BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr.

Y ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel

SITE INVESTIGATION SITE INVESTIGATION

SITE INVESTIGATION
Site investigation is carried in most cases as a preliminary to new works. Investigation to the safety of existing works

To investigate existing works and decide whether the latter will

Chapter 4 The reasons for site investigation are given below: adversely be affected by changes in ground conditions.

ROAD CONSTRUCTION
• Investigation of defects of existing roads
• Investigation to the safety of existing works. Existing works may be affected by the following:
• Investigation relating to the suitability and availability of materials for constructional purposes.
• excavations may reduced ground support
• tunneling or mining which may cause subsidence
Investigation of defects of existing roads • vibrations ( eg. from piling operation) which may cause fractures
• extra load created by new works may overload stratum supporting
This type of investigation is necessary to establish the cause of existing works
the failure and to provide information indicative of remedy. • soil movement due to heat induced by proximity to plant
installations.
Measurements and observations of the structure are taken to • ground water lowering
indicate whether or not the ground conditions are involved. • disturbed drainage path may cause flooding and instability of
slopes.
This investigation will reveal the level of ground water and the
true state of sub-strata.
1 2 3

1
BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel

SITE INVESTIGATION ROAD CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

 ROUTE SURVEY  SITE CLEARANCE

Investigation relating to the suitability and availability of

materials for constructional purposes  SIT E INVEST IGAT ION  EART HWORKS

There are two quite different problems with the mass

movement of earth:

(1) Disposal
- e.g. in the case of spoil from cuts

(2) Acquisition
- e.g for large fill projects such as reclaimation

In both cases however, investigation is necessary to

establish the quantity and suitability of the soil for the
purpose for which it is to be used.

4 5 6

2
 BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel

 SUBGRADE COMPACTION AND LEVELLING  SUB-BASE CONST RUCT ION  BASE CONSTRUCTION

 ESTABLISHING T HE FORMAT ION LEVEL

7 8 9

3
 BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel

EARTHWORKS

 APPLYING OF PRIME COAT  APPLYING OF TACK COAT This process consists of clearing, grubbing and stripping in road construction
area. It also includes the demolition and disposal of soils to a formation lev el
 LAYING OF BINDER COURSE  LAYING OF WEARING COURSE (top of the sub grade).

Activity Work Description Measurement

ROAD IS COMPLETED.
Cutting, removal and disposal of
everything above ground level
including object overhanging the
Clearing area to be cleared
Levelling of obsolete dikes,
terraces, ditches
Removal and disposal of surface
vegetation, roots, underground
Grubbing
parts of the structure and other
obstruction
Stripping Removal topsoil or stockpiling
10 11
All stumps and roots be removed to a
depth of not less than 0.3 m below the
propose road.
This requirement also usually holds in
embankment areas where the height of
the feel not less than about 1.5 m.
In embankment section when the
embankment height is to be more than
1.5 m, tree and stump may be left in
place and cut off at ground level or at a
height of 75-150 mm above the existing
ground surface.
12

4
 BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel

EARTHWORKS EARTHWORKS EARTHWORKS

Excavation
Earthmoving Equipment Earthmoving Equipment
Shovel
Excavation increases the volume of material.
Bulldozer - This is used primarily for pushing soil. Vehicles Shovels - These again are normally wheeled vehicles and
are generally tracked and require large amounts of are used to fill up the dump trucks. Typically they take 2-3
It is therefore necessary to use a bulking factor to determine the volume of material that will be traction. Many bulldozers incorporate hydraulic loads to fill an average dump truck. Excavator
created by excavation. attachments at the rear for breaking up soil and rock. The
Bulldozer
best known of the vehicles. Hydraulic Excavators - These can be either wheeled or
Bulking factor is defined as: tracked and are used again to excavate below truck level.
Drag Line - This vehicle allows excavation below it's own They have a very small capacity and are extremely
level. It is essentially a bucket on the end of a jib and is flexible.
Bulking Factor = Volume after Excavation / Volume before Excavation
used solely for bulk excavation as it is relatively
uncontrolled. Grader - Used to level out deposited fill, ready for
Drag Line
compaction. Grader
Similarly a shrinkage factor is defined for the compaction of a soil at it's final destination: Dump Truck - These are wheeled vehicles and as such are
able to move much faster. This is offset by a lack of Rollers - There are many different types of roller and they
Shrinkage Factor = Volume after Compaction / Volume before Excavation traction and dump trucks are always the first to get stuck. are used for compaction. Different types include vibratory,
They are used for transferring material from one part of sheepsfoot and grid. Vibratory are the most common as
the site to another.
they have effectively double the effect.
13 14 Roller 15
Dump Truck

5
 BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel

MASS HAUL DIAGRAM MASS HAUL DIAGRAM MASS HAUL DIAGRAM

In order to minimize material waste or borrow, it is necessary to produce what is called a Mass Calculation of Cross Sectional Area
Haul diagram. A rising curve indicates an increasing
volume (cut). The first stage in the production of the Mass Haul Diagram is the calculation of the cross
This is essentially a plot of cumulative volume of soil against distance along the road, often sectional areas of cut or fill at different points along the road.
called the chainage. A maximum point on the curve represents
the end of a cut. For a cut or fill on horizontal ground
Cut volumes are taken to be positive and fill volumes to be negative. Assuming a cut such as the one above, the cross sectional area is given by:
A falling curve represents a decreasing
volume (fill). 1 
Area = hb  2 h( nh) 
2 
A minimum point represents the end of a
fill.
= hb + nh2

Areas at the end of the diagram represent

a waste or a deficit. = h(b + nh)

16 17 18

6
 BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel

MASS HAUL DIAGRAM MASS HAUL DIAGRAM (a) Construct a Mass Haul diagram for the project given the following:
Bulking Factor = 0.8
Example Calculation
Shrinkage Factor = 1.0
For a cut or fill on sloping ground The table below shows ground levels and formation levels for a proposed road construction.
Embankments are to be built with side slopes of 1:2.5 and cuttings with slopes of 1:3.0. The
Assuming a cut such as the one above, the cross sectional area is found firstly by embankment crest width and cutting base width is 13m. It may be assumed that the ground
calculating WL and WG: is horizontal across the section.

b 
WL =
S   nh 
2 
S n
b 
S   nh 
WG = 2 
S n

1 b  b2
Thus Area =  h  (WL  WG ) 
2 2n  4n

19 20 21

7
BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel

(b) A river breaks up the project at chainage 1160m. Calculate the volumes of
waste material and borrow for this scenarios: River
(i) Material cannot be moved across the river
MASS HAUL DIAGRAM
MASS HAUL DIAGRAM
50000 Distance (m) 150 130 220 240 420 120 220
40000
50000
150 280 500 740 1160 1280
Cut (m3 ) 15,000 36,000 49,000
Cumulative volume (cubic meter)

30000 15,000 36,000 68,000 11,000

40000 Fill (m3 )
20000

Cumulative volume (cubic meter)

30000 Haul (m3 ) 15,000 36,000 11,000
10000
20000
0 68,000
10000 Borrow (m3)
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500
-10000 38,000
0 Waste (m3 )
-20000

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500
-10000
-30000
-20000
-40000
-30000 Borrow = 68,000 m 3
-50000
-40000
-60000
-50000
Waste = 38,000 m 3
-70000
-60000
-80000
-70000
-90000
-80000
Chainange (m) Fill Cut Cut Fill Fill Fill Cut
-90000

22 Chainange (m) 23 24

8
 BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel

(b) A river breaks up the project at chainage 1160m. Calculate the volumes of
waste material and borrow for this scenarios:
(ii) A Bailey bridge is constructed allowing material to be transported across the river

MASS HAUL DIAGRAM

Distance (m) 150 130 220 240 540 220

50000
150 280 500 740 1280
Cut (m3 ) 15,000 36,000 49,000
40000 Fill (m3 ) 15,000 36,000 79,000
Cumulative volume (cubic meter)

30000 Haul (m3 ) 15,000 36,000 49,000

20000
10000 Borrow (m 3) 30,000
0 Waste (m 3 )
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500
-10000
-20000
-30000 Borrow = 30,000 m 3
-40000
-50000
Waste = 0 m 3
-60000
-70000
-80000
Fill Cut Cut Fill Fill Fill Cut
-90000
Chainange (m) 25 26 27

9
 BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel

SUBGRADE PREPARATION SUBGRADE PREPARATION SUBGRADE PREPARATION

The subgrade is the in-situ material upon which the pavement structure is placed. Subgrade Performance Improving Subgrade Performance

The subgrade can often be the overriding factor in pavement performance. A subgrade’s performance generally depends on two interrelated characteristics:
Increasing the load-bearing capacity of the subgrade soil will most likely improve pavement (1) Load bearing capacity
load-bearing capacity and thus, pavement strength and performance. - The subgrade must be able to support loads transmitted from the pavement structure.
- This load bearing capacity is often affected by degree of compaction, moisture
Additionally, greater subgrade structural capacity can result in thinner (but not excessively thin) content, and soil type.
and more economical pavement structures. - A subgrade that can support a high amount of loading without excessive deformation
is considered good.
The finished subgrade should meet elevations, grades and slopes specified in the contract
plans. (2) Volume changes
- Most soils undergo some amount of volume change when exposed to excessive
moisture.
28
Poor subgrade should be avoided if possible, but when it is necessary to build over weak soils
there are several methods used to improved subgrade performance:
(1) Removal and replacement (over-excavation)
Poor subgrade soil can simply be removed and replaced with higher quality fill
(2) Stabilization with a cementitious or asphaltic binder
The addition of an appropriate binder (such as lime, portland cement or emulsified
asphalt) can increase subgrade stiffness and/or reduce swelling tendencies.
(3) Additional base layers
- These layers spread pavement loads over a larger subgrade area
- When designing pavements for poor subgrades the temptation may be to just design a
thicker section with more base material because the thicker section will satisfy most
design equations.
29 30

10
 BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel

SUBGRADE PREPARATION SURFACE PREPARATION SURFACE PREPARATION

Good Practices in Subgrade Preparation
(1) Ensure the compacted subgrade is able to support construction traffic
If the subgrade ruts excessively under construction traffic it may cause premature
pavement rutting and will result in variable paving thicknesses.
(2) Remove all debris, large rocks, vegetation and topsoil from the area to be paved
These items either do not compact well or cause non-uniform compaction and mat
thickness.
(3) Treat the subgrade under the area to be paved with an approved herbicide
This will prevent or at least retard future vegetation growth, which could affect subgrade
support or lead directly to pavement failure.
Before a pavement is placed the surface to be paved must be prepared.
Pavements constructed without adequate surface preparation may not meet
smoothness specifications, may not bond to the existing pavement (in the case of
overlays) or may fail because of inadequate subgrade support.
Surface preparation generally takes one of two forms:
Preparing the subgrade and granular base course for new pavement
Involves activities such as subgrade stabilization, over-excavation of poor
subgrade, applying a prime coat or compacting the subgrade.
Preparing an existing pavement surface for overlay
Involves activities such replacing localized areas of extreme damage, applying a leveling
course, milling, applying tack coat, rubblizing and setting.
Prime Coats
The granular base layer can be prepared with a prime coat if necessary. A prime coat
is a sprayed application of a cutback or emulsion asphalt applied to the surface of
untreated subgrade or base layers in order to (Asphalt Institute, 2001):
1. Fill the surface voids and protect the subbase from weather.
2. Stabilize the fines and preserve the subbase material.
3. Promote bonding to the subsequent pavement layers.
Tack Coats
A tack coat is a thin bituminous liquid asphalt, emulsion or cutback layer applied
between HMA pavement lifts to promote bonding. Adequate bonding between
construction lifts and especially between the existing road surface and an overlay is
critical in order for the completed pavement structure to behave as a single unit and
provide adequate strength. If adjacent layers do not bond to one another they
essentially behave as multiple independent thin layers.

31 32 33

11
 BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel

SURFACE PREPARATION SURFACE PREPARATION QUALITY ASSURACE & QUALITY CONTROL

Quality assurance
COMPACTION Planned and systematic actions necessary to provide confidence that a product or facility will
Compaction Equipment
perform satisfactorily in service.
Compaction is the process by which the volume of air in an Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) mixture is
reduced by using external forces to reorient the constituent aggregate particles into a more There are three basic pieces of equipment available for HMA compaction:
Quality assurance addresses the overall problem of obtaining the quality of a service, product,
closely spaced arrangement. (1) Paver screed
or facility in the most efficient, economical, and satisfactory manner possible.
(2) Steel wheeled roller
Compaction is the greatest determining factor in dense graded pavement performance. (3) Pneumatic tire roller.
Quality assurance involves continued evaluation of the activities of planning, design,
development of plans and specifications, advertising and awarding of contracts,
Inadequate compaction results in a pavement with decreased stiffness, reduced fatigue life, construction, and maintenance, and the interactions of these activities.
accelerated aging/decreased durability, rutting, raveling, and moisture damage.
Quality control
Those quality assurance actions and considerations necessary to assess production and
construction processes so as to control the level of quality being produced in the end
product.

This concept of quality control typically includes sampling and testing by the contractor to
monitor the process but usually does not include acceptance sampling and testing by the
Paver Screed Steel Wheel Roller Pneumatic Tire Roller
agency/owner.
34 35 36

12
 BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel BFC 3042 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Basil David Daniel

QUALITY ASSURANCE & QUALITY CONTROL

Acceptance
Sampling, testing, and the assessment of test results to determine whether or not the quality
of produced material or construction is acceptable in terms of the specifications.

Independent assurance
A management tool that requires a third party, not directly responsible for process control or
acceptance, to provide an independent assessment of the product and/or the reliability of
test results obtained from process control and acceptance testing.

The results of independent assurance tests should not be used as a basis of product
acceptance.

37 38

13