Construction and Building Materials 160 (2018) 240–251

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

Concrete durability issues due to temperature effects and aviation oil

spillage at military airbase – A comprehensive review
Sukanta Kumer Shill a, Safat Al-Deen a,⇑, Mahmud Ashraf a,b
a
School of Engineering and Information Technology, The University of New South Wales, Canberra, Australia
b
School of Engineering, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds Campus, VIC 3216, Australia

h i g h l i g h t s

A comprehensive review of the existing literature investigating military airfield durability problem is presented.

The actual degrading mechanism causing this durability problem is discussed.

Some recommendations for addressing this problem are also presented.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Military airbase pavement concrete, especially parking aprons, are regularly exposed to extremely severe
Received 6 July 2017 circumstances that are not usually experienced by other concrete pavements. Aprons are regularly
Received in revised form 8 November 2017 exposed to hydrocarbons (engine oil, hydraulic fluid, and jet oil), extreme heat shocks, and varied lengths
Accepted 8 November 2017
of repetitive cyclic heat loading. As a result, the rapid development of scaling, damage to the pavement in
the form of thin flat planar pieces that either flake or peel away from the wearing surface of the concrete
pavement, is a regular occurrence on these airbases. This scaling can generate significant amounts of for-
Keywords:
eign object debris (FOD) in the form of released aggregate and poses a grave threat to the safety of both
Airbase concrete pavement
Concrete durability
personnel and assets. Considering this, the paper presents a comprehensive review of the existing liter-
Jet exhaust ature investigating this serious issue raised by the Australian Air Force. In this review, the real environ-
Chemical damage ment and boundary conditions that these airfields are subjected to, which causes rapid scaling, are
Thermal degradation identified. Furthermore, the actual degrading mechanism including the damaging compounds likely to
present in the engine oil, hydraulic fluid and jet oil and their chemical reactions to Portland cement
concrete (PCC) are presented. The study also discusses the influence of strength of concrete, moisture
content, water-cement ratio (w/c) and the permeability of concrete on the durability of the military air-
base concrete. Finally, the authors recommend possible binders, aggregates, and additive materials that
could be suitably used in the military airbase concrete to mitigate the addressed issues.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
2. Military airfield circumstances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
2.1. Characteristics of APUs exhaust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
2.2. Typical exposure of the apron to chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
3. Military airbase concrete degrading mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
3.1. Chemical degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
3.2. Thermal degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
3.3. Alkaline chemical attack hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
3.4. Acid chemical attack hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: s.al-deen@unsw.edu.au (S. Al-Deen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.11.025
0950-0618/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 S.K. Shill et al. / Construction and Building Materials 160 (2018) 240–251 241

4. Other influencing factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

4.1. Mechanical strength of concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
4.2. Thermal cycles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
4.3. Moisture content and water/cement ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
4.4. Permeability of concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
5. Recommended solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
5.1. Types of aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
5.2. Types of binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
5.3. Types of fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
5.4. Types of additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
6. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

1. Introduction
Portland cement concrete (PCC) is a widely used construction
material and is widely used in parking aprons and pavements of
the military airbase around the world. The military airbase con-
crete surfaces, especially aprons are regularly exposed to extre-
mely severe circumstances not often experienced by other
concrete. In addition to the expected dynamic loads of jet fighters,
transport aircraft, and bombers rolling over the surface, these
pavements are often exposed to different hydrocarbons (engine
oil, hydraulic oil, and jet fuel), extreme heat shocks, and varied
lengths of repetitive cyclic heat loading.
Typically, concrete is non-combustible and has good fire-
resistance [1]. However, Mcvay et al. [2] reported that the United
States Air Force and Navy have been experiencing concrete dam-
ages in their airbase due to the effect of high temperature and/or
the effect of the chemical attack by jet fuel, hydraulic oil, and lubri-
cants. Moreover, military airbases in Australia have been experi-
encing concrete scaling damages for over three decades, since
F/A-18 jets were purchased and placed into service in 1984 [3].
Usually, such concrete damage takes place in the form of either
scaling or peeling off aggregate from the wearing surfaces, which
is a regular occurrence on the military airbase concrete. This scal-
ing phenomenon was observed at the parking apron within the
first six to eighteen months because of cyclic running and mainte-
nance of aircraft on concrete [2]. Scaling developed progressively
at a shallow depth of 6 mm–13 mm beneath the top surface of con-
crete [2,4]. However, the Department of the Air Force of USA stated
in their engineering technical letters that scaling damage occurs on
the top 25–50 mm of the pavement [5]. This scaling can generate a
significant amount of foreign object debris (FOD) in the form of
released aggregate and poses a significant threat to the safety of
both aircraft and personnel. FOD of any quantity is not tolerated
in the military airbases as a single piece of loose aggregate entering
into a jet engine could trigger explosion causing significant damage
to loss of assets and personnel [6]. As reported in the airfield pave-
ment maintenance manual (APMM) of the Royal Australian Air
Force (RAAF), scaling alone can classify the pavement as failed,
and scaling can be a severe hindrance to the safe operation of air-
craft [7].
Originally, most of the jet engines require an external starter
motor to make the aircraft more self-sustaining. Auxiliary power
units (APUs) have subsequently been added to many jet aircraft
to make them more self-sufficient. APUs are essentially small jet
engines that can be used to start the main engine and provide elec-
trical and hydraulic power prior to starting the main engine start or
providing power during an unexpected engine shut down. In most
aircraft, the APUs exhaust is directed upwards or parallel to the
ground surface. However, in the case of the F/A-18s and the B-1,
the APU exhaust is directed downwards. These downward facing
APUs exert the exhaust gas on the military airbase concrete at an
angle of 45 °C, and measured surface temperature of concrete is
approximately 175 °C [8]. Fig. 1 shows an APU at the bottom of
an F/A-18, which is clearly visible in the centre of the photo.
Fig. 2 shows a scaling on the surface of a military airbase con-
crete. In the centre of Fig. 2, an old deep scaling is clearly visible,
where aggregates were peeled off from the wearing surface of
the concrete. This kind of damage is a source of FOD, and are
observed more frequently in the vicinity of the APUs exhaust
impinging the concrete. Additionally, a large amount of spilled
engine oil, hydraulic fluid, and vented jet fuel from the aircraft
are also found regularly in the same region of pavement where
APUs exhaust impinges concrete. It is also to be noted that the jets
usually park in roughly the same location every time, causing loca-
lised damage to some areas of aprons.
Recently, studies on the behaviour of concrete at elevated tem-
peratures is a growing topic, which is quite related in airfields con-
crete [9–12]. However, military airfields concrete is subjected to
more complicated loading scenarios due to the addition of impact

Fig. 1. Underbelly of an F/A-18 with APU featured in the centre of the photo [3]. Fig. 2. Scaling at the top layer of the military airbase concrete.
242 S.K. Shill et al. / Construction and Building Materials 160 (2018) 240–251
Fig. 3. APU’s exhaust impingement zones on the airfield (replotted from [20]).
and eventual passage of jet fuel into concrete. Different studies
have been carried out on the heat resistant behaviour of concrete
subjected to fire at different temperatures. Some of the authors
[13,14] proposed that a high-strength concrete (HSC) or very
high-strength concrete (VHSC) containing polymeric fibres is
appropriate for the military airbase concrete to ensure adequate
durability. Furthermore, Air Force Civil Engineering Centre (AFCEC)
of the Department of Air Force, USA proposed a high-temperature
concrete (HTC) mix that could resist very high temperatures with-
out major spalling. HTC mix is also a PCC mix with expanded slate
or expanded shale, igneous traprock as coarse aggregate with mul-
tifilament polypropylene fibres [15]. However, Autelitano et al.
[16] argued that the thermomechanical spalling occurred in the
top 2–5 mm of the pavement surface of the concrete, consequently,
only 25 mm overlay of VHSC on the Normal Strength Concrete
(NSC) is a viable solution for the construction of vertical landing
pad in the military airbase.
In the past, a limited number of studies were carried out by the
US Navy and US Air Force on the durability of the military airbase
concrete [5,15,17–19]. However, these studies are limited in many
details and are neither widely published nor conclusively verified.
Additionally, much of these studies focused on either the effects of
heat or the effects of individual chemical compounds, with only a
small number of articles attempting to take a broader combination
of factors into account. Therefore, the authors aim to review the
existing available literature to make a summary on the actual
causes of scaling and a probable solution in selecting the binders,
aggregates, and additives for the military airbase concrete. In light
of this, the study focuses on the effect of F/A-18 and B-1 APU’s
exhaust temperature and spillage of hydrocarbons in the military
airbase concrete. The study also discusses the influence of strength
of concrete, moisture content, water-cement ratio (w/c), perme-
ability of concrete on the durability of the airbase concrete. Addi-
tionally, the authors provide an updated knowledge on the
complete environment and the conditions that the military airfield
concrete is subjected to, which cause rapid scaling of the concrete.
2. Military airfield circumstances
2.1. Characteristics of APUs exhaust
According to the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), the maxi-
mum exhaust temperature of both F/A-18 and B-1 APUs is 669 °C
although there is a significant loss of energy due to dispersion
and turbulence [20]. However, the surface temperature of concrete
is between 93 °C and 177 °C, and the velocity of exhaust gas varies
from 38.6 km/h to 229 km/h. Fig. 3 shows the concrete surface
temperatures and exhausts speeds at the apron level.
Malvar & Hironaka [21] explained that the APU of F/A-18 is
located at the bottom of the fuselage near the tail section, at about
1.20 m above the ground level. The maximum surface temperature
of pavement is about 196 °C with an angle of incidence of 30° with
the vertical, and the maximum velocity of the exhaust gas could
reach up to 229 km/h. The exhaust gas temperature isotherms on
the pavement surface and the projection of exhaust gasses are
almost circular showing a gradual reduction in temperature from
196 °C at the centre of the circle to about 93 °C at 762 mm. In addi-
tion, McVay et al. (1993) [2] argued that the maximum surface
temperature of concrete is between 175 °C and 190 °C for both F/
A-18 and B-1 aircraft. The maximum single exposure duration is
approximately 45 min for the F/A-18 and several hours for a B-1
bomber in standby mode. Furthermore, McVay et al. (1995) [8]
 S.K. Shill et al. / Construction and Building Materials 160 (2018) 240–251 243

Min. °C Max. °C Avg. °C Range °C

Point 1 139.4
Line 2 113.8 140.5 128.4 26.7

(a) During engine overcharge. (b) During the continuous heating cycle.
Fig. 4. Thermal image of concrete surface under the F/A-18 APUs exhaust [3].

200
emphasised that the maximum surface temperature of airbase
175 concrete is about 175 °C subjected to for both F/A-18 and B-1 air-
Temperature (°C)

150 craft. The authors also mentioned that the inclination angle of the
125 exhaust gas is 45 degrees for both F/A-18 and B-1 aircraft. Duane
has illustrated the thermal image of concrete pavement surface is
100
as shown in Fig. 4(a) and (b) after exposure to two separate F/A-
75 18 APUs [3].
50 According to Duane [3], the maximum surface temperature of
25 the pavement reached under normal operating conditions is no
more than 175 °C. Interestingly the maximum temperature of
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 pavement was observed after the APU went into an overdrive
Time (min) mode during the shutdown sequence, which is obvious from
Fig. 5(a) as a sharp spike is observed near the end of the recorded
(a) Heating profile captured from an SRE patched
data. The F/A-18 and other self-starting jets powered aircraft have
concrete apron. an internally pressurised tank that is used to jump start the main
150 engines and restart the APU during a cold start. The reserve pres-
125 sure tank must be brought to a certain pressure prior to shut-
Temperature (°C)

down to provide enough power for a restart; this occurs when

100 the APU is instructed to shut down. Fig. 5(a) and (b) show the sur-
face heating profile of airbase concrete under F/A-18 APUs exhaust
75
temperature.
50 Duane [3] also highlighted that the average initial heating rate
over the first 15 s is over 3 °C/s and approximately 70 °C/min in
25 the first minute. Additionally, Gong [22] also explained that an
0
APU could heat the surface of the pavement to 150 °C in less than
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 two minutes with a heating rate of 80 °C/min. Use patterns of APUs
Time (min) and their exposure are additional important factors to consider for
(b) Heating profile captured from a weathered water replication of jet engine within a laboratory for further study. In
Australian airbase, the APU does not operate for hours on end, it
covered concrete apron .
operates for an average of 4–5 min, with a range of 2–10 min per
Fig. 5. Surface heating profiles of airbase concrete under F/A-18 APUs exhaust [3]. usage, and is operated an average of twice a day with the majority

Table 1
Breakdown of hydrocarbons likely present on the airbase concrete.

Fluid name Military designation Potentially damaging compounds Concentration%

Engine oil MIL-PRF-23699 Fatty acids, C5-9, tetraesters with pentaerythritol 70–90
Fatty acids, C5-9, hexaesters with dipentaerythritol 5–10
Tris (methylphenyl) phosphate <5
Benzenamine, N-phenyl-, reaction products with 2,4,4-trimethylpentene <5
Jet fuel F-34/AVTUR/ FSI Kerosine (petroleum), hydrodesulphurised 0–100
Kerosine 0–100
Diethylene glycol monomethyl ether 0–0.15
Hydraulic oil MIL-PRF-83282 1-Decene, tetramer, mixed with 1-decene trimer, hydrogenated 60–100
2,20 ,6,60 -tetra-tert-butyl-4,40 -methylenediphenol <10
Distillates (petroleum), hydrotreated heavy paraffinic <10
Phenol, isobutylenated, phosphate (3:1) [Triphenyl phosphate > 25%] <10
244 S.K. Shill et al. / Construction and Building Materials 160 (2018) 240–251
(a) New apron after a single maintenance
Fig. 6. New apron after a single maintenance on a V-22 Osprey at some Australian airbase [3].
of these activations being the start-up of a jet for active service and
not for maintenance. The maximum number of cycles in a day can,
however, be much higher based on operational requirements and
could be as high as 10 times a day for touch and go exercises,
although this would be uncommon. There are also long periods
of rest with no APU usage above any specific apron when planes
are away on exercise, deployed or under maintenance in a hanger.
According to Duane [3], from the maintenance life log of the F/A-
180 s of some Australian airbase, the average APU is operated
approximately 130–140 times per year based on the average of a
4-min run cycle.
2.2. Typical exposure of the apron to chemicals
Oil spillage during maintenance of aircraft on the parking apron
or venting of oil from the aircraft after the main engine starting is a
common phenomenon and is inevitable in an airbase. Usually, the
military airbase is exposed to three primary chemicals such as
engine oil (MIL-PRF-23699 or MIL-L-7808), jet fuel (F-34 or simi-
lar) and hydraulic oil (MIL-PRF-83282). Engine oils are saturated
ester based lubricants, jet fuel is almost hundred percent kerosene,
and hydraulic oil is the synthetic hydrocarbon based on
phosphate-esters and is hygroscopic [23]. The chemical breakdown
of the potentially damaging compounds of those oils is presented
in Table 1.
Fig. 6(a) presents a photograph of aprons after a single short
maintenance on a V-22 engine on some Australian airbase. It can
be seen that the pavement is saturated by engine oil and this
would be similar to the situation which occurs during on-apron
maintenance to other aircraft. Emphasis is generally placed on
restoring capability to the aircraft and not on protecting the con-
crete below the aircraft, which means small spills or leaks are often
not cleaned up and are allowed to soak into the concrete. Thus,
during each maintenance, the pavement below the aircraft is satu-
rated quickly by the spilled fluids. As a result, apron concrete gets
an abundance of unwanted reactants to allow for possible chemical
attacks to take place.
Fig. 6(b) shows oil floating on runoff water indicating wastage.
Loss of oil from maintenance is not the only sources of spilled oils.
Older machinery such as older F/A-18s have regular slow leaks
pouring unwanted engine oils on the surface of aprons.
3. Military airbase concrete degrading mechanisms
When the military airbase concrete is exposed to engine oil,
hydraulic fluid and jet fuel in the presence of APUs exhaust tem-
perature, the durability of concrete might be deteriorated due to
chemical attack, due to high temperature or most likely the com-
bined effect of heat and chemical attack.
(b) Oil floating on runoff water
3.1. Chemical degradation
Engine oil contains fatty acids, C5-9, tetraesters with pentaery-
thritol up to 90% and fatty acids, C5-9, hexaesters with dipentaery-
thritol up to 10%. Similarly, McVay et al. reported that the ester
content in the lubricating oil and hydraulic oil are 95% and 30%,
respectively [8]. This ester is soluble in normal water in presence
of heat. When these esters come into contact with water in pres-
ence of heat, it hydrolyses to carboxylic acid and alcohol. Eq. (1)
explains the hydrolysis of the ester.
heat
CH3 COOR0 ðesterÞ þ H2 OðwaterÞ ! CH3 COOHðcarboxylic acidÞ
0
þ R OHðalcoholÞ ð1Þ
Typically, the carboxylic acid is colourless liquid with very
strong odours (pungent smell) and this acid is a weak acid having
a pH of around 2–6. Despite being a weak acid, carboxylic acid
behaves like any other acid and can react with soluble and insol-
uble alkalis and carbonate to form salts and water. Eqs. (2) and
(3) presents how the carboxylic acid reacts with alkali and
carbonate.
CH3 COOHðcarboxylic acidÞ þ CaðOHÞ2 ðcalcium hydroxideÞ
! CaðCH3 COOÞ2 ðcalcium saltÞ þ H2 OðwaterÞ ð2Þ
The carboxylic acid reacts with calcium hydroxide present in
PCC producing calcium salt and water. Additionally, Carboxylic
acid can also react with calcium carbonate present in Portland
limestone cement (PLC) concrete producing calcium salts, water,
and carbon dioxide.
CH3 COOHðcarboxylic acidÞ þ CaCO3 ðcalcium carbonateÞ
! CaðCH3 COOÞ2 ðcalcium saltÞ þ H2 O þ CO2 ð3Þ
These calcium salts of fatty acid are soft, soapy materials that
have the rancid odour, which supports the physical properties of
damaged samples collected by the US Air force [2]. Thus, the pro-
duced calcium salts in both equations are known as scale in the
military airbase. Moreover, the pace of reaction depends on the
temperature and pH value of cement. Since PCC has a pH value
greater than 12, and APUs exhaust makes the surface temperature
of concrete around 175 °C, therefore, this reaction happens at a
very faster rate on the top cementitious layer of concrete.
Both the engine oil and the hydraulic oil containing phosphate
esters in the form of tris (methylphenyl) phosphate and triphenyl
phosphate. These compounds help to lubricate steel and reduce
wear due to heat and friction. The triphenyl phosphate is a colour-
less ester (triester) of phosphoric acid and phenol. It is used as a
flame retardant and plasticizer in hydraulic fluids. Triphenyl phos-
phate is biodegradable under anaerobic conditions and soluble in
 S.K. Shill et al. / Construction and Building Materials 160 (2018) 240–251
water [24,25].These phosphate esters present in both the engine oil
and hydraulic oil can be formed in phosphoric acid when it comes
into contact with water at high temperature [26]. Eq. (4) illustrates
how phosphoric acid can be formed from phosphate ester.
C 18 H15 PO4 ðphosphate esterÞ þ H2 O
T150220 C
 ! C 18 H15 PO4 ðunreacted fluidÞ
þ H3 PO4 ðphosphoric acidÞ þ C 18 H15 OHðalcoholÞ
In addition to that, a small percent of red phosphorus is also
added to the engine oil to act as a scavenger for oxygen and water.
The red phosphorus can be oxidised simply in the air producing
phosphorus pentoxide. Eq. (5) shows the production of phosphorus
pentoxide.
Pðred phosphorusÞ þ O2 ! P2 O5 ðphosphorus pentoxideÞ
The phosphorus pentoxide reacts with water, even though it
can react with the moisture in the air, to form phosphoric acid.
Eq. (6) presents the production of phosphoric acid from phospho-
rus pentoxide.
P2 O5 ðphosphorus pentoxideÞ þ H2 O
! H3 PO4 ðphosphoric acidÞ
These phosphoric acids produced from phosphate ester and red
phosphorus can react with the calcium hydroxide present in PCC
and react with calcium carbonate present in PLC concrete. Eqs.
(7) and (8) show the reaction between phosphoric acid and cal-
cium hydroxide and reaction with calcium carbonate, respectively.
H3 PO4 þ CaðOHÞ2 ! Ca3 ðPO4 Þ2 ðcalcium phosphateÞ þ H2 O
H3 PO4 þ CaCO3 ! Ca3 ðPO4 Þ2 ðcalcium phosphateÞ þ CO2 þ H2 O
The phosphate esters and the red phosphorus could be decom-
posed in water and air oxidation in presence of heat producing
phosphoric acid. These phosphoric acids can attack the PCC and
produce calcium phosphate within the top cementitious layer,
resulting in a soft, spongy material also known as scale. Therefore,
when the scale is being developed in the top cementitious layer of
concrete, the top layer of concrete becomes more brittle and
reduces the elasticity of concrete. As a result, aggregates or plate-
like pieces peel off from the top layer of the concrete due to
mechanical abrasion that contributes to a significant amount of
FOD in the military airbase.
3.2. Thermal degradation
When the airbase concrete is exposed to APUs exhaust temper-
ature, the free water evaporates in the range of 30–105 °C, gypsum
and ettringite are decomposed in the range of 110–170 °C and the
C-S-H gel dehydration occurs at 180 °C [27]. Moreover, PCC starts
to lose its chemically bonded water at around 121 °C and the high-
est rate of dehydration occurs at around 177 °C [15]. Further, Hager
argues that the structure of Portland cement paste damages par-
tially due to dehydration at a temperature of 105 °C [28].
Often vapour pressures in the pore of saturated or partially sat-
urated dense concrete are detrimental because water vapour can-
not be relieved fast enough during the heating phase. Eventually,
vapour pressure is sufficient to cause tensile cracks in PCC because
concrete temperature beneath an F/A-18 reaches 140 °C in about 2
min. Furthermore, excessive use of pozzolanic materials in cement
such as silica fume minimizes the porosity and permeability of
concrete. Consequently, the low porosity and permeability of con-
crete matrix amplify the build-up of high pore vapour pressure as a
result of water evaporation [27]. Moreover, Kodres concluded that
245
presence of moisture in pores of cement is the primary cause of
concrete failure in airbase pavements [29]. Travis & Mobasher
explained that heat causes micro-cracking in concrete resulting
in a decrease in the modulus of elasticity; with lower elastic mod-
ulus, the concrete is more likely to see a failure in tension under
mechanical loading [30]. Furthermore, when gypsum and benefi-
cial crystal ettringite are decomposed, sulphate reacts with alu-
minum and calcium and start to expand the volume of concrete
ð4Þ
mass. As a result, micro cracks are developed around the aggregate
that decreases the elasticity and increases the permeability of con-
crete. Finally, if the chemically bonded water starts evaporating
due to thermal cycles, that leads to dehydrate the C-S-H gel of
cement paste, resulting in the decrease of concrete strength expo-
nentially because the cohesive force of C-S-H gel contributes
approximately 50% of the total strength of cement paste.
ð5Þ Aggregates in concrete also play a vital role in the thermal
degradation of the military airbase concrete under the APUs
exhaust temperature. When concrete is exposed to high tempera-
ture, the volume of aggregates also expands according to the ther-
mal expansion coefficient of aggregates. Usually, aggregate content
is more than 70% of the mass of a typical mix of concrete. As a
result, the thermal expansion coefficient of a mass concrete
ð6Þ increases with the increase of the thermal expansion coefficient
of its aggregate. Consequently, tensile stresses develop around
the aggregates producing micro-cracks in the cement paste of con-
crete. Ultimately, the military airbase concrete degrades a lot faster
with increased penetration of hydrocarbons and water.
3.3. Alkaline chemical attack hypothesis
ð7Þ
McVay et al. [2] tested a set of 152 mm thick concrete slabs with
910 mm diameter in the laboratory by applying cyclic heating to
samples that were exposed to equal parts of lubricating oil (MIL-
ð8Þ
L-7808) and hydraulic fluid (MIL-H-83282). Another set of samples
were kept dry as control samples. Both sets of samples were heated
for three hours a day to a temperature of 176 °C every day except
weekends; the samples exposed to the fluids all showed scaling
within four weeks of the experiment beginning, whereas the set
of dry samples showed no scaling after the same exposure to cyclic
heating. X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared Spec-
troscopy (FTIR) analysis and Gas Chromatography/ Mass Spectrom-
etry were conducted on the scaled samples by McVay et al. to
identify the type of chemical attack. The authors proposed that
the alkaline calcium hydroxides were reacting with the esters pre-
sent in the lubricants to form calcium salts and alcohols [2]. This
process is called saponification and can occur when oils are
brought into contact with concrete. As a general rule, the hydroly-
sis doubles its rate for every 10 °C increase, and this causes a rapid
acceleration in damage within the heat impinged zones.
However, not all research supports the alkaline reaction as a
major contributor to the chemical attack on the pavement. Novin-
son has reported that chemical analysis strongly supports the acid
attack theory; phosphoric acid causes the scaling damage in the
military airbase [6]. Thus, there is a contradictory theory in chem-
ical attack of the military airfield concrete. This indicates the lack
of knowledge of the actual process of scaling damage. Therefore,
the additional chemical analysis is necessary to increase the under-
standing regarding the scaling damage of airfield concrete.
3.4. Acid chemical attack hypothesis
Novinson [6] proposed the possibility of the phosphoric acid
attack on the military airbase concrete caused by the presence of
tricresyl orthophosphate in the engine oil (MIL-L-23699). Further-
more, it is noteworthy that there is also a source of phosphate
within the hydraulic fluid, which could also contribute to damages
246 S.K. Shill et al. / Construction and Building Materials 160 (2018) 240–251

350 HSC 1 6
HSC 2

Splitting tensile strength (MPa)

SCC
Compressive strength [MPa]

300 NSC 1
5 SCC-S
SPRC 1

250 SPRC 2 SCC-P

4
SPRC 3
SCC-H
200 NSC 2
3
HS-series
150 DS-series
Series10
2
100
1
50
0
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature [ 0 C] Temperature (°C)

Fig. 7. Compressive strength of concrete at high temperature. adapted from Fig. 9. Residual splitting tensile strength of concrete (replotted from Khaliq &
[13,27,32–36] Kodur) [38].

in concrete. The author did not conduct any laboratory experi-
ments on controlled concrete samples but he did analyse field sam-
ples collected from an airbase parking apron. Several methods
were used to source evidence of the chemical attack including elec-
tron scanning chemical analysis (ESCA), Fourier Transform Infrared
Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis and gas chromatography/mass spec-
trometry analysis. The evidence collected in these analyses did
support the acid attack hypothesis. Further, Way & Wille identified
that a small amount of red phosphorus is added to the engine oil to
act as a scavenger for oxygen and water [27]. Moreover, phospho-
rus oxidizes to phosphorus oxides that produce phosphorous and
phosphoric acids, which readily attacks concrete and produces cal-
cium phosphate resulting in the soft, spongy material known as
scale.
4. Other influencing factors
Many other factors including the mechanical properties of con-
crete, thermal cycles, moisture content, water-cement ratio and
the permeability of concrete influence the durability of the military
airbase concrete.
4.1. Mechanical strength of concrete
The strength of the concrete decreases with temperature and
higher heating rates leading to the possibility of higher spalling
in concrete [31]. Additionally, the possibility of temperature
induced spalling of high strength concrete (HSC) and very high
strength concrete (VHSC) is significantly greater than the normal
0.05
Chang et al. 2006
Zheng et al. 2012
µstrain = 0.0042
0.04 Zheng et al. 2012
Anagnostopoulos et al.2009
COVstrain = 0.3
Way & Wille 2016
0.03
Strain
strength concrete (NSC) because of the low permeability of HSC
and VHSC. However, Fig. 7 shows that the compressive strength
of NSC increases with the increase of temperature up to 100 °C.
Beyond 100 °C, the rate of decrease of compressive strength of
NSC up to 200 °C is marginal, and the residual strength of NSC at
200 °C retains about 90% of the original unheated strength [32].
Beyond 200 °C, the rate of loss of compressive strength of NSC
increases highly with temperature. Moreover, Fig. 7 also shows
that the compressive strength of HSC and VHSC increases with
the increase of temperature up to 300 °C. Beyond 300 °C, the com-
pressive strength decreases drastically with the increase of tem-
perature up to 800 °C. Beyond 800 °C, most concrete types
almost lose their compressive strength.
According to Cheng et al. [37], HSC loses a significant amount of
strength beyond 400 °C and at 800 °C the strength loss is about
75%. The rate of change of mechanical properties of concrete in
the temperature range of 100–400 °C is marginal. Way & Wille pre-
sented that the compressive strength of VHSC increases around
70–90% of its peak strength up to a temperature of 200 °C [27]. Fur-
ther, beyond 200 °C temperature, the change in the strength of
VHSC is marginal up to 500 °C.
It is widely accepted that concrete strains increase with the
increase of temperature. Although, Fig. 8 shows that the peak
strain below 200 °C is approximately equal to the original
unheated value for most concrete types. Above 200 °C, the peak
strain increases rapidly with the increase in temperature.
The splitting cylinder strength of concrete plays a very impor-
tant role in cracking mechanism of concrete at high temperature.
Concrete with higher splitting cylinder strength tend to show
higher resistance to thermal cracks at elevated temperature.
Fig. 9 shows that the splitting tensile strength of concrete
decreases with the temperature. Khaliq & Kodur [38] investigated
that the rate of decrease of splitting tensile strength is steady
and almost linear up to a temperature of 400 °C; beyond 400 °C,
At 200 0 C
the rate of reduction of that is very sharp up to a temperature of
800 °C. This severe reduction beyond 400 °C could be due to of
the formation of extreme micro and macro cracks because of
excessive vapour pressure and thermal incompatibility of concrete.

Way & Wille 2016

Yong et al 2009 Ma et al. [39] argued that the splitting cylinder strength of con-
Junaid et al. 2014 crete decreases at an almost linear rate with the temperature.
0.02
Zheng et al. 2012
However, splitting cylinder strength of concrete decreases at a
higher rate beyond 400 °C when compared against that under
0.01
400 °C.
In summary, the military airbase concrete surface temperature
0 is not more than 175 °C when it is exposed to APUs exhaust of both
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Temperature [0C] F/A-18 and B-1. The rate of decrease of mechanical strength for
most concrete types within that temperature is marginal. In reality,
Fig. 8. Residual strain of concrete at high temperature. adapted from [13,27,32–36] the mechanical strength of HSC and VHSC increases when they are
 S.K. Shill et al. / Construction and Building Materials 160 (2018) 240–251
exposed to a temperature below 200 °C. However, the rate of heat-
ing and cyclic heating may play vital roles in increasing the ther-
mal degradation of military airbase concrete.
4.2. Thermal cycles
The military airbase concrete in the Nordic countries and in dif-
ferent areas of the United States are often subjected to freeze and
thaw cycles, which causes serious issues with durability. Cyclic
freeze and thaw loadings can also cause scaling of the concrete sur-
face in military airbase pavements and aprons, bridge deck, con-
crete dams and road pavements due to the large open surface
area at cold climates. The freezing of capillary water inside the
pore structure of concrete can expand the volume of concrete by
about 9%. This expansion of the volume of water produces huge
pressure in the capillaries and pores of the concrete. When the
intensity of that pressure exceeds the tensile strength of concrete,
cracks are formed in concrete. Further, salts are regularly applied
for deicing concrete in cold climates that also degrade the cement
paste and the quality of aggregates. In this way, the combined
effect of cyclic freeze-thaw and degradation of cement gel and
aggregates due to deicing salts can cause scaling of concrete. Sev-
eral studies are available in the literature to explain the actual fail-
ure mechanism of concrete under a freeze and thaw loads, such as
the hydraulic pressure [40], the osmotic pressure [41] and the
micro-ice-lens model [42]. Thus, the damage to concrete occurred
in terms of surface scaling and/or sometimes complete disintegra-
tion as layers of ice are formed due to the cyclic effect of freezing-
thawing loads. This damage starts from the surface of concrete and
gradually extends inwards beneath the surface [43]. In brief, to
develop a durable concrete mix for the military airbase, freezing
and thawing effect must be considered in the analysis and design
of experiments.
4.3. Moisture content and water/cement ratio
Moisture content generally influences the spalling process of
concrete at high temperatures. It is widely accepted that the possi-
bility and the extent of spalling of concrete increase with the mois-
ture content. Higher the moisture content in concrete higher the
vapour pressure at high temperature. Additionally, moisture con-
tent increases the thermal conductivity of concrete. Since the ther-
mal conductivity of water is 25 times greater than air, when pores
of concrete are partially filled by moisture or fully saturated by
water, the concrete must have greater thermal conductivity.
Water/cement (w/c) ratio also has a major influence on the
spalling process of concrete. According to Chan et al., the rate of
loss of residual compressive strength is higher with higher w/c
ratio of concrete [44]. Phan et al. argued that the loss of both com-
pressive strength and modulus of elasticity of concrete are higher
with higher w/c ratio at high temperature [45]. Moreover, similar
results have been found for compressive strength of concrete con-
taining different filler materials at high temperature [46–48].
Lightweight concrete also showed similar results when concrete
with different w/c ratio were exposed to high temperature [49].
However, Phan et al. investigated that spalling of concrete occurred
at lower w/c ratio of 0.22 when exposed to 450 °C, whereas, con-
crete with w/c ratio of 0.33 was undamaged at that temperature
[45]. Therefore, it can be stated that low w/c ratio is more prone
to spalling than high w/c ratio as the rate of gain of vapour pres-
sure in concrete at a higher temperature would become faster in
the case of dense concrete.
Usually, different sizes of water basins are found in and around
the airbases to protect the pavements and aprons from waterlog-
ging due to rainfall. Thus, the water table is located close to pave-
ment surface in the airbase during the rainy season. Consequently,
247
the pavement and apron concrete are often fully saturated by
moisture during the rainy season. This moisture increases vapour
pressure at high temperature and helps to increase the thermal
conductivity of concrete when exposed to APUs exhaust. Thus,
higher moisture content and lower w/c ratio could be detrimental
at high temperature.
4.4. Permeability of concrete
The permeability of concrete plays an important role when it is
exposed to hydrocarbons under the APUs exhaust temperature in
the military airbase. Usually, the permeability of concrete depends
highly on the pore structure of concrete and high strength concrete
(HSC) generally possesses lesser permeability than normal
strength concrete (NSC). However, it is believed that the surface
scaling of concrete occurs due to chemical spillage in the military
airbase, and APUs exhaust temperature acts as a catalyst and accel-
erates the pace of chemical reaction. Additionally, APUs exhaust
heat increases the permeability of concrete by producing the ther-
mal cracks in concrete. Moreover, the permeability coefficient of
concrete increases with the increase of temperature [50]. The
increased permeability of concrete allows more hydrocarbons
repeatedly into the interface of concrete. As a result, the cement
paste quality of hardened concrete gets deteriorated due to chem-
ical attack. In brief, the military airbase concrete should have low
permeability to suppress chemical interactions.
5. Recommended solutions
The current practices to the scaling of the military airbase con-
crete are to cut out the degraded concrete and to replace it with an
expensive sand and semi-rigid epoxy (SRE) patch that is designed
for small spalls. This process, however, is reported to be extremely
costly to replace up to 2–3 m2 [3]. Little to no improvements have
been made over the last 25 years to the resistance of concrete
aprons to hydrocarbons. Therefore, the authors have put forward
some recommendations in the following sections regarding select-
ing suitable aggregates, binders, fibres and additives to ensure the
durability of the concrete mix used in the military airbase.
5.1. Types of aggregates
The type of aggregate plays a vital role in the thermal degrada-
tion process of the military airbase concrete. Many research papers
in the literature deal with the effect of aggregates on the mechan-
ical properties of concrete at elevated temperatures [51–62]. How-
ever, very few research articles and US Navy’s technical data sheet
explain the influence of coarse aggregates on the observed scaling
of airbase concrete [4,15,18]. The expanded shale aggregate of 9.5
mm was reported to be the best option as a coarse aggregate for
airbase concrete [4]. Limestone aggregates are more favourable
at a higher temperature than the siliceous aggregates because of
their lower thermal expansion coefficient [63]. Further, concrete
containing limestone aggregates could be used in applications
involving high temperatures [64]. Carbonate stones like limestone
and dolomite are stable up to 600 °C [28]. The Department of the
Air Force of the USA reported that the high-temperature concrete
(HTC) mixtures are unique for airbase concrete when landing and
take–off operation applies temperature at the surface of the con-
crete from 482 to 926 °C [15]. HTC mix must be made of 100%
expanded or approved traprock aggregates, where coarse aggre-
gate and fine aggregate should originate from the same material
but with different grading. However, expanded clay aggregate is
not allowed because of their insufficient durability for the airfield
concrete environment. HTC mixes are typically less workable due
248 S.K. Shill et al. / Construction and Building Materials 160 (2018) 240–251
to larger surface area and angularity of aggregates used in HTC mix.
Aggregates should be, in general, heat resistant for the construc-
tion of durable military airbase concrete. In summary, it can be sta-
ted that the expanded shale, expanded slate, traprock aggregates
and limestone aggregates might be the best aggregates for the con-
struction of military airbase as they offer lower thermal expansion
coefficient than other silicious aggregates.
5.2. Types of binders
McVay et al. [2] stated that the rate of chemical attacks in the
military airbase concrete depends on the pH value of cement.
Higher or lower the pH of cement, faster the pace of the chemical
degradation process. Usually, PCC has a pH value greater than 12,
and hence, the authors envisage that neutral pH cement such as
aluminum and/or magnesium phosphate cement could be consid-
ered as a suitable option for the military airbase pavements and
aprons. As reported in the experimental works of McVay et al.
[8], the ordinary Portland cement (OPC) lost 55% and 17% of the
strength only after seven days when it was exposed to heat and
lubricating oils, heat and hydraulic fluids, respectively. Further-
more, Hironaka & Malvar [4] recommended magnesium ammo-
nium phosphate cement for the military airbase concrete.
In the current study, the authors suggest geopolymers as bind-
ing materials for the repairing and construction of military airbase
concrete. Geopolymers are one kind of civil engineering binding
materials which are manufactured by activating of solid alumi-
nosilicate material with highly alkaline solution. Usually, Geopoly-
mer materials are based on the class-F fly ash (FA) and contain very
low percentage of calcium oxide. A typical mix of geopolymer con-
crete contains fine aggregates, coarse aggregates, FA, sodium
hydroxide and sodium silicate. The geopolymer concrete has supe-
rior acid resistance [65,66], spalling resistance and heat-resisting
capacity than PCC due to their low differential gradients and ther-
mal incompatibility between the geopolymer paste and aggregates
[67]. However, the geopolymer materials prepared using metakao-
lin shows better durability and heat-resistant properties than
geopolymer materials prepared using FA [66].
The authors also suggest polymer-modified concrete (PMC) or
polymer modified mortar (PMM) for repairing and construction
of the military airbase concrete. In the case of PMC/PMM, the bind-
ing materials are polymers preferably acrylic latex, epoxy resin,
polyester resin and any hydraulic cement. Usually, in the PMC/
PMM, the polymer to cement ratio is 0.10–0.20 by weight of
cement [68]. PMC and PMM are primarily preferred for thin coat-
ings and patching for concrete restoration as well as an overlay
on the surface of the degraded concrete [68,69]. In addition,
PMM or PMC patches are commonly used particularly in situations
where the concrete surfaces are exposed to aggressive chemicals
such as heavy duty industrial floor, parking decks and marine
decks [68,70]. Addition of polymer in hydraulic cement concrete
improves tensile strength, flexural strength, impact strength, abra-
sion resistance, resistance to permeability, chemical resistance and
adhesion of hydraulic cement mortar [68,69,71–73]. Finally, PMC/
PMM has low pH value and has a greater resistance to acid and
base at elevated temperature [74].
5.3. Types of fibres
A limited number of studies were carried out on the effect of
fibres in the military airbase concrete however, considerable
research was carried out to study the effect of fibre on the mechan-
ical properties of different types of concrete at high temperature.
The most commonly used fibres in concrete are steel fibres and
polypropylene fibres. Generally, the addition of steel fibres in con-
crete can improve a significant amount of the residual compressive
strength, flexural strength, splitting tensile strength and modulus
of elasticity after exposure to higher temperature. As stated in
the experimental works of Gao et al. [75], the addition of 2% steel
fibres in concrete can increase the splitting strength of concrete by
42.6% at ambient temperature and also can increase the residual
splitting strength of concrete by 36.1% after exposure to 400 °C
temperature. The size of steel fibres also play an important role
on the residual mechanical properties of concrete at elevated tem-
perature. Smaller size of the steel fibres enhances the residual
strengths of concrete at elevated temperature [76]. Further, the
presence of steel fibres in concrete marginally improves the spal-
ling resistance of concrete at high temperature [9]. However, due
to high thermal conductivity of steel fibres, it can spread out the
heat more consistently in steel fibres reinforced concrete. As a
result, steel fibres can moderate the propensity of cracks develop-
ment caused by thermal gradients in concrete [52,75,77].
The addition of polypropylene fibres can increase the significant
amount of residual flexural strength and splitting strength of con-
crete even after exposure to high temperatures [75]. However, the
influence of polypropylene fibres on the compressive strength of
concrete at higher temperature is not significant because of its
lower melting temperature of 170 °C. Concrete with polypropylene
fibres have a better resistance to the thermal spalling at high tem-
perature than concrete without fibres [33,58,78–81]. Polypropy-
lene fibres increase the permeability of concrete at least three to
four times when the concrete with polypropylene fibres is exposed
to a temperature of lower than 140 °C, with a decreasing rate for
increasing temperature [82]. Furthermore, 0.1–0.5% of polypropy-
lene fibres by volume of mix is suggested to achieve better perfor-
mance of concrete at high temperatures [75,83,84]. However, a few
authors recommended that the required amount of polypropylene
fibres in concrete to minimize the spalling is 0.05–0.2% by volume
[81,82,85–88]. Moreover, the length of fibres also plays a signifi-
cant role on the performance of concrete. From the availability
point of view, normally 10–20 mm long polypropylene fibres of
the diameter of 50–200 mm are used for preventing spalling of con-
crete. As reported in the experimental works of Heo, the long
length of polypropylene fibres is beneficial on the spalling protec-
tion process of concrete at high temperature [79]. Further, Kalifa
et al. observed that a dose of polypropylene fibres of 2 kg/m3 with
a fibre length of 20 mm is very effective to reduce thermal spalling
of HPC up to 100 MPa [89]. Moreover, the polypropylene fibres
have a better thermal spalling resistance than the steel fibres
because high vapour pressure is the main reason of thermal spal-
ling of concrete at high temperature [52]. Finally, the mixing
sequence of polypropylene fibres also has an influence on the spal-
ling resistance of concrete. Spalling resistance increases effectively
when polypropylene fibres of 0.2% (by volume of concrete) are
mixed with fresh concrete or fine aggregates [90]. However, the
addition of polypropylene fibre in the military airbase concrete
might not produce a good result because it could significantly
increase the permeability of concrete under the APUs exhaust of
both F/A-18 and B-1 aircraft.
5.4. Types of additives
The most commonly used mineral additives in the concrete are
silica fume (SF), fly ash (FA) and blast furnace slag (BFS). However,
application of sodium silicate in the ordinary concrete pavement
dramatically improves the ability of concrete to resist the damage
up to a temperature of 260 °C [18]. In addition, the concrete made
with limestone fillers have better performance because this con-
crete maintains a high percentage of residual strength after
exposed to high temperature [34].
SF is the by-product of the silicon and ferrosilicon industry. SF is
actually known as pozzolanic admixture that is effective in
 S.K. Shill et al. / Construction and Building Materials 160 (2018) 240–251
enhancing the mechanical properties of concrete. SF contains
extremely fine particles; the particle size of SF is finer than 1 mm.
The addition of SF in concrete increases the compressive strength,
tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, durability, toughness and
abrasion resistance. On the other hand, SF reduces the permeability
of concrete due to very fine particle size. Furthermore, SF decreases
the thermal conductivity and density of concrete. Demirboğa
reported that 10% replacement (by weight) of Portland cement
by SF decreases the thermal conductivity of mortar up to 40%
[91], and SF is more effective in reducing the thermal conductivity
of concrete than FA and BFS. The dose of SF in HSC has a remark-
able influence on the mechanical properties of concrete at high
temperature. Hertz [92] proposed that 10% replacement of Port-
land cement by SF is the upper limit to reduce the thermal spalling
of concrete. Further, the concrete containing 10% SF performs bet-
ter than OPC at 100–200 °C, but significant strength loss is
observed at 300 °C temperature when compared to that of OPC
[93]. Behnood & Ziari [94] argued that the effect of dose of SF in
the residual compressive strength of concrete is not significant at
the temperature of 100–200 °C. Beyond 300 °C, the dose of SF sig-
nificantly affects the residual compressive strength of concrete.
The authors suggested an optimum dose of SF in HSC is 6% (by
weight) at high temperature to reduce the adverse effects of SF.
Sørensen [95] proposed that drying and rewetting of concrete prior
to freezing and thawing has a major influence on the scaling pro-
cess of conventional concrete, whereas concrete with SF remains
relatively unaffected. Moreover, Hooton [96] investigated the frost
resistance of concrete containing 10% of SF by mass of cement. The
result yields that PCC failed after 58 cycles of freezing and thawing,
while concrete containing 10% of SF had a durability factor of 97.5%
even after 300 cycles of freezing and thawing. Johnston [97]
reported that the concrete containing 10 and 15% of SF with a max-
imum water binder ratio of 0.45, has an acceptable resistance to
salt scaling. In brief, silica fume can be used effectively in the mil-
itary airbase concrete at an optimum dose of 6% (by weight),
because SF reduces the thermal conductivity of concrete, increases
the mechanical strength of concrete, increases the resistance to salt
scaling, as well as reduces the permeability of concrete.
Fly ash (FA) is another type of additive frequently used for con-
crete, which is the most available supplementary cementitious
materials for concrete. FA is a by-product obtained from coal burnt
power stations. FA particles are generally spherical in shape, and
size of FA ranges from 1 to 100 mm [98]. The addition of FA in con-
crete has many benefits to fresh concrete. FA increases workability,
decreases the water demand and reduces the heat of hydration of
fresh concrete. Another important advantage of FA is it reacts with
available lime and alkali in concrete leading to produce more
cementitious compounds. FA reduces the permeability of hardened
concrete and increases the durability of concrete. Moreover, FA
reduces the probability of sulphate attack of concrete because it
consumes the free lime of cement. Sotiriadis et al. [99] argued that
FA is the most effective mineral additive for improving the sul-
phate resistance of limestone concrete. However, concrete contain-
ing FA hardens slowly and reduces the early gain of compressive
strength [100–102]. Since, the thermal conductivity of concrete
increases with cement content, 20% of FA replacement by weight
of Portland cement can decrease the thermal conductivity of mor-
tar up to 33% [91]. Based on their experimental works, Tanyildizi &
Coskun [103] reported that FA increases the resistance of concrete
against high temperature as it contributes interfacial properties by
the pozzolanic effects. The authors also observed that the highest
values for compressive strength and splitting strength are obtained
at 30% replacement of Portland cement by FA [103]. Nevertheless,
the excessive use of FA in concrete leads to bleeding of FA, and
hence reduces the resistance to salt scaling [104]. Addition of FA
in concrete also diminishes the resistance to salt scaling
249
[104–108]. Thus, FA might be used effectively in the military air-
base of non-Nordic countries at an optimum dose of 30% (by
weight) as this addition will reduce the permeability of concrete,
the resistance to salt scaling and the thermal conductivity of con-
crete, whilst could enhance the durability of concrete at high
temperature.
6. Conclusions
Based on the aforementioned review of all available relevant lit-
erature, the following conclusions can be drawn:

The maximum surface temperature of a military airbase con-
crete pavement is not more than 175 °C under normal operating
conditions of F/A-18s, B-1s, and V-22 Ospreys. The average ini-
tial heating rate of F/A-18 over the first 15 s is over 3 °C/s and
approximately 70 °C/min during the first minute.

When concrete is exposed to APUs exhaust, free water on the
top surface of concrete evaporates at 30–105 °C temperature
range, and consequently builds up significant vapour pressure
in concrete pores. Vapour pressures in the pores of saturated
dense concrete are detrimental and eventually cause tensile
cracks in concrete because the surface temperature of concrete
beneath an F/A-18 can reach up to 140 °C within 2 min.

Gypsum and ettringite are decomposed in the range of 110–
170 °C. This causes sulphate to react with aluminum and cal-
cium triggering expansion of the volume of concrete mass.
Hence, micro-cracks develop around aggregates, which are
responsible for an eventual decrease in elasticity and increase
in permeability of concrete allowing more chemical spillage
within the concrete mass.

Engine oil contains fatty acids, C5-9, tetraesters with pentaery-
thritol up to 90% and fatty acids, C5-9, hexaesters with dipen-
taerythritol up to 10%. These esters of fatty acid easily
hydrolyses to carboxylic acid and alcohol. The carboxylic acid
reacts with calcium hydroxide, and calcium carbonate present
in PCC produces calcium salt. These calcium salts of fatty acid
are soft, soapy materials that have a rancid odour, and are
known as scale in military airbase concrete.

Both engine oil and hydraulic oil contain phosphate esters in
the form of tri (methylphenyl) phosphate and triphenyl phos-
phate. In addition, a small percentage of red phosphorus is also
added in engine oil. These phosphate esters and the red phos-
phorus could be decomposed in water and air in the presence
of heat producing phosphoric acid. These phosphoric acids can
attack the PCC and can produce calcium phosphate in the top
cementitious layer, resulting in a soft, spongy material also
known as scale.

When the scale is being developed in the top cementitious layer
of concrete, the top layer of concrete becomes more brittle and
loses its elasticity. As a result, aggregates or plate-like pieces
peel off from the top layer of concrete due to colloquial mechan-
ical abrasion.

Geopolymer concrete is deemed suitable for military airbase
because of their superior acid resistance and heat-resisting
capacity than PCC. Polymer-modified concrete is also recom-
mended to be used in military airbase because it has lower
pH value, higher flexural strength and has a greater resistance
to both acids and bases at elevated temperatures.

Silica fume can be used effectively as mineral additives in mil-
itary airbase concrete at an optimum dose of 6% (by weight)
as it reduces the thermal conductivity and the permeability of
concrete. SF also increases the mechanical strength of concrete
up to 200 °C in addition to increasing the resistance to salt
scaling.
250 S.K. Shill et al. / Construction and Building Materials 160 (2018) 240–251

Fly Ash (FA) may be used as a supplementary cementitious [27] R. Way, K. Wille, Effect of heat-induced chemical degradation on the residual
mechanical properties of ultrahigh-performance fiber-reinforced concrete, J.
material in airbase concrete with a maximum dose of 30% (by
Mater. Civ. Eng. 28 (4) (2015) 04015164.
weight). FA reduces the permeability of concrete, reduces the [28] I. Hager, Behaviour of cement concrete at high temperature, Bull. Pol. Acad.
resistance to salt scaling, reduces the thermal conductivity of Sci. Tech. Sci. 61 (1) (2013) 145–154.
concrete, but enhances the durability of concrete. [29] C. Kodres, Moisture-induced pressures in concrete airfield pavements, J.
Mater. Civ. Eng. 8 (1) (1996) 41–50.

Addition of polypropylene fibre in military airbase concrete [30] Q.B. Travis, B. Mobasher, Correlation of elastic modulus and permeability in
may not produce beneficial results as these fibres will poten- concrete subjected to elevated temperatures, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 22 (7) (2010)
tially increase the permeability of concrete when the concrete 735–740.
[31] M.B. Dwaikat, V. Kodur, Hydrothermal model for predicting fire-induced
is exposed to the APUs exhaust of both F/A-18 and B-1 aircraft. spalling in concrete structural systems, Fire Saf. J. 44 (3) (2009) 425–434.
[32] Y.-F. Chang, Y.-H. Chen, M.-S. Sheu, G.C. Yao, Residual stress–strain
relationship for concrete after exposure to high temperatures, Cem. Concr.
References Res. 36 (10) (2006) 1999–2005.
[33] W. Zheng, H. Li, Y. Wang, Compressive stress–strain relationship of steel
fiber-reinforced reactive powder concrete after exposure to elevated
[1] M. Eglinton, in: Resistance of Concrete to Destructive, Lea’s Chemistry of
temperatures, Constr. Build. Mater. 35 (2012) 931–940.
Cement and Concrete, 2003, p. 299.
[34] N. Anagnostopoulos, K. Sideris, A. Georgiadis, Mechanical characteristics of
[2] M.C. McVay, L.D. Smithson, C. Manzione, Chemical damage to airfield
self-compacting concretes with different filler materials, exposed to elevated
concrete aprons from heat and oils, Mater. J. 90 (3) (1993) 253–258.
temperatures, Mater. Struct. 42 (10) (2009) 1393.
[3] B.W. Duane, The Behaviour of Airfield Rigid Pavements Under the Influence of
[35] K. Gyu-Yong, K. Young-Sun, L. Tae-Gyu, Mechanical properties of high-
Jet Fuel, Lubricating and Hydraulic Fluids and Cyclic Heat Loading by F/A-18
strength concrete subjected to high temperature by stressed test, Trans.
APU Exhaust, Civil Engineering, School of Engineering and Information
Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 19 (2009) s128–s133.
Technology (SEIT), University of New South Wales at the Australian Defense
[36] M.T. Junaid, A. Khennane, O. Kayali, A. Sadaoui, D. Picard, M. Fafard, Aspects of
Force Academy, 2016.
the deformational behaviour of alkali activated fly ash concrete at elevated
[4] M.C. Hironaka, L.J. Malvar, Jet exhaust damaged concrete, Concr. Int. 20 (10)
temperatures, Cem. Concr. Res. 60 (2014) 24–29.
(1998) 32–35.
[37] F.-P. Cheng, V. Kodur, T.-C. Wang, Stress-strain curves for high strength
[5] AFCEC/DD, SUBJECT: Engineering Technical Letter (ETL) 14-2 (Change 1):
concrete at elevated temperatures, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 16 (1) (2004) 84–90.
Preventing and Repairing Concrete Deterioration Under MV-22 and CV-22
[38] W. Khaliq, V. Kodur, Thermal and mechanical properties of fiber reinforced
Aircraft, Department of the Air Force, Air Force Civil Engineering Center
high performance self-consolidating concrete at elevated temperatures, Cem.
Tyndall Air Force Base Florida, U.S.A., 2014.
Concr. Res. 41 (11) (2011) 1112–1122.
[6] T. Novinson, Thermochemical concrete pavement scaling mechanism: Navy
[39] Q. Ma, R. Guo, Z. Zhao, Z. Lin, K. He, Mechanical properties of concrete at high
F/A-18 Jet Aircraft Parking Apron Problem, DTIC Document, 1998.
temperature—a review, Constr. Build. Mater. 93 (2015) 371–383.
[7] B.C.P. Ltd, Airfield Pavement Maintenance Manual, 2015, January 2015).
[40] T.C. Powers, The physical structure and engineering properties of concrete,
[8] M. McVay, J. Rish III, C. Sakezles, S. Mohseen, C. Beatty, Cements resistant to
Portland Cem. Assoc. Bull. (1958) 1–28.
synthetic oil, hydraulic fluid, and elevated temperature environments, Mater.
[41] T.C. Powers, R. Helmuth, Theory of volume changes in hardened portland-
J. 92 (2) (1995) 155–163.
cement paste during freezing, Highway research board proceedings, (1953).
[9] P. Robins, S. Austin, M. Richards, The resistance of steel fibre concrete to VTOL
[42] M.J. Setzer, Micro-ice-lens formation in porous solid, J. Colloid Interface Sci.
engine jet blast, Cem. Concr. Compos. 16 (1) (1994) 57–64.
243 (1) (2001) 193–201.
[10] I. UHERKOVICH, Schaedigungsmechanismen beim Aufflaemmen von
[43] C. Karakurt, Y. Bayazıt, Freeze-thaw resistance of normal and high strength
Polymer-Dichtungsbahnen, (2004).
concretes produced with fly ash and silica fume, Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2015
[11] N.Ö. Bezgin, An experimental evaluation to determine the required thickness
(2015).
of passive fire protection layer for high strength concrete tunnel segments,
[44] Y. Chan, G. Peng, M. Anson, Residual strength and pore structure of high-
Constr. Build. Mater. 95 (2015) 279–286.
strength concrete and normal strength concrete after exposure to high
[12] K. Sakkas, P. Nomikos, A. Sofianos, D. Panias, Inorganic polymeric materials
temperatures, Cem. Concr. Compos. 21 (1) (1999) 23–27.
for passive fire protection of underground constructions, Fire Mater. 37 (2)
[45] L. Phan, J. Lawson, F. Davis, Effects of elevated temperature exposure on
(2013) 140–150.
heating characteristics, spalling, and residual properties of high performance
[13] P. Bamonte, P. Gambarova, Thermal and mechanical properties at high
concrete, Mater. Struct. 34 (2) (2001) 83–91.
temperature of a very high-strength durable concrete, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 22
[46] C.-S. Poon, S. Azhar, M. Anson, Y.-L. Wong, Comparison of the strength and
(6) (2009) 545–555.
durability performance of normal-and high-strength pozzolanic concretes at
[14] A. Bianchini, C.R. Gonzalez, W.R. Barker, Recommendations for the minimum
elevated temperatures, Cem. Concr. Res. 31 (9) (2001) 1291–1300.
thickness of concrete pavements supporting F-15 and C-17 aircrafts, J. Trans.
[47] H. Wang, The effects of elevated temperature on cement paste containing
Eng. 141 (1) (2014) 06014002.
GGBFS, Cem. Concr. Compos. 30 (10) (2008) 992–999.
[15] A.F.C.E. CENTER, T.A.F.B. FLORIDA, SUBJECT: Engineering Technical Letter
[48] C.-S. Poon, S. Azhar, M. Anson, Y.-L. Wong, Performance of metakaolin
(ETL) 14-4: Vertical Landing Zone (VLZ) and Other Airfield Pavement Design
concrete at elevated temperatures, Cem. Concr. Compos. 25 (1) (2003) 83–89.
and Construction Using High Temperature Concrete, (2014).
[49] E. Sancak, Y.D. Sari, O. Simsek, Effects of elevated temperature on
[16] F. Autelitano, C. Iacci, F. Giuliani, Thermomechanical behaviour of airfield
compressive strength and weight loss of the light-weight concrete with
concrete pads supporting joint strike fighter F-35B, Road Mater. Pavement
silica fume and superplasticizer, Cem. Concr. Compos. 30 (8) (2008) 715–721.
Des. (2016) 1–22.
[50] S.L. Suhaendi, T. Horiguchi, Effect of short fibers on residual permeability and
[17] T. Novinson, Thermochemical concrete pavement scaling mechanism: Navy
mechanical properties of hybrid fibre reinforced high strength concrete after
F/A-18 Jet Aircraft Parking Apron Problem., (1998).
heat exposition, Cem. Concr. Res. 36 (9) (2006) 1672–1678.
[18] N. EXWC-CI-1403, Mitigating concrete damage caused by engine exhaust
[51] Y. Xu, Y. Wong, C. Poon, M. Anson, Impact of high temperature on PFA
surface temperature below 500°F, Naval Facilities Engineering Command,
concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 31 (7) (2001) 1065–1073.
Engineering and Expeditionary Warfare Center TechData Sheet Port
[52] B. Chen, J. Liu, Residual strength of hybrid-fiber-reinforced high-strength
Hueneme, California 93043-4307, (2013).
concrete after exposure to high temperatures, Cem. Concr. Res. 34 (6) (2004)
[19] AFCEC/DD, Engineering Technical Letter (ETL) 14-2 (Change 1): Preventing
1065–1069.
and Repairing Concrete Deterioration Under MV-22 and CV-22 Aircraft, Air
[53] Y. Fu, Y. Wong, C. Poon, C. Tang, Stress-strain behaviour of high-strength
force Civil Engineer Center, Tyndall air force base florida, (2014).
concrete at elevated temperatures, Mag. Concr. Res. 57 (9) (2005) 535–544.
[20] U.A.P. Ltd, Stage 2 Environmental Investigation, AFFF PFAS, RAAF Base
[54] A. Savva, P. Manita, K. Sideris, Influence of elevated temperatures on the
Williamtown, Williamtown NSW, Defence Environmental Remediation
mechanical properties of blended cement concretes prepared with limestone
Programs BP26-2-B089 Brindabella Business Park Canberra ACT 2610, (2015).
and siliceous aggregates, Cem. Concr. Compos. 27 (2) (2005) 239–248.
[21] L. Malvar, M. Hironaka, Heat resistant concrete for airfield pavements:
[55] K.M.A. Hossain, High strength blended cement concrete incorporating
preliminary numerical study, Comput. Struct. 40 (2) (1991) 303–311.
volcanic ash: performance at high temperatures, Cem. Concr. Compos. 28
[22] J. Ju, H. Gong, Thermo-Micromechanical Damage Models of Airfield Concrete
(6) (2006) 535–545.
Pavement Under High Temperature Loading, DTIC Document, (1998).
[56] M. Husem, The effects of high temperature on compressive and flexural
[23] G.E. Totten, Handbook of lubrication and tribology, vol. 1 Application and
strengths of ordinary and high-performance concrete, Fire Saf. J. 41 (2) (2006)
Maintenance, CRC Press, 2006.
155–163.
[24] I. van der Veen, J. de Boer, Phosphorus flame retardants: properties,
[57] A. Lau, M. Anson, Effect of high temperatures on high performance steel fibre
production, environmental occurrence, toxicity and analysis, Chemosphere
reinforced concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 36 (9) (2006) 1698–1707.
88 (10) (2012) 1119–1153.
[58] G.-F. Peng, W.-W. Yang, J. Zhao, Y.-F. Liu, S.-H. Bian, L.-H. Zhao, Explosive
[25] V.W. Saeger, O. Hicks, R.G. Kaley, P.R. Michael, J.P. Mieure, E.S. Tucker,
spalling and residual mechanical properties of fiber-toughened high-
Environmental fate of selected phosphate esters, Environ. Sci. Technol. 13 (7)
performance concrete subjected to high temperatures, Cem. Concr. Res. 36
(1979) 840–844.
(4) (2006) 723–727.
[26] S. Paul, W. Legner, A. Krenkow, G. Müller, T. Lemettais, F. Pradat, D. Hertens,
[59] O. Arioz, Effects of elevated temperatures on properties of concrete, Fire Saf. J.
Chemical contamination sensor for phosphate ester hydraulic fluids, Int. J.
42 (8) (2007) 516–522.
Aerosp. Eng. 2010 (2010).
 S.K. Shill et al. / Construction and Building Materials 160 (2018) 240–251
[60] K.K. Sideris, Mechanical characteristics of self-consolidating concretes
exposed to elevated temperatures, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 19 (8) (2007) 648–654.
[61] M. Ghandehari, A. Behnood, M. Khanzadi, Residual mechanical properties of
high-strength concretes after exposure to elevated temperatures, J. Mater.
Civ. Eng. 22 (1) (2009) 59–64.
[62] A. Ergün, G. Kürklü, B.M. Serhat, M.Y. Mansour, The effect of cement dosage
on mechanical properties of concrete exposed to high temperatures, Fire Saf.
J. 55 (2013) 160–167.
[63] P. BOUNIOL, Bétons spéciaux de protection, Ed. Techniques Ingénieur, (2001).
[64] A. Noumowé, R. Siddique, G. Ranc, Thermo-mechanical characteristics of
concrete at elevated temperatures up to 310 C, Nucl. Eng. Des. 239 (3) (2009)
470–476.
[65] M. Ariffin, M. Bhutta, M. Hussin, M.M. Tahir, N. Aziah, Sulfuric acid resistance
of blended ash geopolymer concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 43 (2013) 80–86.
[66] T. Bakharev, Resistance of geopolymer materials to acid attack, Cem. Concr.
Res. 35 (4) (2005) 658–670.
[67] A.M. Ali, J. Sanjayan, M. Guerrieri, Performance of geopolymer high strength
concrete wall panels and cylinders when exposed to a hydrocarbon fire,
Constr. Build. Mater. 137 (2017) 195–207.
[68] ACI Committee 548.3R-03, Polymer-Modified Concrete, American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills (MI), 2003.
[69] J.A. Lavelle, Acrylic latex-modified Portland cement, Mater. J. 85 (1) (1988)
41–48.
[70] J. Kosednar, N.P. Mailvaganam, Selection and use of polymer-based materials
in the repair of concrete structures, J. Perform. Facil. 19 (3) (2005) 229–233.
[71] Y. Ohama, Polymer-based admixtures, Cem. Concr. Compos. 20 (2–3) (1998)
189–212.
[72] L. Aggarwal, P. Thapliyal, S. Karade, Properties of polymer-modified mortars
using epoxy and acrylic emulsions, Constr. Build. Mater. 21 (2) (2007) 379–
383.
[73] A.E.d.S. Almeida, E.P. Sichieri, Mineralogical study of polymer modified
mortar with silica fume, Constr. Build. Mater. 20 (10) (2006) 882–887.
[74] ACI Committee 548, ACI 548.3R-03: Polymer-Modified Concrete, American
Concrete Institute (ACI), 2003.
[75] D. Gao, D. Yan, X. Li, Splitting strength of GGBFS concrete incorporating with
steel fiber and polypropylene fiber after exposure to elevated temperatures,
Fire Saf. J. 54 (2012) 67–73.
[76] C. Qian, P. Stroeven, Development of hybrid polypropylene-steel fibre-
reinforced concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 30 (1) (2000) 63–69.
[77] C. Gao, D.-Y. Yang, L.-B. Yu, L.-L. Wang, P. Li, Mechanical properties of fiber
reinforced concrete after high temperature, Hunningtu(Concrete) (1) (2013)
33–36.
[78] Y.-S. Kim, T.-G. Lee, G.-Y. Kim, An experimental study on the residual
mechanical properties of fiber reinforced concrete with high temperature and
load, Mater. Struct. 46 (4) (2013) 607–620.
[79] Y.-S. Heo, J.G. Sanjayan, C.-G. Han, M.-C. Han, Critical parameters of nylon and
other fibres for spalling protection of high strength concrete in fire, Mater.
Struct. 44 (3) (2011) 599–610.
[80] W. Zheng, H. Li, Y. Wang, Mechanical properties of reactive powder concrete
with different dosage of polypropylene fiber after high temperature, Jianzhu
Jiegou Xuebao(J. Build. Struct.) 33 (9) (2012) 119–126.
[81] C.-G. Han, Y.-S. Hwang, S.-H. Yang, N. Gowripalan, Performance of spalling
resistance of high performance concrete with polypropylene fiber contents
and lateral confinement, Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (9) (2005) 1747–1753.
[82] M. Zeiml, D. Leithner, R. Lackner, H.A. Mang, How do polypropylene fibers
improve the spalling behavior of in-situ concrete?, Cem Concr. Res. 36 (5)
(2006) 929–942.
[83] S. Shihada, Effect of polypropylene fibers on concrete fire resistance, J. Civ.
Eng. Manage. 17 (2) (2011) 259–264.
[84] S. Aydın, H. Yazıcı, B. Baradan, High temperature resistance of normal
strength and autoclaved high strength mortars incorporated polypropylene
and steel fibers, Constr. Build. Mater. 22 (4) (2008) 504–512.
251
[85] A. Bilodeau, V. Kodur, G. Hoff, Optimization of the type and amount of
polypropylene fibres for preventing the spalling of lightweight concrete
subjected to hydrocarbon fire, Cem. Concr. Compos. 26 (2) (2004) 163–174.
[86] K.D. Hertz, Limits of spalling of fire-exposed concrete, Fire Saf. J. 38 (2) (2003)
103–116.
[87] U. Danielsen, T. Hammer, H. Justnes, S. Smeplass, Marine concrete structures
exposed to hydrocarbon fires, Report, SINTEF–The Norwegian Fire Research
Institute, 1997, 56–76.
[88] V. Kodur, in: Fiber Reinforcement for Minimizing Spalling in High Strength
Concrete Structural Members Exposed to Fire, Special Publication, 2003, pp.
221–236.
[89] P. Kalifa, G. Chene, C. Galle, High-temperature behaviour of HPC with
polypropylene fibres: from spalling to microstructure, Cem. Concr. Res. 31
(10) (2001) 1487–1499.
[90] T. Pothisiri, C. Soklin, Effects of mixing sequence of polypropylene fibers on
spalling resistance of normal strength concrete, Eng. J. 18 (3) (2014) 55–64.
[91] R. Demirboǧa, Influence of mineral admixtures on thermal conductivity and
compressive strength of mortar, Energy Build. 35 (2) (2003) 189–192.
[92] K.D. Hertz, Danish investigations on silica fume concretes at elevated
temperatures, Mater. J. 89 (4) (1992) 345–347.
[93] L.T. Phan, N.J. Carino, Effects of test conditions and mixture proportions on
behavior of high-strength concrete exposed to high temperatures, ACI Mater.
J. 99 (1) (2002) 54–66.
[94] A. Behnood, H. Ziari, Effects of silica fume addition and water to cement ratio
on the properties of high-strength concrete after exposure to high
temperatures, Cem. Concr. Compos. 30 (2) (2008) 106–112.
[95] E. Sørensen, Freezing and Thawing Resistance of Condensed Silica Fume
Concrete Exposed to Deicing Chemicals, ACI Special Publications, 1983.
[96] R. Hooton, Influence of silica fume replacement of cement on physical
properties and resistance to sulfate attack, freezing and thawing, and alkali-
silica reactivity, Mater. J. 90 (2) (1993) 143–151.
[97] C.D. Johnston, Deicer salt scaling resistance chloride permeability and code
requirements for air content, spacing factor, Concr. Int. 16 (8) (1994) 48–55.
[98] J.J. Valenza, G.W. Scherer, A review of salt scaling: I. Phenomenology, Cem.
Concr. Res. 37 (7) (2007) 1007–1021.
[99] K. Sotiriadis, E. Nikolopoulou, S. Tsivilis, A. Pavlou, E. Chaniotakis, R. Swamy,
The effect of chlorides on the thaumasite form of sulfate attack of limestone
cement concrete containing mineral admixtures at low temperature, Constr.
Build. Mater. 43 (2013) 156–164.
[100] L. Lam, Y. Wong, C.-S. Poon, Effect of fly ash and silica fume on compressive
and fracture behaviors of concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 28 (2) (1998) 271–283.
[101] Y. Wong, L. Lam, C. Poon, F. Zhou, Properties of fly ash-modified cement
mortar-aggregate interfaces, Cem. Concr. Res. 29 (12) (1999) 1905–1913.
[102] R. Demirboğa, I. _ Örüng, R. Gül, Effects of expanded perlite aggregate and
mineral admixtures on the compressive strength of low-density concretes,
Cem. Concr. Res. 31 (11) (2001) 1627–1632.
[103] H. Tanyildizi, A. Coskun, The effect of high temperature on compressive
strength and splitting tensile strength of structural lightweight concrete
containing fly ash, Constr. Build. Mater. 22 (11) (2008) 2269–2275.
[104] A. Bilodeau, V. MalhotraI, Concretes Incorporating High Volumes of ASTM Class
F Fly Ashes: Mechanical Properties and Resistance to De-icing Salt Scaling and
to Chloride-Ion Penetration, Special Publication, 1992, pp. 319–350.
[105] A. Bilodeau, G. Carette, V. Malhotra, Influence of curing and drying on salt
scaling resistance of fly ash concrete, Special Publication, 1991, pp. 201–228.
[106] S.H. Gebler, P. Klieger, Effect of fly ash on the durability of air-entrained
concrete, (1986).
[107] C.D. Johnston, Effects of Microsilica and Class F Fly Ash on Resistance of
Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing and Scaling in the Presence of
Deicing Agents, Special Publication, 1987, pp. 1183–1204.
[108] D. Whiting, Deicer scaling resistance of lean concretes containing fly ash,
Third International Conference Proceedings, Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag, and
Natural Pozzolans in Concrete, 1989.