Almanac by interpolation

2. Obtain the GMT from LMT using LIT

3. Apply the zone time, to get the local sunrise/sunset.

TWILIGHT

Twilight is the light received from the sun, when the sun is below the horizon, i.e. before the sunrise and after the
sunset. Though the Sun is below the horizon, it illuminated the upper layers of the atmosphere.

Twilight completely ceases in the evening, when the sun is 18° vertically below the horizon. After that, there is total
darkness.

Stages Of Twilight

1. Astronomical Twilight - The time after sunset and before sunrise when the Sun's centre is in between 12° to 18°
below the rational horizon.

2. Nautical Twilight - The time after sunset and before sunrise when the Sun's centre is in between 6° to 12° below
the rational horizon.

3. Civil Twilight - The time after sunset and before sunrise when the Sun is below the horizon but Sun's centre not
more than 6° below it.

In the Morning - Started with Astronomical Twilight followed by Nautical and then Civil Twilight.

In the Evening - Started with Civil Twilight followed by Nautical and then Astronomical Twilight.

We can see in the above fig, when the observer is in low latitude, Sun rises and sets almost perpendicular to the
horizon, covering 18 degree belt in shorter arc, therefore in a shorter period of time.

Whereas, when the observer is in high latitude, the Sun rises and sets much more oblique angle to the horizon, thus
covering the 18 degree belt over larger arc and therefore over much larger period of time.

Conditions for having night for some part of the 24 hrs

Either of the two conditions must be satisfied :

1. Observer's latitude and Sun's declination are of opposite name.

2. If they are of same names, then Lat + Dec should be less than equal to 90°.

Condition For Continuous Twilight

It means that the Sun should not go below 18 degree belt.

This can only happen if observer's lat and Sun's dec are of same name and,:-

(i) lat + dec less than equals to 90° (so that sun will not set)

(ii) lat + dec + 18° should be more than equals to 90° ( so that the sun will not go below twilight belt)
 Great Circle Sailing

Great Circle Sailing is used for long ocean passages. For this purpose, the earth is considered a perfect spherical
shape; therefore, the shortest distance between two points on its surface is the arc of the great circle containing two
points. As the track is the circle, so the course is constantly changing, and the track must be broken down into a
series of short rhumb lines at frequent intervals that can be used to sail on the Mercator chart. Doing this, the
navigator would use the Gnomonic charts combined with the Mercator charts to draw he sailing track.

The great circle between two position in the same hemisphere will curve towards the pole of that hemisphere.

The great circle track from a position in one hemisphere to a position on the other will curve towards the pole of the
hemisphere in which the position with the higher of the two latitude lies.

Vertex

The arc of a great circle will always curve towards the nearest pole and away from the equator.

The vertex is the point on a great circle that is closest to the pole; by knowing the latitude of the vertex, if it is too
high, the navigator might have to modify the passage plan for a safer voyage. There are two vertices on a great
circle, 180° apart; the nearer vertex is usually the chosen one for navigational calculation.

The vertex’s latitude is always numerically equal to or greater than the latitude of any other point on the great circle,
including the latitude of departure and destination. At the vertex, the great circle is running in a direction of
090°/270°.

Knowing the position of the vertex also helps in calculating the position of any intermediate position on the track of
a great circle. In the spherical triangle APB, if angles A and B are less than 90°; the vertex will lie inside the triangle
between A and B, as shown in the figure (1) below, and the ship’s track passes through the vertex. If either A or B is
greater than 90°, the vertex will lie outside the spherical triangle and on the side of the angle which is greater than
90°, as shown in the figure (2) below, and the ship’s track does not pass through the vertex.

Great Circle Solution dia