Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Surrey

Bridge Deck Loading and Analysis

UNIT 7: Global Analysis (1)

(Study time allocation = 15 hours)

7.1.INTRODUCTION
There are basically three levels of analysis required for any bridge structure. These are:

Level 1 Global analysis: examines the stress resultants (load effects) along the length
and across the width of a bridge.
Level 2 Local analysis: examines the stress resultants around a small element,
beam or slab.
Level 3 Detailed analysis: examines the stresses at a particular point in a bridge.

Global analysis involves the determination of the main stress resultants in a bridge (bending
moments, shear forces, etc) together with relevant displacements. The methods available
range from elementary static calculations for a simply supported footbridge or narrow
highway bridge to a sophisticated finite element analysis of a continuous highway bridge. The
required loads must be placed in a position that result in the worst load effect, such as bending
moment, shear force, etc. In most cases this means that multiple load cases will need to be
considered. For example, the load case giving the worst bending moment will be different
from that giving the worst shear force.

7.1.1. Simply supported spans

Simple supported spans are easy to deal with as they are statically determinate and they can
be analysed by using simple equilibrium equations irrespective of how complicated the
loading system. For example, a two lane bridge with identical HA loading in each lane can be
analysed quite easily. The maximum bending moments will occur when the knife edge load is
placed across the centre of the bridge, while for maximum shear, the knife edge load will be
positioned close to the support. When considering HB loading, for the maximum bending
moment, the HB load should be placed such that the transverse centreline of the bridge bisects
the space between the centre of gravity of the loads and the nearest axle as shown in Figure
7.1. If the vehicle is made to straddle the centre line then the calculated BM will be
underestimated by about 4%. For maximum shear the vehicle is placed with its leading axle
just short of the support - this is true whether the vehicle is wholly or partly on the bridge.

The positioning of crowd loading on a narrow footbridge to induce the worst effects straight
forward and consists of a simple UDL with a minimum value of 5 kN/m 2. If the bridge is
wide compared with its depth then thought must be given as to what happens if the crowd
suddenly shifts to one side: for example spectators watching a boat race may do so as they
follow it from one side to the other as it goes under.

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Centre line

W W W W
= =

W = Axle Load

W
Figure 7.1: Position of HB vehicle to give maximum BM.

7.2. CONTINUOUS SPANS

Continuous spans are generally statically indeterminate (although not always) and so require
more than just equilibrium to provide a solution. Therefore they require more effort from the
analysis point of view. However they are more efficient in terms of structural behaviour,
which is one of the reasons why they are used. A number of analysis techniques can be used.

7.2.1. Influence Lines

The use of influence lines to analyse bridge decks is described in Unit 3. They can be very
useful, particularly for initial design purposes where a quick estimate of maximum moments
is required to determine section sizes. They are of limited value as they only provide
information at selected points in the structure (for which the influence lines are available) and
give no indication of distribution.

Influence surfaces are also available for solving 2-D structures (deck slabs or plates).

7.2.2. Slope-deflection equations

This classical method of analysis can be carried out by hand with the simplest of electronic
calculators and provides information on shear, bending moments and displacements, albeit at
selected points. By joining the bending moment ordinates at the supports the ‘reactive’ or
fixity diagram is obtained, and by superimposing the ‘free’ bending moment diagram for each
span, the final resultant bending moment diagram can be produced.

The generalised slope-deflection equations can be obtained by considering a single span as

shown in Figure 7.2.

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1 2
(+ve clockwise)


L
Figure 7.2: Single span of continuous beam

For small displacements the moment at one end is given by:

M = Fixed end moment + moment resulting from the rotation and/or displacement of one end
relative to the other (7.1)

Thus, using the terminology as defined in Figure 7.2:

M = MF + M’ (7.2)

M12 = M12F + s12 1 + t12 2 - u12 12 (7.3)

M21 = M21F + s21 2 + t21 1 - u21 21 (7.4)

M12 = M12F + s12 1 + s12 c 12 2 - (s 12 + s12 c12 ) 12 (7.5)

M12 = M21F + s21 2 + s21 c 21 1 - (s 21 + s21 c21 ) 21 (7.6)

where = /L (7.7)

t 12 = s12 c12 (7.8)

t 21 = s21 c21 (7.9)

In these equations, s ij is the stiffness factor (relating moment to rotation), and cij is the carry
over factor.

7.2.2.1. Prismatic beams

Beams of constant cross-section (called prismatic beams) have the following values:

sij = sji = 4EI/L (7.10)

c 12 = c21 = ½ (7.11)

These can be determined from equilibrium.

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EXAMPLE 1
Set up the slope-deflection equations for the two-span continuous beam shown in Figure 7.3.

1 2 3

L1 L2
Figure 7.3: Example 1

For COMPATIBILITY
M 12 M 12F 
2 EI
21 2  (7.12)
L1

Note that = 0 since the beam is supported at 1 and 2: hence = 0

2EI
M 21 M 21F  
 22  (7.13)
L1 1

2EI
M 23 M 23F  22 3  (7.14)
L2

2EI
M 32 M 32F  
 23  (7.15)
L2 2

The fixed-end moments are usually available from tables.

In the above, there are 3 equations with 7 unknowns.

For EQUILIBRIUM

M12 = 0 (7.16)

M21 + M23 = 0 (7.17)

M32 = 0 (7.18)

This provides 3 more equations enabling a solution to be found.

Substitute the compatibility equations into the equilibrium equations and solve for i , then
substitute back into the compatibility equations to obtain final moments at supports 1, 2 and 3.

From the analysis, the fixed BMD can be drawn and the simple BMD superimposed upon it to
obtain the final BMD as shown in
Figure 7.4.

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1 2 3

L1 L2

FIXED
BMD

(Bending moment arising from the moment at 2)

SIMPLE
BMD

(Bending moment arising from the loads)

FINAL
BMD

(Sum of above)

Figure 7.4: Development of final BMD.

Shear calculations involve combining the simple and fixed shears thus:

Shear Q1 = Q 12F + M 2 / L1 = R 1 (7.19)

Q21 = Q21F + M2 / L1 (7.20)

Q23 = Q23F + M2 / L2 (7.21)

Reaction R 2 = Q 21 + Q23 (7.22)

Alternatively, equilibrium can be used to determine the reactions.

7.2.2.2. Non-prismatic beams

To improve the efficiency and the aesthetics of a bridge, designers often introduce changes of
depth in the form of haunches at internal supports. In order to solve such beams by the slope
deflection method it is necessary to know the values of the stiffness factors and carry-over
factors. The Portland Cement Association in the USA have produced Tables of these factors
for a range of haunch conditions and these are reproduced here as Tables 7.1 and 7.2.

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Table 7.1: Constant beam width - straight haunch at one end.

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Table 7.2: Constant beam width - straight haunches each end.

Ha unch load

wL2

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The definitions of the symbols used in the tables are shown in Figure 7.5.
P


d
d'd
bL aL

Figure 7.5: Symbol definitions.

Also I = Second moment of area of the prismatic section

E = Young’s modulus (constant throughout)
sij = kij EI / L
MF = Coefficient from Table x L2 for a UDL
MF = Coefficient from Table x PL for a Point Load
c ij = Carry over factors
Haunch load W (per unit width) = 0.5 x aL x dd’ x density of beam material

EXAMPLE 2
Derive the coefficients for the fixed end moment, stiffness, carry-over and haunch for the end
span of a continuous bridge shown in Figure 7.6 subject to a UDL. Assume that the beam is
1m wide and has a density of  3
c kN/m .
L

0.5 L

Figure 7.6: End span of a continuous beam

Assume d = 1.25, d’ = 1.0, a = 0.5.

Therefore d d’ = 1.0 x 1.25 = 1.25 = W

From Table 7.1:

c 12 = 0.948, c21 = 0.385,
k12 = 4.99, k21 = 12.28
therefore s12 = 4.99 EI/L and s 21 = 12.28 EI/L
M12 F coefficient = 0.0591
M21 F coefficient = 0.1390
therefore M12 F = 0.0593 wL2 and M21 F = 0.1390 wL2
M12 F (haunch) coefficient = 0.0033
M21 F (haunch) coefficient = 0.0321
therefore M12 F = 0.0033 W L2
M21 F = 0.0321 W L2

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where W = 0.5 x (0.5L) x (1.25) x 

c

Thus M 12 = 0.0593 wL2 + 0.0033 WL2 + 4.99EI 1/L + 0.948 x 4.99EI 2 /L

M 21 = 0.1390 wL2 + 0.0321 WL2 + 0.385 x 12.28EI 1/L + 12.28EI 2 /L

7.2.3. Moment Distribution

Moment distribution is a simple method for continuous beams or frames and essentially
involves the solving by successive iteration of simultaneous equations in the slope-deflection
method.

The basis of the method is that when a moment is applied to a joint, it is distributed amongst
the adjoining members in relation to their stiffness and that when a beam is fixed at one end
and a moment applied at the other, then the moment induced at the fixed end is half the
applied moment acting in the same direction

The sign convention used is as follows:

A typical example of a moment distribution as given in the Steel Designers Manual

(published by SCI) is shown below

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Where a frame can sway, for example with a non-symmetrical arrangement, the frame has to
be analysed in two stages. Initially it is considered as rigid to derive the moments as above.
The reactions are then derived from the distributed moments and from these the out-of-
balance, or sway, force is known. By comparing the sway force with the forces generated
from a known displacement of the frame the sway moments can be derived and added to the
distributed moments from the first stage.

7.2.4. Other analysis methods

Other methods of analysis can also be used. These include:

 Unit Load (based on energy methods)

 Moment-area (based on Area Moment Theorems)

Details of these method and example applications can be found in any structures textbook.

7.2.5. Plane Frame Programmes

There are many plane frame programmes on the market that can be used to analyse bridge
structures in the vertical (x-z) plane. They are very user-friendly and relatively cheap. They
are based on the stiffness method of analysis (essential the same as slope-deflection) and have
the advantage that many load cases can be run and stored, and later combined as required with
the relevant partial safety factors in place.

Superstructures of varying sections can be accommodated, as can the effects of settlement,

bearing stiffness and temperature changes.

They are particularly useful for analysing continuous, narrow bridge decks such as
footbridges and can be used for the initial analysis of single cell box-girder bridges.

The usual sequence of data input is as follows:

(1) Geometrical data - node numbers together with their x and z co-ordinates

(2) Members data - end node numbers and properties of materials, cross-
sectional areas, second moments of area and Young’s
Modulus

(3) Supports - type of support i.e. pinned, fixed, sliding elastic etc.

(4) Loads - load type, intensity, direction, position

Analysis takes a matter of seconds and the output gives displacements, shears and bending
moments at node points. Individual spans can be examined in detail by the use of a special
function which provides information at regular intervals along the span. Once the output has
been studied, the effect of any change in parameter (span, articulation or support conditions) a
re-run with the modified data can be carried out speedily and the output appraised as to its
implications on the original design.

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As with all computer output, critical values should be checked by a suitable rule of thumb
method to avoid major errors.

1 1 2 2 3 3 4
Beam layout

-15 kN/m -15 kN/m

Live load

Displacment
156 mm

816 kNm

1 1 2 2 3 3 4
Bending moments
Max: -796 kNm

-83.7 kN
1
22.5 kN
1 2 2 3 3 4 Reactions
161 kN

319 kN

161 kN
Shear forces
1 1 2 2 3 3 4
-229 kN

My(kNm)

1200 1200

816
800 800

400 400

3
5 10
14.1
15 20
0
24
4
BM detail for span 3
-400 -400

-800 -800
-796

-1200 -1200

Figure 7.7: Typical Plane Frame Output

Suspension bridges, cable-stayed bridges and arch bridges with the deck over, through or
under (tied) the arch, all can be analysed as plane frames by considering one longitudinal half
of the bridge and making some simple assumptions regarding load application. Typical output
of stress resultants (in this case for a cable-stayed bridge) is shown in Figure 7.8.

t t
t c t
H c c c c

BM in deck V
V H
V
Figure 7.8: Typical stress resultant values from a Plane Frame programme

This gives, at the very least, the order of magnitude of the forces and provides an initial idea
as to the size of members required. A more sophisticated analysis can be carried out later if
necessary.

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Task 1
Referring to the span of a continuous bridge shown in Figure 7.9, derive expressions for the
moments and shears at each end in terms of E, I, L and rotations 1 and 2.

1 2
(1)

F F
M12 M21
(2)
F
Q12 QF
21

' '
M12 M21
(3)
1  
2
Q Q
1
2
Figure 7.9: Data for task 1.

Task 2
A two span bridge comprises a haunched reinforced concrete slab as shown in Figure 7.10.
The carriageway width is 2.5m. Consider the bridge subject to full HA loading + self weight
(25 kN/m 2). For a 1m wide strip, and using the slope-deflection equations, determine:

(i) The worst bending moment at the mid-span of the longer span
(ii) The worst bending moment at the centre support

Compare your answers with that from a plane frame analysis.

0.75m 0.5m

2.0m 2.0m
20.0m

30.0m

Figure 7.10: Continuous haunched beam.

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