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ENGEO-02905; No of Pages 18
Engineering Geology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx

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Engineering Geology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / e n g g e o

First delimitation of areas affected by ground deformations in the Guadalfeo River

Valley and Granada metropolitan area (Spain) using the DInSAR technique
P. Fernandez a, C. Irigaray a, J. Jimenez a, R. El Hamdouni a, M. Crosetto b, O. Monserrat b, J. Chacon a,⁎
a
Department of Civil Engineering, ETSICCP, University of Granada, Campus de Fuentenueva s/n, E-18071, Granada, Spain
b
Institute of Geomatics, Parc Mediterrani de la Tecnologia, Av. del Canal Olimpic, s/n, E-08860 Castelldefels, Barcelona, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A Differential Interferometric SAR (DInSAR) analysis of terrain displacements in the province of Granada
Received 8 November 2007 (southern Spain) is presented here for two different study zones. The first zone concerns the Guadalfeo River
Received in revised form 21 November 2008 Basin, where abundant landslides and unstable slopes were previously identified and inventoried on a GIS
Accepted 11 December 2008
application. However, no instrumental quantification of landslide activity was available. Considering
Available online xxxx
morphological criteria and field observations, these deep-seated landslides were considered to be “dormant”
Keywords:
or moving extremely slowly. The second study zone corresponds to the Granada metropolitan area, where no
Differential SAR Interferometry previous information was available on any vertical movement.
Terrain motion The analysis was based on ERS1 and ERS2 images, covering the period from 1993 to 2000. By using DInSAR, we
Landslides made an initial qualitative assessment of movements on landsliding slopes in the Guadalfeo River Basin and also
Subsidence vertical land movements in the alluvial Quaternary sediments to the west and south of the Granada metropolitan
Granada (Spain) area. The terrain instability assessment resulting from this research shows maximum annual velocities along the
SAR line of sight (LOS) of 6 mm/yr for the Tablones landslide, and up to 13 mm/yr for the Albuñuelas village; where
progressive differential settlement processes were established as the origin of the movement.
In the case of the Granada metropolitan area, two sites were detected with subsidence affecting two villages:
Santa Fe, located in the western part of the area, with an estimated average velocity of 8 mm/yr and Otura in the
south of the area, with maximum velocities of 12 mm/yr.
A description of geological features of the different sites, showing LOS ground displacement, is presented with a
discussion of the application of the rates to landslide-activity assessment found, local ground conditions, or
exploitation of subterranean water in urban areas.
© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In the last few years DInSAR has proved to be a useful remote sensing
technique for different types of applications (Massonnet and Feigl, 1998;
Crosetto et al., 2005b) and in particular for assessing rates of ground
displacement in recent deposits where overexploitation of aquifers
occurs (Amelung et al., 1999; Tomas et al., 2005; Dixon et al., 2006), or to
study landslide activity (Kimura and Yamaguchi, 2000; Colesanti et al.,
2003; Hilley et al., 2004; Colesanti and Wasowski, 2006).
The paper focuses on the description and analysis of the results from
using the DInSAR technique over different geological settings in the
province of Granada (Fig.1). The results allow the assessment of different
types of ground movement related to landslide processes and local
subsidence derived from particular geotechnical site conditions or
underground water exploitation in urban areas.
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: pazferol@ugr.es (P. Fernandez), clemente@ugr.es (C. Irigaray),
jorgejp@ugr.es (J. Jimenez), rachidej@ugr.es (R. El Hamdouni), michele.crosetto@ideg.es
(M. Crosetto), oriol.monserrat@ideg.es (O. Monserrat), jchacon@ugr.es (J. Chacon).
The first results concern the Guadalfeo River Basin, on the southern
border of Sierra Nevada, a region widely affected by active tectonics
(Keller et al., 1994; Keller et al., 1996; Reicherter and Peters, 2005; El
Hamdouni et al., 2008), where numerous landslides were inventoried in
a GIS application. These landslides had previously been identified
(Chacon et al., 1994; Fernandez del Castillo, 2001; El Hamdouni, 2001;
Jimenez et al., 2005) including different features such as slope angle,
slope orientation, lithological composition, surface extension, etc.
Nevertheless, no instrumental quantification of the landslide activity
was available and only morphological criteria and direct observation
were used. These landslide activities were considered to be dormant or
very slow (IUGS/WGL, 1995). This is the case of La Serreta rock slide. Also
in the village of Albuñuelas, progressive differential settlement
processes were established as the origin of the movement.
A second study zone corresponding to the Granada metropolitan area
is presented, where no previous information was available on any vertical
movement. Concerning previous studies in the region on assessment of
vertical movement by geodetic techniques, Gil et al. (2002) analysed the
Padul Fault, located to the south of the Granada metropolitan area by
means of a non-permanent GPS network, in which results regarding
vertical movements were not significant because the displacement

0013-7952/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.12.005

Please cite this article as: Fernandez, P., et al., First delimitation of areas affected by ground deformations in the Guadalfeo River Valley and
Granada metropolitan area (Spain) using the DInSAR technique, Engineering Geology (2009), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.12.005
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
2 P. Fernandez et al. / Engineering Geology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx

Fig. 1. Study zone setting.

vectors were of similar magnitude as propagated errors. Ruiz et al. (2003)
also analysed the tectonic faulting activity around the city of Granada, by
means of two levelling profiles, registering very low rates of vertical
displacement, close to the accuracy of the geodetic techniques, and also
limited by short-timescale observations (1999–2001). The sites affected
by vertical ground movements, in the Granada metropolitan area, have
been subject to rapid land-use changes over the last 30 years.
2. Setting of the study zone
The study zones are in southern Spain, around the western and
southern flanks of Sierra Nevada. From a geological standpoint, these
zones are part of the Alpujárride and Nevado-Filábride complexes
within the Internal Zone of the Betic Cordillera, as well as the former
Granada and Albuñuelas River basins, which are filled with post-
orogenic deposits of Neogene to Quaternary age. The Nevado-Filábride
complex is overthrusted by the Alpujárride complex, composed of
metamorphic rocks of Palaeozoic and lower Mesozoic ages deformed
during the Alpine orogeny (Fig. 2) (Gonzalez-Donoso, 1978; Aldaya
et al., 1979; Sanz de Galdeano, 1997).
3. Methodology and data
Research is based on a set of SAR images from descending and
ascending trajectories ERS1 and ERS2, covering the period of June
1993 to December 2000. The DInSAR analysis was separately applied
to the descending and the ascending datasets.
3.1. Used data
Tables 1 and 2 (Appendix A) indicate the two sets of descending
and ascending ERS images used in this work. Each image covers 100
by 100 km. Starting from the above images, a set of differential
interferograms was computed, using the interferometric baseline (the
maximum geometric separation between the acquisition viewpoints
was set to 380 m) and the acquisition interval (maximum set to
2200 days) as selection criteria.
Multi-look window used in DInSAR processing was 10 to 2 that
means 40 × 40 m pixel size.
The descending dataset included 72 interferograms derived from 25
images, while in the ascending one we used 48 interferograms
generated from 15 SAR images. The descending data was used to
study the Serreta Slide, and the Granada metropolitan area, while the
ascending images were used to analyse the Albuñuelas village site.
3.2. Methodology
The DInSAR process used in this work includes 2 main stages. The
first one involves the basic DInSAR processing steps to compute the
wrapped differential interferograms. The second one involves the
estimation of the deformation velocity, the interpretation of the results
and their integration within a GIS application. The methodology is
summarized in Fig. 3.
Some of the main steps of the first processing stage are described
below. Note that this stage includes the basic elaborations common to
any DInSAR analysis; see for instance (Mora et al., 2003; Crosetto et al.,
2005a; Herrera et al., 2007).
1. Co-registration of the SAR images: at this stage all the images are co-
registered to reference one, i.e. all the images are transformed to the
same geometry of the reference image (supermaster). Using all the
co-registered images, we calculate the mean or average amplitudes
for each pixel and plot them into the mean amplitude image.
2. Selection of the pairs of images to be used to generate the
interferograms.
3. Generation of differential interferograms, which involves:
• Computing the interferogram derived from a pair of co-registered
SAR images.

Please cite this article as: Fernandez, P., et al., First delimitation of areas affected by ground deformations in the Guadalfeo River Valley and
Granada metropolitan area (Spain) using the DInSAR technique, Engineering Geology (2009), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.12.005
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
P. Fernandez et al. / Engineering Geology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx 3

Fig. 2. Geological context of the study zones. The blue rectangles indicate the 4 areas of the DInSAR results.

• Simulating a synthetic interferogram for each interferogram using
a DEM of the observed scene. This simulation is used to remove the
topographic component from the original interferogram. For this
study an official DEM produced by the ICA (Andalusian Carto-
graphic Institute, spatial resolution of 20 by 20 m) was used.
• Removing the topographic phase component from the original
interferogram using the synthetic interferograms, obtaining the
so-called differential interferogram.
Differential interferogram is the commonly used term for the
interferogram produced, from which the topographic contribution has
been removed (Ferretti et al., 2007).
The second processing stage was based on a DInSAR procedure
developed at the Institute of Geomatics, see Biescas et al. (2007) for
details. This procedure works with a large number of SAR images acquired
over the same area; usually more than 15 images are used. The main
outcome of the procedure is the deformation velocity in the SAR line of

Please cite this article as: Fernandez, P., et al., First delimitation of areas affected by ground deformations in the Guadalfeo River Valley and
Granada metropolitan area (Spain) using the DInSAR technique, Engineering Geology (2009), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.12.005
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
4 P. Fernandez et al. / Engineering Geology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx

Fig. 3. Scheme of the methodology.

sight (LOS) for the temporal interval considered. Note that this procedure
estimates only the average deformation velocity over the period
observed. The estimation of the deformation velocities requires four
main steps. The first one is the pixel selection using amplitude dispersion
or coherence, and the connection of all selected pixels by a network. The
main idea of pixel selection is to restrict the velocity estimation only to
pixels that contain phases characterized by low noise. The second step is
the computation of the wrapped differential phase for each edge of the
network. This is done by computing the difference of the wrapped phases
over the two pixels connected by the edge. The third step involves the
estimation of the deformation velocity. This step, which is based on the
maximization of the so-called temporal coherence, see Biescas et al.
(2007) for details, represents the core of the procedure. It is worth
emphasising that the estimation is performed starting from wrapped
phase values. Finally, the fourth step is the integration of deformation
velocity over the entire set of selected pixels.
The procedure represents a simplified DInSAR approach based on
large stacks of images, because it does not directly involve the estimation
of the atmospheric component. Thus it can be applied to study areas of
limited spatial extension, with a width of a few kilometres, where the
atmospheric component has a negligible impact. This aspect consider-
ably simplifies the implementation of the proposed approach with
respect to other DInSAR techniques.
It is worth briefly mentioning the performances of the proposed
procedure. Under good conditions (large SAR data stacks, high pixel
coherence, high pixel density, almost linear deformation over time,
etc.), over relatively small areas, the standard velocity deviation is
within the range of 1–2 mm/yr. This is the standard deviation
approximately expected over the test sites analysed, even though
slightly better precision could be expected for the descending dataset.
However, this can be degraded by any of the above factors, e.g. low
coherence over the area of interest, low pixel density and highly non-
linear temporal evolution of the deformations. This factor can be
important for different types of landslides that show non-linear
temporal deformation.
For interpretation purposes the deformation-velocity map may be
superimposed on the mean-amplitude image to provide a quick
approximate location of the movement area with reference to the
estimated strain rate. The geo-coding allows the deformation velocity to
be superimposed on topographic maps or orthoimages. Finally, these
results are interpreted by analysing other types of data in a GIS
application, particularly to show coincidence or spatial relationships
between DInSAR data and geological units, earthquake epicentres, active
fault trends, well setting, and local orthophotograph.
4. Results and discussion
The assessed values in the following figures refer to estimations
along the LOS, taking those related to land subsidence as positive values
(Biescas et al., 2007; Vallone et al., 2008). The LOS vector is
approximately in the E–W direction, with an inclination of approxi-
mately 23° with respect to verticality.

Please cite this article as: Fernandez, P., et al., First delimitation of areas affected by ground deformations in the Guadalfeo River Valley and
Granada metropolitan area (Spain) using the DInSAR technique, Engineering Geology (2009), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.12.005
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
P. Fernandez et al. / Engineering Geology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx
Furthermore, over sites in hilly/mountainous areas, we found local
changes in slope aspect and inclination that had direct impact on the
significance of the measured LOS distance variations (decreasing or
increasing distance from the satellite sensor), and that took into account
in the interpretation of the DInSAR results (Farina et al., 2006).
4.1. The Guadalfeo River Basin
The La Serreta de Tablones translational slide is composed by a block of
Triassic marble sliding on an Upper Palaeozoic phyllite unit and affecting
the right slope of a tributary of the Guadalfeo River. This slide was formerly
considered to be in a dormant stage because of the lack of evidence
regarding current deformations involving the slope or river morphology
(Fernandez del Castillo, 2001). The values derived from DInSAR highlight
deformations from 1993 to 2000, with a maximum velocity of 6 mm/yr,
resulting in a displacement of about 4 cm in that period. Pixels showing
DInSAR displacements cover almost the entire mass (Fig. 4), excepting the
southern area, with values between 2.4 and 4.8 mm/yr. In areas
surrounding this landslide, no DInSAR evidence of displacement absence
is found, as the values calculated were repeatedly 0 mm/yr.
La Serreta de Tablones shows a homogeneous slope without
significant slope angle ruptures (Fig. 5). As the slope is morphologi-
cally quite regular, the few observed LOS uplift values spread around
the slide toe as a result of the mass advance.
Furthermore, these LOS uplift values are very low (0 to −3 mm/yr),
and most are under the DInSAR accuracy.
The estimated slide activity on a slope adjacent to a river channel
(Fig. 4) is considered to be a risk source associated with a possible
sudden collapse triggered by heavy rainfall, as what happened in the
Torvizcón and Almegíjar landslides in the area (Thornes and Alcantara-
Ayala, 1998; Alcantara-Ayala, 1999) during the heavy rainfalls of 1996
and 1997 (Irigaray et al., 2000; Jimenez et al., 2005), and consequent
damming and flooding that could damage a nearby village (Vélez de
Benaudalla) and some infrastructure.
Albuñuelas (a village of 2650 inhabitants) was seriously damaged
during a large regional earthquake in 1884. The village, its roads and
pathways, have been repeatedly affected by small landslides during
rainfall periods, as was the case in 1996 and 1997 (Chacon et al., 1997;
Irigaray et al., 2000). A third of the village, with some 350 houses, is
currently settled at the base of an old scarp (Fig. 6) where a 20 m layer of
Tortonian bioclastic calcarenites crops out below light to dark reddish
silts and clays (Fig. 6). The observation of widespread tilting of the houses
with values between 1 and 6° leads us to consider the possibility of a
rotational activity in the mass surrounded by the scarp (Fig. 7). DInSAR
assessment confirmed the existence of movement, showing an average
rate of LOS movement in the central and western part of the village, the
area surrounded by the scarp, of 8 mm/yr with a maximum rate of
13 mm/yr, although extending the movement area outside of the scarp
influence with lower rates (Fig. 6). DInSAR values became null in the
eastern side of the village. The estimated uplift values are below
0.5 mm/yr, and, therefore, below the accuracy of the DInSAR assessment.
Given the evidence of recent landslides in the area, and the DInSAR
analysis results, a detailed geotechnical project was proposed to the City
Council in order to assess the new land-use planning program.
Nevertheless, the lack of funds made the acceptance of the proposed
geotechnical project unfeasible, and a quick study of distribution and
magnitude of tilting was carried out instead (Chacon et al., 2007). This
was concluded in five months after a direct measuring of frontal walls of
586 out the 823 houses in the village, involving all those constructed
before 1957; given the very slow rate of differential displacements, a
minimum period of 50 years was considered for measurable tilting
angles. A PRO3600 Digital Protractor electronic inclinometer from Smart
Tool Technologies Inc (USA) with accuracy of +/−0.01° between 0 and 10°
and +/−0.1° above 10° was used to measure tilt angles. A 40x40 cm sheet
of methacrylate was applied to the house wall at heights between 160
and 170 cm. Five tilt measures were taken on each free house front, in
Please cite this article as: Fernandez, P., et al., First delimitation of areas affected by ground deformations in the Guadalfeo River Valley and
Granada metropolitan area (Spain) using the DInSAR technique, Engineering Geology (2009), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.12.005
5
different positions along the wall and the average tilt was used to
represent the house tilt angle. However, in most cases, these sets of the
five tilt values were very similar. There were houses with 1 (28.43%), 2
(48.53%), 3 (18.63%), and 4 (4.41%) free fronts and all were measured. The
average tilt angles were recorded and analysed in a GIS, expressed as
average rate by dividing the average tilt angle by the house age in years
(Fig. 7). The measured values were between 0° and 6° (Fig. 7). These
differential tilts were assumed to have been triggered by water infil-
tration along old covered streams, affecting unconsolidated deposits,
quickly prepared for the reconstruction of the village, after its destruction
during the Andalusian earthquake of 1884 (Fig. 7; Chacon et al., 2007).
The following pieces of evidence rule out the hypothesis of a large
deep rotational slide as the source of the observed tilting processes
(Chacon et al., 2007, Fig. 7):
1. The tilted houses are spread out on the plain overlooked by the
scarp, but also at different elevations, including houses witch are
far away from the scarp in the opposite corner of the village.
2. The tilted houses appear around borders of the southern slope of
the village or showing linear trends perpendicular to the southern
slope.
3. There is a consistent coincidence between the trend of minor
creeks and drainage lines on the southern slope and the
distribution of tilted houses.
4. It is remarkable that as the number of free fronts of the tilted
houses increases the dispersion of tilt directions also does.
Despite the lack of direct observation, boreholes or sampling of the
sediments below the villages, the interpretation of the tilted house
trends as a result of differential settlement rather than landslide is
consistent with the observed distribution of tilted houses and the
morphology of the slopes around the village (Chacon et al., 2007, Fig. 7).
4.2. Granada-metropolitan area
This study was made by analysing all the villages and the town of
Granada, overlapped by using buffers of variable widths. The results of
these local analyses were then combined into a final map of the whole
area.
Due to the absence of previous data on active subsidence in the
region, the DInSAR technique was used as an early-detection tool for the
identification of areas affected by subsidence and for the quantification
of the observed processes. The observed ground deformations are
concentrated around two different points (Figs. 8 and 9).
One is the village of Santa Fe (14,600 inhabitants) settled on
Holocene alluvial deposits (Fig. 10), where deformation rates of up to
8 mm/yr were observed with maximum values in the downtown area,
located in the NW of the village while values declined towards the
outskirts of town in an almost concentric distribution until null values
outside the urban area, corresponding to areas without evidence of
LOS displacements (Fig. 9).
The only process which could be related to the subsidence is an
intensive aquifer exploitation related to crop irrigation and urban
water supply. On the left side of Fig. 9, DInSAR displacement in mm/yr
is plotted on a topographic map of the zone. Also, the position of
pumping wells used for irrigation or urban water, and the distribution
of irrigation ditches, is plotted. Wells drilled before 2001 are
represented in dark blue. There are seven wells, of which the oldest,
numbers 5 and 6, were drilled in 1986. These have pumping depths of
80 and 90 m, and produce of 100 and 50 l/s, respectively.
Wells 8 and 9, dating from 1990, have a depth of 100 m and outflow
of 100 l/s. Wells 4 and 7 are older wells re-drilled in 1993–4 to a depth
of 60 m and produce 50 l/s. Finally well number 2 was recently drilled
in 1997 to a depth of 95 m and pumps 100 l/s. The three municipal
wells supplying water to the village are plotted in light blue on the left
side of Fig. 9. Well I is the most recently drilled to a depth of 100 m,
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Fig. 4. The La Serreta de Tablones translational slide: at the top left: frontal view. Bottom left: results from DInSAR, LOS displacement shown by the legend bar. Top right: geology of the area. Bottom right: detail of the geology of the Serreta de
Tablones slide area.

Please cite this article as: Fernandez, P., et al., First delimitation of areas affected by ground deformations in the Guadalfeo River Valley and
Granada metropolitan area (Spain) using the DInSAR technique, Engineering Geology (2009), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.12.005
Granada metropolitan area (Spain) using the DInSAR technique, Engineering Geology (2009), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.12.005
Please cite this article as: Fernandez, P., et al., First delimitation of areas affected by ground deformations in the Guadalfeo River Valley and

ARTICLE IN PRESS
P. Fernandez et al. / Engineering Geology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx
Fig. 5. Maps with DInSAR results in La Serreta de Tablones and detailed profiles: at the top left: DInSAR results plotted over a geology and geomorphology map. Top right: DInSAR results over geology with some topographic information.
Bottom: landslide cross-sections showing geology and trends of displacements from DInSAR analysis. Dashed lines indicate the main sliding surfaces and lithology changes. Continuous colour arrows represent the DInSAR LOS displacement
vectors. The arrow's length is proportional to the rate velocity, and vector indicates the velocity sign. Bottom left shows profile A-A′ and bottom right profile B-B′. The profile locations are indicated in the top maps.

7
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
8 P. Fernandez et al. / Engineering Geology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx

Fig. 6. Albuñuelas: Top: geology of the zone. Bottom left: DInSAR results showing displacement plotted on a topographic map.

with an outflow of 100 l/s. Wells II and III have depths of 65 m and
pump 30 l/s.
Beside these pumped wells, there were an unknown and
uncontrolled number of domestic wells, spread around the village
particularly near most houses on the older side. The municipal water
supply system was made available in the mid-seventies, almost forty
years ago, and up until that time the traditional domestic water supply
was by wells with small output (a few l/s). Over the last few decades,
these domestic wells have been progressively abandoned and banned
by recent regulations, but in the late nineties, during the period of the
DInSAR assessment, an unknown number of domestic wells were still
active.
As a consequence of the water supply pumping the fluvial
deposits of this area have been consolidated and compacted. This
consolidation process occurs in the Santa Fe urban area with a
progressive soil settlement increasing at the centre of the loaded
area, occupied by the oldest historical part, and diminishing around
the new urban developments. The progressive settlement is
affecting the centre of the village, where the old houses have very
little or no foundation, and is associated with the pumping of
underground aquifer water, which explains the subsidence detected
by DInSAR technique.
In Fig. 11, two aerial photograms indicate the urban perimeter, to
the left in 1957, and to the right in 2000 in green.

Please cite this article as: Fernandez, P., et al., First delimitation of areas affected by ground deformations in the Guadalfeo River Valley and
Granada metropolitan area (Spain) using the DInSAR technique, Engineering Geology (2009), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.12.005
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
P. Fernandez et al. / Engineering Geology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx 9

Fig. 7. House tilting in Albuñuelas: At top left: directions of tilting. At top right: rate of tilting and vertical view of Albuñuelas. At bottom left: amount of tilting. At bottom right: detail
of coincidence between drainage lines around the village and zones with higher rates of tilting.

Fig. 8. Distribution of ground deformation in the Granada basin showing the metropolitan area in the SAR image of mean amplitudes. Two zones are identified in the centre Santa Fe
and in south-eastern Otura. The legend bar shows rates in mm/yr measured in the area.

Please cite this article as: Fernandez, P., et al., First delimitation of areas affected by ground deformations in the Guadalfeo River Valley and
Granada metropolitan area (Spain) using the DInSAR technique, Engineering Geology (2009), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.12.005
 10
Granada metropolitan area (Spain) using the DInSAR technique, Engineering Geology (2009), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.12.005
Please cite this article as: Fernandez, P., et al., First delimitation of areas affected by ground deformations in the Guadalfeo River Valley and

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Fig. 9. Detailed images of the two zones with observed ground subsidence in the Granada metropolitan area: Left: Santa Fe village showing rates of up to 8 mm/yr, well location and irrigation-ditch distribution over a topographic map.
Right: Otura village with maximum values of 12 mm/yr and well location over a topographic map. The legend and scale bars give the pixel distribution with LOS rates obtained from DInSAR techniques.
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P. Fernandez et al. / Engineering Geology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx 11

Fig. 10. Lithological information of Santa Fe site: Top: map units in Santa Fe, (Granada). At bottom left: general lithological column of the site. Source: IGME, 1988; at bottom right:
local lithological column of the urban area corresponding to the first 25 m compiled from borehole information.

At the 1957 perimeter a discontinuous red line defines subsidence
areas assessed by DInSAR with movement rates of 4 and 8 mm/yr. The
traditional urban area is totally included in that zone showing the
highest subsidence rate (Fig. 9).
The second zone corresponds to the municipality of Otura (4578
inhabitants) where Upper Pleistocene to Upper Tortonian con-
glomerates, sands, silts and clays crop out (Braga et al., 1990;
Reicherter and Peters, 2005; Fig. 12). DInSAR assessed rates of
ground deformation reaching 12 mm/yr, amounting to 8.4 cm in
the period 1993–2000 (Fig. 9). The movement area covers an
extension that includes the entire Otura urban area. The movement
rates become higher in the new urban areas, spread mainly to the
east (Fig. 13), with rates from 2 to 12 mm/yr, and lower in the
historical part, with 2–4 mm/yr. In the north, west, and south-east,
coinciding with the surrounding villages, we found null values and
very low uplift values of up to 2 mm/yr (close to the accuracy of the
method) in the north and south-east far away, corresponding to
areas not affected by vertical displacement. Since the late seventies,
as a result of rapid urban growth, 19 urbanizations have appeared
in this area, and the only water supply comes from 23 pumped

Please cite this article as: Fernandez, P., et al., First delimitation of areas affected by ground deformations in the Guadalfeo River Valley and
Granada metropolitan area (Spain) using the DInSAR technique, Engineering Geology (2009), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.12.005
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
12 P. Fernandez et al. / Engineering Geology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx
Fig. 11. Aerial photograms of the urban area of Santa Fe village. To the left, a vertical view in 1957 and to the right in 2000 are shown. The green line defines the perimeter of the
traditional urban zone and the discontinuous red line defines the zones assessed by DInSAR with movement values between 4 and 8 mm/yr.
wells reaching depths of between 100 and 200 m with outputs of 2
to 20 l/s. Details about the lithological units cropping out at both
sites and changes in land use during the last 30 years are shown in
Figs. 12–14.
One hypothesis that explains the subsidence process assessed by
DInSAR in the Otura area is related to active tectonics around local
existing faults (Fig. 14) around the border of the Granada basin.
Nevertheless, the measured movement rates are too high to be
associated to active tectonics, as is shown in Appendix B: Table 1 and
Table 2 and Fig. 15, where published data on vertical displacements in
active faults and subsidence areas associated with water-level
depletion are compared. It is clear from this data that the observed
rates in Otura (up to 12 mm/yr) are far higher than the published data
for active tectonic displacements and are similar to those from
subsided areas after intensive water pumping.
An analysis of this data shows a vertical displacement of faults
that are usually around 1 mm/yr and very exceptionally reach 6 mm/
yr; even the Otura rates reach 12 mm/yr. During the period of the
selected radar images (1993–2000), no significant earthquakes were
registered by the seismic observatory in the Geophysics and Seismic
Disasters Institute in Granada University (http://www.ugr.es/~iag/div.
html) or by the seismic network in the Spanish National Geographic
Institute (http://www.ign.es/ign/es/IGN/Sismologia10Espana.jsp). In
fact, the highest magnitude registered in earthquakes with epicentres
around Otura was M = 4.3 in 1964. Later in 1991 there was one
earthquake with M = 3 and between 1993 and 2001 the two biggest
earthquakes in the zone reached M = 2.5 in December 1994 and
December 1999.
Also several geodetic campaigns carried out to assess movements
along faults in the Granada basin registered values of less than 1 mm/yr,
this being close to the accuracy of the measuring devices (Gil et al.,
2002; Ruiz et al., 2003), and far below the rates established for the
Otura site by DInSAR assessment.
All these different data sources support the hypothesis that the
origin of the subsidence in the Otura site is associated with the rapid
change in land-use, caused by urban development and withdrawal of
underground water from pumped wells throughout the 1993–2000
period of DInSAR measurement. The subsidence areas are composed
by Quaternary deposits, including layers of sandy and silty soils, as
well as conglomerates, overlying a Neogene formation composed of
silt, gypsum, sand, and conglomerate. The water extraction and the
extension of urban areas correlate with the observed subsidence. It is a
result of soil consolidation under new overloads induced by newly
built structures, and a parallel reduction of soils void ratio, during the
decline of the water level, associated with a continuous water
pumping.
Please cite this article as: Fernandez, P., et al., First delimitation of areas affected by ground deformations in the Guadalfeo River Valley and
Granada metropolitan area (Spain) using the DInSAR technique, Engineering Geology (2009), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.12.005
5. Conclusions
A first DInSAR analysis of the province of Granada (southern
Spain) has been presented, using data sets of 25 descending and 15
ascending SLC SAR images covering a period of 7 years (from June
1993 to December 2000). Two different zones have been analysed.
The first is the Guadalfeo River Basin, at the southern border of
Sierra Nevada; a region widely affected by active tectonics and
shallow deep-seated landslide phenomena, where no previous
instrumental quantification of landslide activity is available. In this
zone two sites have been successfully studied:
• The Serreta of Tablones slide, with results covering most of the
landslide mass, have a maximum assessed subsiding velocity of
6 mm/yr with a very homogeneous distribution, as corresponds to a
translational rock slide.
• The Albuñuelas village, where DInSAR velocities reach 13 mm/yr in
some parts of the village. An additional study, made to advise the city
council about the process, which consisted of measuring frontal house
wall tilting in the village, led us to relate the ground movements to an
accumulated differential settlement of the buildings and not to
landslide activity. This differential settlement of the buildings was
triggered by water infiltration along old covered streams affecting
unconsolidated deposits, quickly prepared for the reconstruction of the
village, after its destruction during the 1884 Andalusian earthquake.
• The former rotational-landsliding hypothesis to explain houses
affected by differential settlement in Albuñuelas, was discussed and
disregarded after an intense analysis of trends of house tilting, local
morphological analysis and, also, with the contribution of DInSAR
assessment.
The second one was the Granada metropolitan area, which, during
the last 30 years, underwent a fast urban development, making it an
important zone in political, social and economic terms. No previous
information is available on subsiding ground movement. In this area,
the DInSAR technique application as an early-detection tool for
vertical movement, enabled us to distinguish two subsidence sites:
• The village of Santa Fe, which, in the west part, showed velocities of
8 mm/yr.
• The Otura village site and its new urban areas, located in the south,
12 mm/yr maximum velocity.
Both subsidence zones are related to withdrawal of water by
pumping underground aquifers. A geological difference between the
geology engineering of both sites is observed, as the village of Santa Fe
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
P. Fernandez et al. / Engineering Geology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx 13

Fig. 12. Lithological information of the Otura site. Upper: map units in Otura, (Granada).Bottom left: general lithological column of the site (Source: IGME, 1980). Bottom right: specific
lithological column of the urban area corresponding to the first 15 m, as interpreted from borehole tests.

Fig. 13. Two aerial views of Otura DInSAR Area: left 1977; right 2001. The old urban perimeter of Otura village is shown in green; new urban perimeter after recent urban growth is
shown in yellow. The perimeter affected by subsidence assessed by DInSAR is shown in red. It is very clear that urban growth and subsidence coincide.

Please cite this article as: Fernandez, P., et al., First delimitation of areas affected by ground deformations in the Guadalfeo River Valley and
Granada metropolitan area (Spain) using the DInSAR technique, Engineering Geology (2009), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.12.005
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
14 P. Fernandez et al. / Engineering Geology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx

Fig. 14. Geological map of the Otura region (IGME, 1980) showing lithology of the area, earthquake epicentres and fault, with the plotting of DInSAR assessed pixels with vertical
displacement rates.

is founded on Holocene alluvial deposits of the Genil River while Otura
village is surrounded by a series of Miocene marls and Lower to
Middle Pleistocene conglomerates and granular deposits, largely over
consolidated materials, with caliche deposits, and affected by local
normal faults having shallow seismic activity. The subsidence
measured may be explained as a result of water withdrawal from
the southern border of the Granada basin aquifer, which is associated
with a granular unconformable deposit of conglomerates, sand, and
gravel at the base of the Quaternary.
In summary, this first application of DInSAR technique to the
Andalusian region in the southern Spain offers estimated rates of
several terrain-motion sites, with the following features:
– Confirmation of active but very slow movement in a landslide
area of the Guadalfeo River Basin by the quantification of the
vertical deformation rate.
– A first quantitative assessment of local sites in the Granada
metropolitan area affected by previously unknown ground
deformations associated to pumping of underground water and
recent urban development.

These results permit the preparation of new projects for control

and surveillance of the observed deformations and can form the basis
for recommendations to local authorities in order to better control
water pumping and house tilt.

Acknowledgements

This research has been supported by Projects “Special Action

Fig. 15. Graphic comparison between subsidence and the movement rates of active
faults. The number indicates the corresponding reference. Otura and Santa Fe DInSAR
rates are expressed in the vertical axis.
REN2002-1276E”, CGL2005-03332 (BTE) and CGL2008-04854 funded
by the Spanish Ministry of Education and Science and P06-RNM-
02125 and Group RNM 121 funded by the Andalusian Research
Program. SAR images have been provided by the European Space
Agency (ESA), within the Cat-1 N 1382 project.
We wish to thank municipal technicians of the Santa Fe City
Council Urban Department and Irrigation Community (Piñar, J. A,
Torres, C and Moya A.), private engineering consulting in Santa Fe (A.
Castillo), the residential area manager of Otura urbanizations
(Sanchez, J.M.), and the Spanish National Geographic Institute (IGN)
for the information provided.

Please cite this article as: Fernandez, P., et al., First delimitation of areas affected by ground deformations in the Guadalfeo River Valley and
Granada metropolitan area (Spain) using the DInSAR technique, Engineering Geology (2009), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.12.005
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
P. Fernandez et al. / Engineering Geology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx 15

Appendix A

ERS SAR images used.

Table 1
ERS descending SLC (Single Look Complex) images, track280, frame 2860

Satellite Date Orbit

ERS1 1993/12/02 12,449
ERS1 1995/06/03 20,308
ERS1 1995/08/12 21,310
ERS2 1995/08/13 1637
ERS1 1995/10/21 22,312
ERS2 1995/10/22 2639
ERS2 1995/12/31 3641
ERS1 1996/05/18 25,318
ERS2 1996/05/19 5645
ERS2 1996/12/15 8651
ERS2 1997/03/30 10,154
ERS2 1997/05/04 10,655
ERS2 1997/07/13 11,657
ERS2 1998/02/08 14,663
ERS2 1998/04/19 15,665
ERS2 1998/09/06 17,669
ERS2 1999/04/04 20,675
ERS1 1999/07/17 41,851
ERS1 1999/10/30 43,354
ERS2 1999/10/31 23,681
ERS2 2000/01/09 24,683
ERS2 2000/05/28 26,687
ERS2 2000/08/06 27,689
ERS2 2000/10/15 28,691
ERS2 2000/12/24 29,693

Table 2
ERS Ascending SLC images. Track 187 frame: 735

Satellite Date Orbit

ERS1 1993/06/03 9851
ERS1 1993/07/08 10352
ERS1 1993/09/16 11354
ERS1 1995/07/01 20716
ERS2 1995/08/06 1544
ERS1 1995/11/18 22720
ERS2 1995/11/19 3047
ERS1 1996/04/06 24724
ERS2 1997/06/01 11063
ERS2 1997/08/10 12065
ERS2 1997/10/19 13067
ERS2 1998/04/12 15572
ERS2 1999/06/06 21584
ERS2 2000/03/12 25592
ERS2 2000/05/21 26594

Appendix B

Tables with active faults and subsidence references.

Table 1
Active faults references

Reference Fault type Age Vertical rate Geologic Zone

Mrlina (2000) 4–6 mm/yr The Novy Kostel. Czech Rep.
Vyskocil et al (1992) Average annual vertical change of −1.5 mm/yr The Kalabsha Fault, Northwest
of Aswan Lake
Giménez (2001) Normal and reverse Central zone (Valencia Trough): tectonic Eastern part of Iberian peninsula:
deformations practically inappreciable 3 zones:
Northern zone (Eastern Pyrenees) and 1. Northern zone: Eastern Pyrenees
southern area (Eastern Betics): 1–4 mm/yr and Catalan Coastal Ranges
2. Central zone (Valencia Trough)
3. Southern area (Eastern Betics)
Chevalier et al. (2003) Normal fault Early Jurassic Movement discontinuous: 0.202–0.423 mm/yr. Ornon normal fault. early Tethyan
Higher rates:1.846 mm/yr. rifting, French Alps
Van Arsdale (2000) Reverse fault Late Cretaceous 4.4 mm/yr and a maximum of 6.2 mm/yr New Madrid seismic zone (USA)

(continued on next page)

Please cite this article as: Fernandez, P., et al., First delimitation of areas affected by ground deformations in the Guadalfeo River Valley and
Granada metropolitan area (Spain) using the DInSAR technique, Engineering Geology (2009), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.12.005
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
16 P. Fernandez et al. / Engineering Geology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx

Table
(continued)
1 (continued)
Reference Fault type Age Vertical rate Geologic Zone
Peive (2006) The Romanche Fracture Zone: The subsidence Oceanic crust in the Central Atlantic
0.2 mm/yr. The Vema Fracture Zone: 0.2–0.3 mm/yr.
Giménez et al (2000) Different types depending External zones: Mesozoic Valldigna-Jumilla fault zone (Alicante/Albacete): Eastern Betic Cordillera
on the levelling profile: reverse. to Tertiary sediments. 2 mm/yr;
Internal zone: between Cocón-Terreros fault zone (Murcia/Almería):
Palaeozoic and Tertiary 0.9 mm/yr
Almería Basin zone: − 1.5 mm/yr;
Guadahortuna fault (Granada / Jaén): 1 mm/yr
Cádiz-Alicante fault zone (near Granada area):
1 mm/yr
Iberian coast of the Alborán Sea (Almería/
Granada zone): 1.4 mm/yr
Song et al. (2004) Since middle Pleistocene: 0.74–0.76 mm/yr, Youjiang Fault zone (Guixi,
since late Pleistocene: 0.1–0.35 mm/yr Western Guangxi).
Hippolyte et al (2006) Reverse and normal faults: Vertical throw rate: 1.4 ± 0.1 mm/yr Western Alps (France)
sackung scarps?.
Lagios et al (2007) −2.6 ± 1.8 mm/yr, compatible with (about Cephallonian
−4 mm/yr) determined by Hollenstein et al. (2006)
Hollenstein et al (2006) In the northern Ionian sea region : −2 to Ionian islands, western Greece
−2.5 mm/yr, and in the southern Ionian sea: −3.5
to −4.5 mm/yr
Stramondo et al (2007) The area close to the piedmont Sabbiuno anticline: Po Plain sedimentary basin
2–5 mm/yr (Bologna area)

1. Jan Mrlina. (2000). Vertical displacements in the Novy Kostel seismoactive Area. Studia geoph. Et geod. 44 (2000), 336–345.
2. P. Vyskocil, A. Zeman, A. Tealeb, S. M. Mahmoud and G. S. El-Fiky. (1992). Vertical movements around the Kalabsha fault, Northwest of Aswan
lake, from precise levelling. J. Geodynamics vol. 14, nos 1–4, pp. 249–262.
3. J. Giménez García. (2001). Quantification of recent deformations in the eastern part of Iberian peninsula using high precision levelling data.
Acta Geologica Hispánica, v. 36 (2001), no 1–2, p. 21–51.
4. F. Chevalier, M. Guiraud, J.-P. Garcia, J.-L. Dommergues, D. Quesne, P. Allemand and T. Dumont. (2003). Calculating the long-term displacement
rates of a normal fault from the high-resolution stratigraphic record (early Tethyan Rifting, French Alps). Terra Nova, Vol 15, No. 6, 410–416.
5. R. Van Arsdale. (2000). Displacement history and slip rate on the Reelfoot fault of the New Madrid seismic zone. Engineering Geology 55
(2000) 219–226.
6. A. A. Peive. (2006) Vertical Tectonic Movements of the Crust in Transform Fracture Zones of the Central Atlantic. Geotectonics, 2006, Vol. 40, No.
1, pp. 25–36.
7. J. Giménez, E. Suriñach, X. Goula. (2000). Quantification of vertical movements in the eastern Betics (Spain) by comparing levelling data.
Tectonophysics, 317 (2000) 237–258.
8. Song, F.-M., Li, C.-Y., Chen, X.-C., Zhang, L.-F. (2004). Geologic-geomorphic evidence and rate of late Pleistocene displacement of the Youjiang
Fault zone. Dizhen Dizhi Vol. 26, Issue 4, Dec. 2004, P 620–628.
9. J-C Hippolyte, G. Brocard, M. Tardy, G. Nicoud, D. Bourlès, R. Braucher, G. Ménard, B. Souffaché. (2006). The recent fault scarps of the Western
Alps (France): Tectonic surface ruptures or gravitational sackung scarps? A combined mapping, geomorphic, levelling, and 10Be dating
approach. Tectonophysics 418 (2006) 255–276.
10. E. Lagios, V. Sakkas, P. Papadimitriou, I. Parcharidis, B.N. Damiata, K. Chousianitis, S. Vassilopoulou. (2007). Crustal deformation in the Central
Ionian Islands (Greece): Results from DGPS and DInSAR analyses (1995–2006). Tectonophysics 444 (2007) 119–145.
11. Ch. Hollenstein, A. Geiger, H.-G. Kahle and G. Veis. (2006). CGPS time-series and trajectories of crustal motion along the West Hellenic Arc.
Geophys. J. Int. (2006) 164, 182–191.
12. S. Stramondo, M. Saroli, C. Tolomei, M. Moro, F. Doumaz, A. Pesci, F. Loddo,P. Baldi, E. Boschi. (2007). Surface movements in Bologna (Po Plain—
Italy) detected by multitemporal DInSAR. Remote Sensing of Environment 110 (2007) 304–316.

Table 2
Subsidence references

Reference Subsidence type Vertical rates Geologic zone

S. Stramondo et al. (2007)
C-S Hou et al. (2005)
C.P. Chang, et al. (2004)
Ma, R et al. (2006)
Anthropogenic cause (surface effect due to the Between 10 mm/yr (historical part of Bologna town), Po Plain sedimentary basin, in
overexploitation of the aquifers) and up to 59 mm/yr in the NE industrial and particular the area of Bologna.
agricultural areas
The comparison with Holocene subsidence suggests Vertical velocities range from +13 to − 25 mm/yr Pingtung Plain. Southwestern
that about 75% of the present-day subsidence result Taiwan.
from decreasing groundwater level induced by
over-pumping, adding significant short-term
component to the natural risk resulting from
long-term tectonic subsidence.
The subsidence rate is associated with the descending Maximum subsidence rate: 3–6 cm/yr at the distal Pingtung Plain SW Taiwan
trend of groundwater level part of the Pingtung plain. This displacement mainly
occurs in the dry season
Tectonic subsidence is one cause but not the major one. Average subsiding rate of 63.0 mm/yr by 2003 is in Taiyuan, northern China
Land subsidence is caused mainly by over exploitation Wujiabao village.
of groundwater from mid-lower aquifers.

Please cite this article as: Fernandez, P., et al., First delimitation of areas affected by ground deformations in the Guadalfeo River Valley and
Granada metropolitan area (Spain) using the DInSAR technique, Engineering Geology (2009), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.12.005
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
P. Fernandez et al. / Engineering Geology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx 17

Table 2 (continued)
(continued)
Reference
Lanari et el. (2004)
Strozzi et al. 2003)
Teatini et al. (2005)
Zhou et al. (2003)
Tomas et al. (2005)
Subsidence type Vertical rates Geologic zone
? 3 mm/yr City of Naples, Italy
Groundwater extraction N 40 cm/yr Mexico City
Ground-water exploitation for industrial, domestic 6/8 cm/yr Bologna (Italy)
and agricultural uses
Associated to the geological features of the study Central lagoon, including the city of Venice: Venice region.
region, i.e. tectonics, seismicity, differential general stability; the northern and southern
consolidation of the middle–upper Pleistocene lagoon extremities: 3 to 5 mm/yr. The
and Holocene deposits, and to anthropogenic sinking rates increase up to 10–15 mm/yr in
activities, such as land reclamation and the coastland south of the lagoon
groundwater withdrawal.
Land subsidence due to groundwater extraction. Subsidence rate of 50–80 mm/yr Tianjin, (Bohai Gulf) China.
Aquifer overexploitation From 1995–97, the most dramatic period, Segura River (SE Spain)
subsiding that exceeded 20 mm, with typical
settlement velocities of 5–10 mm/yr. This was
the most dramatic period.

1. S. Stramondo, M. Saroli, C. Tolomei, M. Moro, F. Doumaz, A. Pesci, F. Loddo,P. Baldi, E. Boschi.2007. Surface movements in Bologna (Po Plain—
Italy) detected by multitemporal DInSAR. Remote Sensing of Environment 110 (2007) 304–316.
2. C-S Hou, J-C Hu, L-C Shen, J-S Wang, C-L Chen, T-C Lai, C Huang, Y-R Yang, R-F Chen, Y-G Chen, J Angelier. (2005) Estimation of subsidence using
GPS measurements, and related hazard: the Pingtung Plain, southwestern Taiwan. C. R. Geoscience 337 (2005) 1184–1193.
3. C.P. Chang, T.Y. Chang, C.T. Wang, C.H. Kuo, K.S. Chen. (2004) Land-surface deformation corresponding to seasonal ground-water fluctuation,
determining by SAR interferometry in the SW Taiwan. Mathematics and Computers in Simulation 67 (2004) 351–359.
4. Ma, R., Wang, Y., Ma, T. (2006). The effect of stratigraphic heterogeneity on areal distribution of land subsidence at Taiyuan, northern China.
Environ Geol (2006) 50: 551–568.
5. Lanari R., Zeni G., Manunta M., Guarino S., Berardino P. and Sansosti E. 2004. An integrated SAR/GIS approach for investigating urban
deformation phenomena: a case of study of the city of Naples, Italy. Int. J. Remote Sensing, 20 July, 2004 vol 25, n°14, 2855–2862.
6. Strozzi T., U. Wegmüller, C. L. Werner, A. Wiesmann, V. Spreckels.JERS SAR Interferometry for Land Subsidence Monitoring. IEEE Transactions on
Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Vol. 41, No. 7, July 2003, pp 1702–1708.
7. Teatini P., L. Tosi, T. Strozzi, L. Carbognin, U. Wegmüller, F. Rizzetto. 2005. Mapping regional land displacements in the Venice coastland by an
integrated monitoring system. Remote Sensing of Environment 98 (2005) 403–413.
8. Zhou, Y., Stein, A. and Molenaar, M. (2003) ‘Integrating interferometric SAR data with levelling measurements of land subsidence using
geostatistics’, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 24:18, 3547–3563.
9. Tomás R., Y. Márquez, J. M. Lopez-Sanchez, J. Delgado, P. Blanco, J.J. Mallorquí, M. Martínez, G. Herrera, J. Mulas. 2005. Mapping ground
subsidence induced by aquifer overexploitation using advanced Differential SAR Interferometry: Vega Media of the Segura River (SE Spain)
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Granada metropolitan area (Spain) using the DInSAR technique, Engineering Geology (2009), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.12.005
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Please cite this article as: Fernandez, P., et al., First delimitation of areas affected by ground deformations in the Guadalfeo River Valley and
Granada metropolitan area (Spain) using the DInSAR technique, Engineering Geology (2009), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.12.005
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