Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 94–104

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Construction and Building Materials

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Review

Towards a durability framework for structural elements and structures made of

or strengthened with high-performance fibre-reinforced composites
Viktor Mechtcherine ⇑
Institute of Construction Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, Helmholtzstrasse 10, 01069 Dresden, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: High-performance fibre-reinforced cement-based composites (HPFRCCs) have great potential for applica-
Received 18 August 2011 tion in structures exposed to severe mechanical or environmental loading. This paper presents an over-
Received in revised form 5 December 2011 view of the current knowledge on the durability of two prominent representatives of this new group of
Accepted 23 December 2011
concrete materials: strain-hardening cement-based composites (SHCCs) and textile-reinforced concrete
Available online 21 January 2012
(TRC). Hereby not only the durability of these composites and their components are considered but spe-
cial focus is centred on the protection of steel reinforcement when it is used in combination with SHCC, as
Keywords:
in the case of R/SHCC structures or RC structures repaired with a layer of SHCC, or TRC, as in the case of
Strain-hardening cement-based composites
Textile reinforced concrete
the strengthening or repair of RC structures using TRC.
Durability concept Based on such considerations, transport properties in the cracked state, long term strain capacity, and
Multiple cracking resistance to aggressive environments have been identified as critical parameters. Current knowledge
Transport properties indicates that HPFRCCs show high long-term strain capacity and favourable transport properties in the
Corrosion resistance cracked state. The composites also exhibit superior resistance to aggressive environments, as compared
to ordinary concrete. However, there is little information available on the effects of aggressive environ-
ments on the mechanical properties of the materials.
Since SHCC and TRC are new materials, there is no information available on their long-term perfor-
mance in the field. To be able to utilise the superior qualities of these new materials fully, it will be nec-
essary to develop a realistic and reliable performance-based durability design concept for structures
made of or strengthened with high-performance fibre-reinforced cement-based composites.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2. Characteristic loads and exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3. Basics of durability design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.1. General remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.2. Protection of steel reinforcement from corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.3. Durability of the matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.4. Fibre durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.5. Fibre–matrix bond durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4. Characteristic material properties to predict long-term durability and service life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.1. General remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.2. Transport properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.2.1. Air permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.2.2. Water-transport properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.2.3. Chloride migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.2.4. Other transport properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.3. Strain capacity of HPFRCCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.3.1. Long-term strain capacity and ageing behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

⇑ Tel.: +49 351/4 63 3 63 11; fax: +49 351/4 63 3 72 68.

E-mail address: mechtcherine@tu-dresden.de

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.12.072
 V. Mechtcherine / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 94–104 95

4.3.2. Cyclic loading and fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

4.3.3. Behaviour under sustained loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.4. Self-healing of cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

1. Introduction during transport and mounting is an accomplished fact. However,

Adding fibres to cement-based construction materials is not
new. The first patent for steel fibre-reinforced concrete dates from
the year 1872, and many experiments were undertaken with dif-
ferent types of fibres in the 20th century. However, the first conclu-
sive, scientifically substantiated concepts specifically related to the
design of fibre-reinforced concrete composite materials have only
been developed in the last few years. In combination with modern
construction material analysis and process technology, these ap-
proaches make the target-oriented development of high-perfor-
mance, fibre-reinforced, cement-based composites (HPFRCCs)
possible. Using these new types of concrete could revolutionise
the planning, development, dimensioning, design, and construc-
tion as well as the renovation of building structures in special areas
of application such as structures exposed to severe mechanical or
environmental loading. This article focuses on the durability of
structural elements made of or strengthened with two prominent
representatives of high-performance fibre-reinforced cementitious
materials: strain-hardening cement-based composites (SHCCs) and
textile reinforced concrete (TRC).
SHCC exhibit strain-hardening, quasi-ductile behaviour due to
the bridging of fine multiple cracks by short, well-distributed fibres
usually made of polyvinylalcohol (PVA) or polyethylene (PE). The
favourable mechanical properties of this material offer many pos-
sible applications in both new structures and in the strengthening
and repair of structural elements made of reinforced concrete or
other traditional materials [1,2].
TRC is a composite construction material in which textile rein-
forcement consisting of polymer, glass, or carbon fibres is embed-
ded into a fine concrete matrix. Since textile reinforcement
generally needs no minimum concrete covering as a protection
against corrosion, it is possible to manufacture thin-walled con-
struction components and layers. The fibre material can be
exploited very effectively by adjusting the volume proportion
and orientation of the long fibres in the direction of tensile stress.
Textile reinforced concrete can be employed in the manufacture of
thin-walled façade elements, load-bearing integrated formwork,
tunnel linings, or in the strengthening of existing reinforced con-
crete (RC) structures [3,4].
Most current applications of HPFRCCs are non-structural. Fibre
reinforcement is primarily used in controlling shrinkage cracks as
well as cracks induced by temperature changes. Furthermore, the
control of cracks in elements of SHCC or TRC due to overloading
considerable laboratory research has been performed in the last
few years on the behaviour of structural members made of SHCC,
and the number of structural applications is increasing. There are
also a number of examples of the successful use of TRC for
strengthening existing RC structures. Based on these first insights,
some major tendencies may be deduced already.
From the current point of view, fibre reinforcement is to be
combined with conventional steel reinforcement in the majority
of structural elements made of SHCC (R/SHCC), cf. Fig. 1a. Thus,
the protection of steel from corrosion must be considered with re-
gard to the durability of such structures [5]. This also holds true for
the repair of reinforced concrete structures using SHCC, cf. Fig. 1b,
as well as their strengthening or repair by means of TRC, cf. Fig. 1c.
Fig. 1c illustrates also the case when a TRC layer is used to build an
integrated formwork.
As an example, a practical application for the strengthening of
existing structures using textile reinforced concrete should be
presented here briefly. This measure was carried out in 2006
for the retrofitting of an RC roof shell at the University of Ap-
plied Sciences in Schweinfurt, Germany. The project was carried
out with the technical support of the Collaborative Research
Centre SFB 528 ‘‘Textile Reinforcement for Structural Strengthen-
ing and Retrofitting’’ of the TU Dresden. The 80 mm-thick RC
hyparshell has a lateral length of approximately 27 m and a
maximum span of approximately 39 m, cf. Fig. 2. Large deforma-
tions (up to 200 mm drop) in the shell’s cantilevered wings had
been measured; the design tensile stress levels in the upper steel
reinforcement layer of the shell had been exceeded significantly,
such that strengthening measures were absolutely necessary. A
TRC-layer 15 mm thick, containing three layers of textile sheets
made of carbon fibre was applied to these particular areas in or-
der to increase the load-carrying capacity and to prevent further
increase in deformations [6]. A few questions arise with regard
to this strengthening measure. How durable is the strengthening
layer? Or, how well will this layer protect the reinforcement in
the hyparshell from corrosion?
Depending on the target applications, durability requirements
for different structures made of SHCC and TRC may vary signifi-
cantly. To meet these requirements best, the material composition
of these composites may, in turn, vary considerably as well. This
implies that a general framework for dealing with the problem of
durability of such structural elements and structures is needed.
This paper is an attempt to create such a framework.

Fig. 1. Considered combinations of HPFRCC and steel reinforcement or RC structures.

96
Fig. 2. (a) Damaged steel reinforced concrete hyparshell at the FH Schweinfurt (Germany), and (b) strengthening with TRC [6].
Chloride concentration C(x,t)
C(x,t)
R/SHCC
Cl¯
sea cover depth
water
Fig. 3. Fuzzy random profile of chloride concentration for a steel-reinforced SHCC
member exposed to chloride ions (courtesy of F. Altmann).
2. Characteristic loads and exposures
The wide variety of potential applications for HPFRCCs means
that the range of mechanical and environmental loads, as well as
their possible combinations, may be very broad. Particular perfor-
mance requirements may vary even for different parts of one struc-
tural member, cf. for example [7].
In considering durability of structures, the mechanical loads are
of particular interest with regard to cracking since cracks dramat-
ically increase the transport of fluids and gases in concrete and
consequently the corrosion process. Apart from the mode of load-
ing, e.g., tension, shear, and/or bending, all of which affect the crack
pattern and the crack width, the loading type should be considered
since, for instance, single overloading, fatigue loading, or high sus-
tained loading can affect the cracking behaviour of HPFRCCs (crack
width and crack distribution); see, for example, [8].
However, crack formation and propagation often begin before
any crack-inducing mechanical loads are applied. Cracks resulting
from thermal movements, restrained drying shrinkage, or autoge-
nous shrinkage can eventually be exacerbated by fatigue loading,
for instance. These load combinations for R/SHCC, RC/SHCC, or
RC/TRC structures are generally the same as for steel-reinforced
concrete structures.
V. Mechtcherine / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 94–104
In most cases, cracking is inevitable in concrete structures and
µ=0 is generally essential for the effective use of reinforcement, both
µ=1
by steel bars and fibres. A great advantage of HPFRCCs is that this
group of materials display self-controlled crack width, which is
very small in comparison to conventionally reinforced structures.
This enables, at least theoretically, the full decoupling of the steel
reinforcement from crack control. Steel reinforcement is used only
to ensure adequate load capacity, while SHCC or TRC controls
f(C(x,t)) cracking behaviour. TRC can be simultaneously used for both pur-
poses: increasing the load-carrying capacity of structural members
Depth x and the related crack control. These constellations open new
opportunities for structural design, thereby allowing a more effec-
tive use of such hybrid reinforcements.
3. Basics of durability design
3.1. General remarks
While discussing the basics of durability design for SHCC struc-
tures, reference is made to existing durability design rules for
steel-reinforced concrete structures. The prescriptive design rules
of current standards are unlikely to be suitable for taking full
advantage of the new class of materials discussed in this report.
A performance-based durability design approach will likely be
much more appropriate. While such an approach exists for crack-
free ordinary concrete (DuraCrete 2000 [9], fib bulletin 34 [10],
Schießl and Gehlen [11]); significant efforts will be required to de-
velop a similar approach suitable for cracked and crack-free SHCC
and TRC.
Recently Altmann et al. [12] and Altmann and Mechtcherine
[13] took a first step towards such a design concept by developing
a fuzzy-probabilistic approach to forecast chloride ingress into
SHCC, cf. Fig. 3. This approach allows the quantification of param-
eters based on limited data and expert knowledge. More research
will be required to develop and expand this approach further until
it allows a reliable durability design for cracked and crack-free
SHCC under environmental exposures. Only then will it be possible
fully to utilise the inherent durability of SHCC for the construction
of more sustainable structures. The same approach is followed by
the author with regard to the durability of TRC as well as RC struc-
tures strengthened by TRC.
In order to ensure structural durability, the durability of the ap-
plied materials should first be assured. Since we are considering a
combination of steel reinforcement and SHCC or RC and SHCC or
TRC here, the following requirements arise with regard to the dura-
bility of individual system components and consequently of the
system as a whole:
 V. Mechtcherine / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 94–104
(1) Protection of the steel reinforcement from corrosion.
(2) Durability of the SHCC or TRC matrix.
(3) Fibre durability.
(4) Durability of the fibre–matrix bond properties.
3.2. Protection of steel reinforcement from corrosion
Ordinary steel reinforcement requires anti-corrosion protection,
which the alkaline environment of the cementitious matrix pro-
vides. If aggressive agents such as chloride or carbon dioxide pen-
etrate the matrix and reach the reinforcement, however, the steel
may corrode. In established codes and regulations (e.g., Eurocode
2, DIN EN 1045), three measures are demanded to protect steel
reinforcement: limitation of the maximum crack width, sufficient
concrete cover, and appropriate concrete quality as defined by cor-
responding threshold values (minimum compressive strength,
maximum water-to-cement ratio, minimum cement content). In
principle, these requirements also hold true for R/SHCC structures
or RC structures with a repair or strengthening layer made of SHCC
or TRC; however, the weighting and the thresholds values change
accordingly.
Li and Stang [14] suggested two levels of protection of struc-
tural elements with regard to the steel corrosion. The first level re-
lies on tight crack-width control of the SHCC, i.e., <100 lm, which
delays the penetration of aggressive agents in their movement to-
ward the steel reinforcement. According to Mechtcherine and Lie-
bold [15] crack widths in TRC specimens under tension remain
clearly below 100 lm as well in the operating strain range up to
0.5% at least. Hiraishi et al. [16] showed that the corrosion rate in
an R/SHCC beam is significantly lower than that of a reference or-
dinary RC beam preloaded to the same level. The second level of
protection afforded by SHCC is the prevention of radial crack for-
mation, even if the steel rebar corrodes and expands. This anti-
spall ability of SHCC has been demonstrated in experiments by
Kanda et al. [17].
Comparing this approach to existing codes, the following obser-
vations can be made:
– Intrinsically small crack widths in R/SHCC, RC/SHCC or RC/TRC
structures are much smaller than the threshold values allowed
by codes for RC structures. The question arises as to whether or
not adjustments should be made as regards the other two pro-
tection measures of the steel reinforcement, namely the thick-
ness of the concrete cover, and concrete quality.
– The requirement of a particular minimum value of concrete
cover is based on numerous considerations, including the car-
bonation of concrete, the transport of aggressive agents through
the concrete layer to steel reinforcement, and resistance of the
(a)
20 mm
Fig. 4. Condition of specimen surfaces for two different SHCC compositions after completion of the CDF-test: (a) SHCC with a very high fly ash content (fly ash/binder = 0.70),
and (b) SHCC with a more moderate fly ash content (fly ash/binder = 0.55), adapted from [19].
97
concrete to spalling. For ordinary concrete spalling resistance
increases with increasing thickness of the concrete layer (Mül-
ler et al. [18]). In the case of SHCC, a much higher spalling resis-
tance than that of ordinary concrete can be achieved with only a
very thin overlay.
– The lack of coarse aggregates means that there are no large aggre-
gate–matrix interfaces with higher porosity than aggregate-free,
hardened cement paste, which might serve as ‘‘highways’’ for the
transport of fluids and gases. However, due to their higher binder
content, the overall porosity of SHCC or TRC may be more ele-
vated than that of ordinary concrete. However, this depends on
the mix’s water-to-binder ratio, which is usually relatively low
for HPFRCCs. To which extent the presence of short fibres influ-
ences the transport properties must still be investigated in more
detail. However, for TRC it was shown that multifilament yarns
promote water transport actively [15].
– SHCC and TRC usually possess higher binder content than ordin-
ary concrete. The associated higher ability to bind aggressive
substances such as chlorides and carbon dioxide is advanta-
geous with regard to preventing steel corrosion.
In conclusion, it can be stated that for the same exposure classes
(e.g., XC carbonation, XD de-icing salt, or XS seawater according to
CEN EN 206-1) the threshold values for SHCC or TRC would prob-
ably differ significantly from the corresponding values for ordinary
concrete if the established approach for durability design would be
applied to R/SHCC, RC/SHCC or RC/TRC structures.
3.3. Durability of the matrix
Frost attacks, chemical attacks by aggressive substances, and, in
some cases, abrasion must all be considered with regard to the
durability of the SHCC or TRC matrix. The basic effects of matrix
composition on concrete resistance against such exposure are rea-
sonably well known for ordinary concrete. However, they cannot
be simply extrapolated to predict the behaviour of SHCC or TRC be-
cause of their very particular mixture composition, i.e., the absence
of coarse aggregates, the high binder content, and the presence of
fibres. The fine, well distributed fibres might hinder the deteriora-
tion of the composite even if the matrix is severely loaded. The first
results on the durability of SHCC under frost and chemical attack
were characterised by sufficient resistance of the matrix [5] if it
has an appropriate composition, especially concerning the water-
to-binder ratio and the binder type.
As an example, a study by Brüdern and Mechtcherine [19]
should be cited here. The authors showed that for the same
water-to-binder ratio of 0.3 an SHCC with a very high fly ash con-
tent (fly ash/binder = 0.70) suffered much more damage after 28
(b)
20 mm
98 V. Mechtcherine / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 94–104
freeze–thaw cycles (mass loss about 1400 g/m2, cf. also Fig. 4a)
than an SHCC with a more moderate fly ash content (fly ash/bin-
der = 0.55, mass loss of approximately 500 g/m2). The mass loss
could be decreased further to a level clearly below 200 g/m2 by
the addition of 2 kg of superabsorbent polymers (SAPs) per cubic
meter SHCC as well as some extra water (in order to retain work-
ability) to the mix with fly ash/binder ratio 0.55 (cf. also Fig. 4b).
The positive effect was attained here due to the well distributed
system of SAP voids, which act similarly as entrained air voids.
Fig. 4 shows conditions of the specimen surfaces after completion
of the CDF-test [20]. The difference in the maximum loss is clearly
visible here. However, it should be noted that due to the anchoring
function of the fibres, not all the degraded material could be sepa-
rated from the specimen during the cleaning of the test surface in
an ultrasonic bath.
The investigations performed by the group around the author
into the freeze–thaw resistance of TRC showed similar tendencies,
also basically known for ordinary concrete, i.e., the frost resistance
of TRC decreases with increasing substitution of Portland cement
by fly ash and particularly blast furnace cement.
With regard to abrasion the results of laboratory experiments
are contradictory, with the suitability of the matrix and thus the
composite SHCC for heavy roadway traffic depending not only on
the mixture composition but also on the test method. Nonetheless,
the results in field applications are encouraging. Furthermore, it
was found that the mechanical performance of SHCC remained
practically unaltered [21] on being exposed to frost attack. How-
ever, a chemical attack might very well affect the mechanical prop-
erties of the matrix, which would then lead to a change in SHCC or
TRC strength and, especially, in their ductility. A substantial
amount of research is still required to understand the behaviour
of these materials under various exposures and to confirm statisti-
cally observed characteristic material performance.
Other issues are the ageing process and the associated hydra-
tion, altering the mechanical performance of HPFRCCs by changing
the composition of the hardened binder paste phases, and the
microstructure and the properties of the bond between matrix
and fibres (Section 3.5).
3.4. Fibre durability
In principle different types of fibre can be used for the produc-
tion of SHCC. As yet the best results have been obtained by using
high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and PVA fibres. Since HDPE fibre
Fig. 5. Formation of holes on the surface of an AR-glass fibre after 8-days’ storage in
cement solution at 80 °C [26].
is very expensive, PVA fibre has been used in much research work
on SHCC as well as in most applications.
Eternit Corp. began delivering PVA fibre-reinforced roofing
slates in 1983. This experience has provided reliable data on the
longevity of PVA fibres [22]. Furthermore, it was discovered that
from the determination of tensile strength, crystallinity, and
molecular weight, no sign of degradation could be observed among
the fibres, which were extracted from fibre cement sheets exposed
to outdoor weathering [23].
From accelerated ageing tests in cementitious alkaline water
environments, PVA fibre tensile strength is predicted to be main-
tained at more than 95% over 100 years [24]. Apart from investiga-
tions on their behaviour in highly alkaline environments, nothing
is known on the chemical resistance of PVA fibres in aggressive
environments. However, PVA materials are generally considered
to be resistant against chemical attacks. Therefore, it can be rea-
sonably assumed that PVA fibre itself has good durability in ordin-
ary chemical environments.
Alkali-resistant (AR) glass fibre and carbon fibre are materials
used most often in the manufacture of TRC. There is also research
on the use of polymer and natural fibre for this purpose. Carbon fi-
bre is well known for its high chemical resistance; no degradation
of properties could be observed due to usual chemical environ-
ments. The situation with fibre made of AR-glass is however much
more complex and should be addressed here in more detail.
Standard AR-glass contains 16–20% zirconium dioxide by mass
and thus shows significantly enhanced resistance in highly alkaline
environments as compared to conventional glasses. The corrosive
damage of AR-fibre occurs non-uniformly due to different element
concentrations near the filament surface. This deterioration in-
creases with increasing pH value of the pore solution and with
temperature [25]. Organic polymer sizes applied to filament sur-
faces during the production of glass yarns can delay such corrosion
significantly. Scheffler et al. [26] showed that the corrosion of AR-
fibres in a cement solution in accelerated tests is characterised by
the formation of holes of different size and depth, cf. Fig. 5. Accord-
ing to Butler et al. [27] flaws in the size and inconsistencies in the
composition of the bulk glass as well as high pH values of the pore
solution are necessary prerequisites for local damage to fibre made
of AR-glass. Corrosion of glass filaments embedded in fine-grained
concrete could be observed only as rare exceptions. The authors
conclude that stress corrosion (delayed failure) at nanoscopic de-
fects on the filament surface becomes an important mechanism
for damage if, at least at some areas of filament surface, the size
is widely removed. However, in the multifilament yarns used in
TRC the failure of individual filaments due to corrosion can likely
be compensated by the redistribution of the load to neighbouring
filaments. This means that the failure of a few filaments cannot af-
fect the load-bearing capacity of the multi-filament yarn signifi-
cantly [27]. Hence, other mechanisms seem to be additionally
responsible for pronounced ageing behaviour of TRC made with
AR-glass.
3.5. Fibre–matrix bond durability
The effects of ageing and environmental exposure to hot and
humid environments on the interfacial properties of SHCC have
been examined using hot water immersion [28]. It was found that
the chemical fibre–matrix bond increased while the apparent fibre
strength decreased. This reduces the overall strain capacity of the
composite, which nonetheless generally remains at a level high en-
ough to ensure the desired performance.
For TRC with textiles made of AR-glass it was found [29] that
the extent of the observed performance losses with increasing age-
ing duration depends primarily on the matrix’s alkalinity, which
influences the formation of solid phases in the fibre–matrix
 V. Mechtcherine / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 94–104 99

Fig. 6. ESEM images of AR-glass filaments in matrix made of (a) Portland cement (here after 28 days of accelerated ageing, and (b) blast furnace cement and pozzolana (here
after 360 days of accelerated ageing).

interface and on the filament surface. The thickness and brittleness

of these shell-like crusts increase with increasing potential for
portlandite formation in the matrices. Also amplified precipitation
of Ca(OH)2 between the filaments can be observed with increasing
alkalinity of the matrix, cf. Fig. 6a. These filament incrustations re-
duce the slip of filaments in the vicinity of the cracks, so that fail-
ure strain of filaments is reached at smaller crack widths.
Furthermore, straining the filaments causes local spalling in and
on the shells as well as the splitting of the Ca(OH)2 crystals. The
resulting singularities and lateral pressure caused by the wedged
crystals act as notches, leading to premature failure of the fila-
ments. However, when the Portland cement clinker content of
the binder is low and pozzolanic additives are used (low alkalinity), Fig. 7. Volume flow rate through SHCC as a function of differential pressure for
a stratum of thin C-S-H phases leading to good bonding character- selected specimens with different residual strain levels (c.l. is the cumulative crack
istics dominates the fibre–matrix interface, cf. Fig. 6b. Such thinly length) [34].
walled coatings of the outer filaments enable good, flawless bond-
ing with the matrix. In the vicinity of matrix cracks a partial deb-
with high water-to-cement ratios. There is great need for further
onding and slip of filaments is possible, leading to ductile overall
research on the changes of fibre–matrix bond properties due to
behaviour of crack bridging yarn [29].
chemical attack.
Furthermore, during continued hydration and ageing a slow and
gradual process of deposition of hydration products between the
filaments may change the nature of bonding by increasing the 4. Characteristic material properties to predict long-term
sleeve-to-core ratio [30]. This results in a stronger bond, which is durability and service life
a favourable effect but may also lead to embrittlement, mainly
when brittle fibres such as glass are used [31,32]. This means that 4.1. General remarks
the bonding changes over time and thus also the composite
properties and durability. Based on the considerations regarding the durability of individ-
Cohen and Peled [30] described two degradation mechanisms ual components outlined in Section 3, the following characteristic
observed during ageing, both due to matrix penetrability into the properties of the composite material seem to be decisive with re-
bundle: (i) changing the telescopic pullout derived by cement pen- gard to long-term durability and service life of R/SHCC, RC/SHCC
etrability, as more fibres fracture after ageing, leading to more brit- and RC/TRC structures:
tle behaviour; and (ii) chemical deterioration of the glass fibres
themselves as more fibres are in direct contact with the cement – Transport properties of HPRFCC material (SHCC or TRC) in a
matrix, reducing composite strength. The authors found that fa- cracked state.
voured filler systems are those that moderate cement hydrates’ – Strain capacity of HPFRCCs.
penetrability between the bundle filaments over time, keeping – Resistance of HPFRCCs in aggressive environments.
the telescopic pullout mode and composite ductility, and at the
same time protecting the core filaments from chemical attack, thus On the material level these issues are addressed in previous sec-
retaining their high performance and the overall tensile strength of tions. The following sections provide a brief overview as well as
the composite. special considerations for elements and structures made of SHCC
There is little specific information on the changes of the bond- and TRC.
ing properties of SHCC or TRC under chemical attack. Kabele
et al. [33] found that in the case of calcium leaching in SHCC, the 4.2. Transport properties
reduction in the bond quality may be so severe that multiple crack-
ing of the material can no longer be guaranteed. However, it should The key question is what effect a considerable number of fine,
be noted that those experiments were carried out on specimens well distributed cracks have on the transport properties of SHCC
100 V. Mechtcherine / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 94–104
or TRC. Average crack width has been used routinely as a reference
parameter. However, for materials with multiple cracks of self-lim-
iting width an approach using the cumulative crack length seems
to be more appropriate [34]. Where this is not practical, average
strain may serve as a useful surrogate. However, it can be assumed
that the fine fibres in combination with a fine grain matrix also af-
fect the condition of crack profiles and the continuity of the entire
crack system, which of course influences the transport of fluids and
gases through the material. There is significant need for research
into reliable and practical methods to describe the crack system
in SHCC and TRC both in laboratory as well as in field applications.
4.2.1. Air permeability
There is very little information available on the air permeability
of cracked SHCC, but it seems that the air permeability of un-
cracked SHCC is well within the range of typical values for ordinary
concrete.
For material strained up to 0.5%, an increase of almost two or-
ders of magnitude has been observed [34], cf. also Fig. 7. While this
may no longer be comparable to sound concrete, it should be noted
that the specimens were tested at an age of 45–50 days and the
mix had a high content of fly ash. Thus, it can be expected that
in field applications with similar mixes ongoing hydration and
self-healing will have a mitigating influence over time.
The coefficient of oxygen permeability in crack-free TRC speci-
mens was found to be influenced clearly by the polymer coating
of the textile but was only marginally dependent on the fineness
of multifilament yarns in the textile [15]. The corresponding per-
meation coefficients were reduced by up to 65% if coated textiles
were embedded into the composite instead of uncoated textile.
In situ permeation tests on cracked TRC subjected to uniaxial
tensile loading revealed a pronounced non-linear increase in the
transport rates of oxygen through the TRC (perpendicular to the
composite surface) with increasing strain, corresponding to larger
crack widths [15]. A higher degree of fineness in the textile rein-
forcement, i.e., a higher degree of reinforcement, and the polymer
coating of the multifilament yarns led to a larger number of cracks
in the TRC specimens at given strain levels, but these cracks were
considerably finer. As a result, the permeability for oxygen through
the TRC made with such reinforcement was lower. This effect was
distinctly apparent at strain levels above 0.2%.
4.2.2. Water-transport properties
The water-transport properties of various cracked, cementitious
materials have been studied by a number of researchers, cf. [35].
These investigations demonstrate the significance of crack width
and cumulative crack length in controlling the permeability and
water absorption of cracked SHCC. A comparison with values for
ordinary concrete shows that for strain levels up to 0.5% the water
absorption of SHCC is comparable to that of sound concrete. It
should be noted, however, that the reported crack widths in SHCC
are typically between 50 and 100 lm. While capillaries of this
width may not transport water very far into the material, the pro-
cess is rather fast. In conjunction with the natural porosity of SHCC
and submicro-cracks [36], the water may be transported deep into
the material over time. Further research in this area is required.
Mechtcherine and Liebold [15] reported that if measured paral-
lel to the reinforcing textile layers, water absorption of TRC in-
creases with increasing fineness of multifilament yarns and
decreases with an increasing amount of polymer used to coat the
yarns. Both these observations can be traced back mainly to differ-
ences in the capillary system formed in multifilament yarns. For
water permeability, dependencies between the crack system and
the volume of transported media were found to be similar to those
described above for oxygen permeability. It was also shown that
the influence of imposed strain on the permeation of water
through cracked TRC could be described by a simple model based
upon Hagen–Poiseuille’s Law. However, the model should be re-
fined in future investigations in order to enable a more realistic
description of the transport mechanisms in TRC.
Pourasee et al. [37] described a series of experiments in which
fluid transport was measured using X-ray radiography in cracked
cement paste samples that were reinforced with different commer-
cially available fabrics made with monofilament and multifilament
yarns that were both coated and uncoated. Results showed that
fabrics made of multifilament yarns without coating may be prob-
lematic from a durability point of view. However, when multifila-
ment yarns were coated, the fabric behaved as a monofilament
system. The transport behaviour was observed to be highly depen-
dent on the quality of the coating. The authors concluded that this
fact should be considered in addition to mechanical performance
in assessing the type of fabrics that should be used for a specific
application.
Lieboldt et al. [38] investigated the transport mechanisms of
water in and through composite concrete specimens made of a
cracked ordinary concrete (OC) as a substrate and textile reinforced
concrete (TRC) as a cover layer for its strengthening and repair. The
TRC cover layer was assessed with regard to its efficiency as a pro-
tective layer against the ingress of water. Since in real applications
such TRC layers may actually be or presumed to be cracked, there-
by activating the load-carrying function of the textile reinforce-
ment, the TRC layer was cracked for purposes of this study. The
water transport in the OC specimens without TRC layer was used
as reference. Neutron radiography served as the main testing tech-
nique. In ordinary concrete, quick and deep ingress of water
through relatively wide macro-cracks (100–200 lm), followed by
transport through the capillary pore system, caused saturation of
large areas in a rather short time. TRC applied to the OC surface re-
duced the ingress of water to a large extent. Its small crack widths
of approximately 20 lm modified the suction behaviour funda-
mentally. In the cracked substrate of ordinary concrete, capillary
suction was obviated, and transport through the pore system of
the matrix became the prevailing transport mechanism, based on
the suction force characteristic of capillary pores. Not only was
the mechanism altered, but the transport of water deep into inner
regions was significantly retarded as well.
4.2.3. Chloride migration
So far, very little information is available on the chloride migra-
tion in and through SHCC and TRC. Miyazato and Hiraishi [39] ob-
served no macro-cell corrosion in cracked R/SHCC specimens with
steel corrosion due to chloride penetration and a penetration depth
that was significantly lower than for cracked reinforced mortar
specimens. More recently Sahmaran et al. [40] conducted immer-
sion and ponding tests on SHCC and reinforced mortar specimens.
The chloride penetration depth and diffusion coefficient observed
both in cracked and uncracked SHCC specimens were much lower
than those of the mortar specimens. The authors found the chlo-
ride diffusion coefficient to be proportional to the square of the
crack width and, in the case of multiple cracking, linearly propor-
tional to the number of cracks. The observed higher resistance of
cracked and uncracked SHCC against the ingress of chloride ions
can be attributed to a higher content of cementitious materials, a
low water-to-cement ratio, the self-limiting crack width and, as a
result, self-healing of the cracks. While this is promising, more re-
search is required. This is particularly true of textile reinforced
concrete also, since no publications are known on the chloride
migration in and through TRC.
4.2.4. Other transport properties
For sound, ordinary concrete numerous correlations were
experimentally and in part also theoretically derived between
 V. Mechtcherine / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 94–104 101

Fig. 8. Tri-linear representations of stress–strain curves for TRC made with (a) Portland cement matrix, and (b) blast furnace cement matrix with addition of pozzolana; after
demoulding all specimens were stored for 6 days in water (20 °C); subsequently, the reference specimens were subjected to storage at 20 °C/65% RH until the testing in the
age of 28 days; the other part of the specimens was accelerated aged in a fog room (40 °C/99% RH); the duration of the fog room storage was 28, 56, 90, 180 and 360 days,
respectively [29].

different transport mechanisms (diffusion, permeation, absorp-
tion) and for different transport media (e.g., water, air, CO2)
[41,42]. For cracked concrete, however, such comparisons have
not yet been performed, as is the case for SHCC or TRC. The knowl-
edge of possible correlations is essential for the prediction of the
durability of structures made of or strengthened with HPFRCCs, if
it is based on the results of just one or two particular test methods.
There is a great need for research in this area.
4.3. Strain capacity of HPFRCCs
4.3.1. Long-term strain capacity and ageing behaviour
Since high strain capacity is a decisive property with regard to
the durability of SHCC and TRC, these materials as well as members
or structures made of them can only be considered as truly durable
if their strain capacities do not change negatively at a substantial
rate over time. In laboratory experiments SHCC long term strain
capacities of 3% compared to initial ultimate strain levels of 5%
were observed [43]. While both values are far above the deforma-
tion demand imposed by many applications, average strain capac-
ities in large scale SHCC production outside the laboratory are
likely to be significantly lower. Furthermore, the binder composi-
tion, the type of cement and the cement replacing materials as well
as hygral and thermal ambient conditions should be considered.
More research is required in order to be able to predict the long
term mechanical performance of SHCC.
Butler et al. [29] investigated the effect of matrix composition
by varying the hydration kinetics and alkalinity of the binder mix
on the ageing of TRC. The results of tensile tests on accelerated
aged specimens made of TRC showed a pronounced decrease in
the tensile strength and strain capacity for TRC whose matrix
was most alkaline (Portland cement was used exclusively as binder
in this composition); see Fig. 8a. The performance of TRC made
with a modified, alkali-reduced matrix composition was to a great
extent unaffected by exposure to accelerated ageing, cf. Fig. 8b. The
authors showed that reductions in the toughness of TRC could be
attributed mainly to the observed disadvantageous new formation
of solid phases in the fibre–matrix interface, cf. also Section 3.5.
strain level [44]. Matsumoto et al. [45] performed fatigue tensile
tests with a number of cycles up to 500,000. It was found that
the bridging stress degradation developed gradually at low fatigue
loading cycles, and the rate of stress reduction increased when the
number of cycles increased. No systematic studies on fatigue
behaviour of TRC are known thus far.
There is little information available on the fatigue behaviour of
SHCC in field applications. Zhang and Li [46] investigated SHCC in
high-cycle fatigue scenarios, such as highway repairs. Both SHCC/
concrete and concrete/concrete overlay specimens were tested in
flexural fatigue. The tests showed that the load capacity of SHCC/
concrete specimens was twice that of concrete/concrete speci-
mens, the deformability of SHCC/concrete specimens was signifi-
cantly higher, and the fatigue life was extended by several orders
of magnitude. Kunieda and Rokugo [47] found that while SHCC
has a longer fatigue life than ordinary FRC at higher fatigue stress
levels, its fatigue life at lower stress levels is shorter. This can be
attributed to the propagating of only a few cracks in the specimen
at low stress levels. Thus, the cracking state under fatigue load is an
important factor for fatigue resistance of SHCC.
4.3.3. Behaviour under sustained loads
Creep of SHCC consists of matrix creep and time-dependant
crack development accompanied by gradual delamination of fibres
from the matrix, leading to subsequent pullout. As is the case with
ordinary concrete, high sustained loads will lead to time-depen-
dent failure (Boshoff [8], Jun and Mechtcherine [48]).

4.3.2. Cyclic loading and fatigue

The available information on the behaviour of SHCC under cyc-
lic loading indicates that cracking behaviour is comparable to
behaviour under monotonic loading. The material stiffness de-
creases significantly with an increasing number of load cycles, Fig. 9. Time-dependent reduction of the water transport trough cracked TRC in
but there is no evident influence of cyclic loading on the ultimate unloaded state [15].
102 V. Mechtcherine / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 94–104
There is little information on the creep behaviour of SHCC in
field applications. Rokugo et al. [49] reported increasing crack
widths of up to 0.12 mm after 24 months for the patch repair of
a concrete retaining wall suffering from ASR. However, it is unclear
whether or not this was due to increasing crack widths in the sub-
strate, relaxation in the SHCC, or both.
4.4. Self-healing of cracks
The self-healing of cement-based materials is a well-known
phenomenon. The main causes of such self-healing are twofold:
On the one hand non-hydrated binder particles (cement or pozzo-
lana) can hydrate further on if the material comes in contact with
water again. The newly formed calcium–silicate–hydrate (C–S–H)
phases can effectively bridge fine cracks. On the other hand, cal-
cium hydroxide (CH) can be deposited inside the cracks and can
be converted to calcium carbonate as a result of carbonation (or,
if pozzolanic materials are involved, to C–S–H phases). CH and cal-
cium carbonate are rather weak from a mechanical point of view,
making the crack bridging less effective, but they can fill and seal
cracks.
In ordinary concrete the crack widths are rather large and the
water-to-cement ratio is relatively high; the deposit of CH and cal-
cite dominates the self-healing process. Larger cracks cannot be
sealed completely. In contrast, SHCC or TRC possess very small
crack widths because of their tendency to multiple cracking. For
these kinds of cementitious composites a complete sealing of
cracks and even a partial restoration of stiffness seem to be attain-
able to a great extent. The restoration of the stiffness is due to the
bridging of fine cracks by the newly developed C–S–H phases.
Yang et al. [50] used transverse resonant frequencies in charac-
terising the self-healing of SHCC with short PVA fibres. Specimens
featuring crack widths below 50 lm were completely healed, and
samples with crack widths between 50 and 150 lm only partly
recovered. At specimens with crack widths exceeding 150 lm no
recovery was observed. In uniaxial tension tests after damage
and self-healing, high strain capacity was measured (1.8–3.1%)
even in samples which had undergone pre-loading up to a strain
of 2% or 3%. Microscopic observation identified cracks propagating
both through the healed material area and the heretofore un-
cracked matrix. The authors concluded that at least 4–5 cycles
(submerged in water at 20 °C for 24 h and dried in air at 21 °C
for 24 h) were needed for a meaningful recovery of stiffness during
the healing cycle. Kan et al. [43] proved two distinct types of heal-
ing products in SHCC materials: In wide cracks primarily large cal-
cite grains were formed, in small cracks mainly fibre-like C–S–H
phases could be observed.
In order to investigate the effect of self-healing on the transport
properties of TRC, water permeation measurements were carried
(a)
20
µm
Fig. 10. Self-healing effect in TRC: (a) crack before and (b) after water exposure [15]; both images show the same specimen.
out by Mechtcherine and Liebold [15] in the unloaded, saturated
state of TRC specimens at time intervals of 7 days. Fig. 9 shows
the time-dependent reduction of the transport rates of samples
with different reinforcement textiles. After storing the cracked
specimens in water for 14 days, the flow rate was reduced to less
than 50% of the value obtained on the same specimen before stor-
ing in water. No measurable volume flow occurred after continued
water exposure of 21–35 days, the particular duration depending
on the type of the textile reinforcement used. The samples contain-
ing uncoated AR glass yarns with low yarn fineness (1280 tex)
needed a longer time until a negligible volume flow was reached,
which can be traced back to the initially wider cracks in these spec-
imens. The specimens containing coated carbon textile layers
showed the fastest self-healing, which could be expected since
they had the finest cracks.
Using an ESEM (Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope),
additional investigations of cracks before and after exposure to
water revealed the formation of new crystal structures which
closed the cracks to transport, cf. Fig. 10. Fig. 10a shows the origi-
nal crack with a width of 20 lm before water contact. Fig. 10b
illustrates the condition of a similar crack after the water perme-
ability tests with duration of 21–35 days, indeed largely closed
by deposits of calcium carbonate (calcite) [15].
5. Summary
There is great potential for the application of high-performance
fibre-reinforced cement-based composites in structural elements
and structures exposed to severe mechanical or environmental
loading. Present knowledge indicates that SHCC and TRC show a
high long-term strain capacity and favourable transport properties
in the cracked state. Beyond that, the composites exhibit in many
instances superior resistance to aggressive environments when
compared to ordinary concrete. However, with the exception of
exposure to alternating freezing and thawing, which does not alter
the mechanical properties significantly, there is no information
available on the effects of aggressive environments on the mechan-
ical properties of the materials.
Since SHCC and TRC are new materials, there is no information
available on the long-term field performance of elements and
structures made from or strengthened with SHCC or TRC. However,
first field applications indicate that the superior performance in a
laboratory environment as discussed in previous chapters and
summarised above, does indeed translate to superior field
performance.
There is significant research needed to understand the long-
term behaviour of SHCC, TRC, R/SHCC, RC/SHCC and RC/TRC ele-
ments under complex combined loads as encountered in the field.
To be able to utilise the superior qualities of this new material
(b)
20
µm
 V. Mechtcherine / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 94–104 103

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