Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

A critical review on the use of copper slag (CS) as a substitute constituent

in concrete
Ruijun Wang, Qi Shi, Yang Li ⇑, Zhiliang Cao, Zheng Si
Institute of Water Resources and Hydro-electric Engineering, Xi’an University of Technology, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710048, China

h i g h l i g h t s

The influences of substitution rate, substitution method and particle size on the performance of CS concrete are reviewed.

The influence of adding CS into concrete on the workability, mechanical properties and durability of concrete is evaluated.

The environmental impact of CS as a building material is evaluated.

On the basis of the gap analysis of previous studies, the development direction of CS concrete in the future is pointed out.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In recent decades, CO2 emissions from concrete production account for 5% of the global total carbon
Received 24 January 2021 emissions. At the same time, the amount of industrial waste is also increasing year by year. As a
Received in revised form 11 April 2021 non-toxic and harmless industrial waste, copper slag (CS) has been a great concern for researchers as a
Accepted 12 April 2021
type of building material in recent years. This paper mainly reviews the relevant literature published
Available online 30 April 2021
in the past decade; critically discusses the performance of CS and the influence of partial replacement
of CS on performance; and performs a global analysis, pointing out the direction for the future research
Keywords:
on CS concrete. To make the conclusion comprehensive and reliable, this paper has consulted more than
Copper slag
Aggregate
90 related studies. The fresh performance, mechanical property and durability of CS concrete are
Concrete discussed from three aspects of particle size, replacement rate and replacement method. In conclusion,
Strength as a partial replacement of cement or aggregate in concrete, CS can appropriately improve the strength,
Durability chloride ion corrosion resistance, sulphate corrosion resistance, carbonation resistance and
Environmental impact freezing–thawing resistance of concrete. On the basis of research that describes the durability and
compressive strength of CS concrete, the particle size and replacement ratio of CS in concrete preparation
should be below 10 mm and 40%, respectively. According to the environmental impact analysis, using CS
as a partial substitute can improve the environmental impact, although the production process still needs
to be improved. Global analysis of results indicates that the long-term mechanical properties and
durability of CS concrete need to be further studied.
Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Physical and chemical properties of CS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1. Physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2. Chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3. Fresh properties of concrete produced with CS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1. Workability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2. Bleeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3. Setting time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4. Mechanical properties of concrete produced with CS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: LY1990120311@163.com (Y. Li).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.123371
0950-0618/Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371

4.1. Compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4.2. Tensile strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.3. Flexural strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.4. Elastic modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5. Durability of concrete produced with CS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5.1. Water absorption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5.2. Resistance to chloride ion penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.3. Sulphate and acid resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.4. Carbonation resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.5. Freezing–thawing resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.6. Electrical conductivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6. Environmental impact of CS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
7. Global analysis of results and future recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
8. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Declaration of Competing Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1. Introduction environmental pollution, greenhouse effect and other environmen-

Concrete has a hard structure and a long life in service. It is the
most widely used building material in recent years. CO2 emitted by
cement manufacturing has accounted for a significant portion of
greenhouse gases emissions [1]. In the manufacturing process of
Portland cement, the combustion and calcination method of fossil
fuel is an important factor that affects the emission of CO2. Since
the 20th century, people have begun to pay more attention to
tal protection issues [2]. Therefore, the impact of cement on the
environment can not be underestimated. With the deepening of
this concept, the number of scholars studying the direction of
‘green concrete’ has increased year by year.
Alternative feedstocks for chemicals, materials and energy have
turned into one of this century’s key challenges from the view of
sustainable development [3]. The amount of natural resource con-
verted into industrial waste is still increasing year by year. From
the perspective of sustainable development, the reuse of industrial
by-products is the most economic and safe measure [4]. For exam-
ple, copper slag (CS) can be used as aggregate in hot mix asphalt
pavements [5]. In comparison with other industries, the construc-
tion industry consumes more waste materials, which is undoubt-
edly the most promising market for the recycling of waste
materials. With the increase in the amount of replacement, the
compressive strength of concrete can be increased by the use of
certain industrial waste instead of concrete aggregate [6–9]. The
addition of such waste materials, such as steel slag and CS, to con-
crete can improve the compressibility and corrosion resistance of
the aggregate, thereby enhancing the durability of the concrete
[10]. These improvements have achieved sustainable development
and improved the performance of concrete to some extent [11].
Industrial by-products (e.g. waste sand, steel slag, CS, copper-
nickel slag, imperial smelting furnace slag, electric furnace fer-
ronickel slag (EAFs), blast furnace slag (BFS), bottom ash, furnace
bottom ash and low-calcium fly ash (FA)) have been extensively
studied by many researchers, and their effects have proven to be
advantageous compared with conventional materials [12–22].
The present paper focuses on the application of CS to concrete in
industrial waste by considering different aspects.

Table 1
Advantages and disadvantages of use of CS in concrete-based materials [25,27–
28,31,55–57,68–70,95].

Advantages

Protect the environment and
reduce carbon dioxide emissions

Non-toxic and harmless industrial
waste that can be widely used

Potential substitutes for concrete
materials, reducing consumption
Fig. 1. Number of publications annually on the use of CS in concrete and mortar: (a)
of natural materials
the total number of publications; (b) the breakdown in publications by application

Increased strength
in a concrete-based material. The data were obtained in 2020 using the current Web

Improved durability
of ScienceDirect 1996 database. The keywords searched for three topics were

Reduce water consumption
‘‘Copper Slag AND Concrete”, ‘‘Copper Slag AND Mortar” and ‘‘Copper Slag Concrete
AND Mortar”.
Disadvantages

Smoother particle surface

The smaller the particle size of
CS is, the longer the setting time
will be

High density will bring adverse
effects on the performance of
concrete

Low free lime content

Hydration of extended cement

Fresh concrete vulnerable to
bleeding and segregation

2
R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371

Table 2
Properties summarised in previous review studies.

References Long-term Leaching Physical Chemical Microstructure Environmental Treatment

behavior test characteristics of characteristics of impacts of CS
Chemical Physical Physical and
raw material raw material
treatment treatment chemical
only only treatment
p p p p
[28] – – – – –
p p p
[24] – – – – – –
p p p p
[8] – – – – –

References Fresh properties Mechanical properties Pattern

Workability Bleeding Setting time Compressive Flexural and Elastic Cement Coarse Fine aggregate
strength tensile modulus aggregate
strength
p p p p p
[28] – – – –
p p p p p p p
[24] – –
p p p p p
[8] – – – –

References Durability related properties

Water Chemical Abrasion Shrinkage Freezing– Flame and heat Electrical Use in
absorption attack resistance thawing resistance resistivity geopolymer
resistance resistance
p p p p
[28] – – – –
p p p p p
[24] – – –
[8] – – – – – – – –

Table 3
Physical properties of CS.

Reference [25] [27] [28] [31] [29] [30] [24] [32]

Particle shape Irregular
Appearance Black and Glossy
Specific gravity 3.37 3.45 3.57 3.63 3.45 3.97 3.51
Percentage of voids (%) 43.20 40.00
Bulk density (g/cc) 2.08 3.16–3.87 1.89 2.20 2.80–3.50 2.98
Fineness modulus 3.43 2.73 3.33
Fineness (cm2/g) 1261 1261
Water absorption (%) 0.30–0.40 0.15–0.55 0.35 0.40 0.10 0.36
Initial setting (min) 250 250
Hardness (Mohs) 6–7 5–7

The past decade has seen an increase in the study of CS in con-
crete (Fig. 1). These studies have demonstrated that CS has become
an effective material for improving the performance of concrete.
The use of CS to improve the performance of concrete extends
the life of buildings and decreases the expense of the reconstruc-
tion of buildings. Moreover, the Portland cement manufacturing
industry is one of the major sources of carbon emissions (about
5% of annual global carbon emissions) [23]. The addition of CS to
cement-based materials can reduce the amount of cement used
in concrete manufacturing, thereby achieving the goals of saving
resources and protecting the environment. This paper briefly sum-
marises the advantages and disadvantages of CS in the use of con-
crete materials, as shown in Table 1. It can be seen that CS is a clean
and healthy material. However, excessive or improper grinding
will decrease the performance of concrete, resulting in bleeding
or a long period of setting time.
Table 2 shows three representative studies on the properties of
CS concrete. However, certain essential properties of concrete (e.g.
electrical resistance) are not included in these papers. Two of three
studies only summarised the substitution of CS for fine aggregate
[8,24], and none of the three papers involved the study of CS
replacing coarse aggregate. Only Dash et al. [8] summarised the
microscopic analysis of the concrete behaviour of CS by scanning
electron microscopy (SEM). The latest review covers CS concrete
3
output studies previous to 2016. Therefore, the research on CS con-
crete in the recent 5–10 years must be further summarised.
Combined with more than 90 articles, this document presents
an in-depth literature review that captures the current state of
knowledge regarding the use of CS as different substitutes. The
properties of CS remarkably influence its effect. Therefore, the fun-
damental physical and chemical properties were firstly reviewed.
Furthermore, the effect of the CS on the partial substitute of con-
crete was examined in terms of the fresh, mechanical and durabil-
ity properties. CS is used as a replacement for sustainability. Hence,
a review of the environmental effect in the use of CS was carried
out. Finally, by quantifying the research status of CS concrete, the
degree of existing research of CS concrete and the future research
focus of CS concrete were also highlighted based on a global
analysis.
2. Physical and chemical properties of CS
2.1. Physical properties
In the current review, the researched physical properties are the
specific gravity of CS, particle shape, appearance, bulk density,
fineness modulus, water absorption, initial setting and hardness.
R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371

Fig. 2. (a) Flowchart of CS production and use; (b) CS particles [33].

Table 4
Chemical composition of different industrial wastes.

Component CS Steel Slag BFS EAFs FNS Bottom Ash

[6,26,32,35,69] [37–40,53] [37,41–43] [43–45] [46–49] [20–21,51–52]
Fe2O3 46.37–68.29 26.36–35.00 0.46–0.89 35.00–37.60 7.13–40.02 5.50–12.10
SiO2 9.57–28.83 8.04–25.16 32.10–34.87 14.00–34.70 19.80–62.80 38.80–61.80
CaO 0.15–22.25 25.00–41.52 32.02–42.53 21.77–41.70 0.42–4.48 1.58–16.50
Al2O3 0.22–4.43 4.12–10.00 11.52–19.31 6.30–12.00 1.95–12.25 17.80–21.58
CuO 1.20–1.24 0.02
MgO 0.90–1.56 6.17–15.00 5.71–11.76 5.00–9.10 7.79–31.60 1.19–1.70
SO3 0.11–3.26 0.08–2.09 0.91–2.78 0.23 0.03–0.87 0.02–2.40
K2O 0.28–1.15 0.05–0.26 0.35–0.56 0.11 0.02–0.37 1.08–2.50
Na2O 0.58–1.47 0.14–0.20 0.14–0.22 0.20–0.43 0.09–0.33 0.14–1.32
Mn2O3 0.06–0.22
CI 0.018–0.01 0.01
TiO2 0.41–0.34 0.76 0.64–0.97 0.41–2.20 0.80–0.88
P2O5 0.50–1.26 0.02–1.49 0.21 0.20
MnO 2.50 0.001–0.32 2.10–6.00
ZnO 0.85 0.03
NiO 0.01 0.10–0.30
Cr2O3 0.03–0.14 1.83–3.50 1.08–2.75

Note: BFS = Blast Furnace Slag, EAFs = Electric Arc Furnace slag, FNS = Furnace Ferronickel Slag.

The physical properties of CS are presented in Table 3 [24–32]. After
cooling, CS is irregular in shape, with a dark, glassy look [33]. The
flowchart of making CS and producing CS concrete is shown in
Fig. 2. The first part shows that CS can be produced from the manu-
facturing process of copper; only one production method is shown in
the figure. The second part demonstrates that various forms of CS
concrete can be created by different grades of grinding CS.
The cooling mode influences the form of the CS. When the liquid
slag is cooled slowly, it will form a dense and hard crystal; if the
4
molten slag is rapidly cooled by pouring water, then it will form
a granular amorphous CS [34]. Air-cooled CS has good mechanical
properties, such as wear resistance and stability, whereas the por-
ous properties of granular CS dictate its higher water absorption
and lower unit weight [28]. Mirhosseini et al. [35] found that both
had strong mechanical properties, such as flexibility and wear
resistance.
The specific gravity of CS varies between 3.21 g/cm3 and 3.97 g/
3
cm with different iron contents, which is higher than traditional
R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371

(continued on next page)

Reference

[59]

[56]

[32]
[62]

[63]

[75]
[75]
[31]

[26]
[35]
[76]
[58]

[54]
[70]

[60]

[60]

[60]
"15.0–21.9% ;1.1% (30% CS)
;0–16.3% (50–100% CS)a
"5.0–12.5% (20–40% CS)

"0–12.0% (0–40% CS)

;7.7% (30% CS)

"14.8–159.0%
"25.0–308.0%

;16.7–66.7%
;16.7–33.3%
;10.0–20.0%

;10.0–50.0%
;1.5–25.3%

;8.3–20.8%

"6.4–30.8%
"0–435.7%
"1.4–4.3%
"0.7–4.3%

"0.1–8.2%
"0–23.1%
"0–7.7%
Results
Fig. 3. EDS analysis of CS [26].

0.35 (Constant slump)

aggregate. The fineness modulus varies from 3.33 to 3.43. Peirovi
et al. [36] showed that the distribution of the size of CS and sand
grading particles is basically the same. As shown in Table 3, the

0.27–0.35

0.27–0.35
0.37–0.57
water absorption of CS is 0.1%–0.55%, which indicates that the
use of CS, instead of the conventional fine aggregate, will decrease

0.27

0.35
0.45
0.45

0.55

0.45
0.45

0.42
0.46
0.42
0.40

0.20

0.30
w/b
the water intake in concrete. The initial setting time is 250 min,
which is more than double the initial setting time for concrete.

OPC + FA + MK
OPC + FA + SF
Concrete type

OPC + GGBFS
The hardness of CS is 5–7 Mohs, which has strong mechanical

OPC + HCFA
OPC + FA
properties.

UHSC
HPC
OPC

OPC

OPC
OPC

OPC
OPC

OPC
HSC

HSC

HSC
2.2. Chemical composition

0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 by weight

0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 by weight
Table 4 lists the main chemical composition of several common
industrial wastes [37–53]. Chemical constitution of industrial
wastes relies on the kind of metal. The primary oxides present in
50, 60, 80, 100 by weight

CS are Fe2O3 (45%–70%) and SiO2 (10%–30%). For other industrial

0, 20, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100 by volume

wastes, the sum of the percentages of Fe2O3 is lower than CS, but

0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 by weight

0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight

80, 100 by weight

80, 100 by weight

80, 100 by weight

0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight

0, 30, 50, 70, 80, 100 by weight

SiO2 is higher than CS. Energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) anal-

0, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 by weight

100 by volume

0, 25, 50, 75, 100 by weight

ysis (Fig. 3) supports the contents described above, in which Fe3O4
CS replacement ratios (%)

and Fe2SiO4 are the main components in CS [54]. The higher iron
content explains why CS has higher density and hardness than
0, 20, 40 by weight
0, 20, 40 by weight

other industrial wastes. However, its CaO content is lower than

100 by weight
that in steel slag, BFS and EAFs; and Al2O3 is the least content.
75,
40,
60,
60,

70,

The lime content of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) reaches 63%,

50,
20,
40,
40,

50,

whereas the lime content of CS is < 10%. Hence, CS has no strong

25,
10,
20,
20,

30,
Fresh and mechanical properties of concrete using CS as aggregate replacement.

chemical activity as a gelling material [27].

0,
0,
0,
0,
0,

Although CS contains a large number of heavy metals, it is

coarse aggregate

coarse aggregate

recognised as nontoxic and non-reactive substances in several

fine aggregate

aggregate
aggregate
aggregate
aggregate
aggregate

fine aggregate

fine aggregate

fine aggregate

fine aggregate
fine aggregate

fine aggregate
fine aggregate
fine aggregate
Replacement

countries [26]. Moreover, in the entire life cycle appraisal con-

ducted, Gursel and Ostertag [55] reported that the environmental
cement
pattern

effect of aggregate is steadily being reduced with the rise in the

fine
fine
fine
fine
fine

rate of CS replacement. In conclusion, the physical and chemical

properties of CS would have a significant effect on the workability,
0.15–0.6 (untreated CS)

mechanical properties and durability of concrete.

3. Fresh properties of concrete produced with CS

CS size (mm)

0.075–4.75
0.15–4.75
0.075–10

0.075–10

0.075–10

0.075–10
0.06–10
0.06–30

0.01–10
0.01–10
0.2–2.5

3.1. Workability
0.1–1

0.1–5
0.1–6

In research investigations, slump is the major property used to

assess the workability of CS concrete (Table 5). As shown in Fig. 4,
Compressive strength

most research has demonstrated that the slump of concrete

Workability (slump

increases monotonously with CS through replacing sand as fine

aggregate. This result was due to the fact that the surface of CS is
(28-day)
Properties

values)

considerably smoother than sand, which decreased the shear

strength of concrete mixture and thus increased its fluidity
Table 5

[56,57]. Water, not absorbed by CS, is used as the lubricant for solid
particles, which decreases the friction between particles. Thus,
5
 R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al.
Table 5 (continued)

Properties CS size (mm) Replacement CS replacement ratios (%) Concrete type w/b Results Reference
pattern
Tensile strength 0.15–4.75 fine aggregate 0, 25, 50, 75, 100 by volume OPC + GGBFS 0.40 "7.9–11.8% [62]
(28-day)
0.075–10 fine aggregate 0, 10, 20, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100 by weight HPC 0.35 "13.0–14.8% (20–50% CS) [56]
;3.7–18.5%
0.2–2.5 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight OPC 0.55 ;2.1–4.2% [63]
"0–6.3% (20, 60% CS)
0.1–1 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight HSC 0.27 ;4.0–30.0% [59]
cement 0, 5, 10, 15 OPC 0.50 ;5.8–9.1% [65]
by weight
0.1–5 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight OPC + FA + MK 0.45 "1.5–14.7% [70]
0.075–10 fine aggregate 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 by weight HSC 0.35 "11.5–57.7% [60]
(Constant slump)
coarse aggregate 0, 20, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100 by volume OPC 0.30 "7.9–17.9% [54]
Flexural strength 0.15–0.6 (untreated CS) fine aggregate 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 by weight UHSC 0.20 "4.7–10.5% (0–40% CS) [31]
a
(28-day) & 0.1–1.5 (grinding CS) ;2.6–14.5% (50–100% CS)
"9.5–52.4%b
0.2–2.5 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight OPC 0.55 ;2.3–9.3% [63]
"2.3% (20% CS)
coarse aggregate 0, 20, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100 by volume OPC 0.30 "5.9–19.3% [54]
0.075–10 fine aggregate 0, 30, 50, 70, 80, 100 by weight HSC 0.27–0.35 "15.8–29.8% [60]
0.075–10 fine aggregate 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 by weight HSC 0.35 "7.4–33.3% [60]
(Constant slump)
0.1–10 fine aggregate 100 by weight UHPC 0.13 "15.4% [25]
cement 0, 5, 10, 15 by weight OPC 0.50 ;0.5–16.5% [65]
0.075–10 fine aggregate 0, 10, 20, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100 by weight HPC 0.35 ;11.0–30.8% [56]
Elastic modulus cement 0, 5, 13.5+ OPC + CBPD 0.5–0.7 "2–8% (w/b = 0.5, 5% CS; w/b = 0.6, 5% [27]
6

(28-day) 1.5 CBPD by weight CS; w/b = 0.7)

;4–20% (w/b = 0.5, 13.5% CS; w/
b = 0.6, 13.5% CS)
0.2–2.5 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight OPC 0.55 ;0.3–2.5% [63]
"4.4% (20% CS)
0.15–0.60 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight OPC ;7.1–14.3% [61]
0.2–2.5 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight OPC 0.45 "0–4.3% [63]
0.15–4.75 fine aggregate 0, 25, 50, 75, 100 by volume OPC + GGBFS 0.40 "1.7–7.9% [62]

Note:
Rate of change = [1 - (NAC)/CSC ]  100%.
NAC = Natural Aggregate Concrete.

Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371

UHPC = Ultra High Performance Concrete.
CBPD = Cement By Pass Dust.
HPC = High Performance Concrete.
HSC = High Strength Concrete.
Increase: "; Decrease: ;.
CSC = CS Concrete.
GGBFS = Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag.
HCFA = High Carbon Fly Ash.
a
= data about unground CS heat-cured specimens.
b
= data about ground CS heat-cured specimens.
R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al.
after the internal chemical reaction of concrete, water still remains
in the aggregate [58,59]. Al-Jabri et al. [60] observed that the water
demanded for concrete to reach constant slump falls as the
replacement rate increases. Although the slump obtained by Dos
Anjos et al. [61] decreased at a high mixing ratio, the overall work-
ability was improved due to the smooth surface and increased
specific mass of CS particles. However, notably, an extremely high
CS content may lead to concrete bleeding and other adverse events
[56,57].
According to the statistical literature in Table 5, a number of
studies have reported that the workability of concrete with CS as
fine aggregate has no obvious change. Mithun and Narasimhan
[62] reported that the workability of the alkali-activated slag con-
crete (AASC) was slightly increased after being replaced by CS,
because the sand used was similar to CS particle size and fineness
modulus and the change of mix proportion and binder. However,
Mavroulidou [63] showed that the slump of most of the specimens,
which partially or completely replaced the fine aggregate with CS,
was lower than that of the control mixture due to the sharp shape
of CS aggregate.
Some researchers have selected CS as a partial replacement for
cement. In the study of Edwin et al. [64], under vacuum mixing and
Fig. 4. Slump of concrete with CS.
Fig. 5. Debonding surfaces (D) of concrete specimens containing (a) limestone and (b) CS [74].
7
Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371
heat treatment conditions, a steady increase was observed in the
workability of reactive powder concrete with the increase of CS
content. This result may be due to the smooth surface and poor
water absorption of CS glass. Najimi and Pourkhorshidi [65] found
that CS, as auxiliary cementitious material, had no significant effect
on its workability. The change of workability is not obvious, which
may be because the substitution degree is only between 0% and
15%.
3.2. Bleeding
Bleeding weakens the durability and strength of concrete [35].
For all other factors being the same, the specific gravity of CS is
nearly 45% higher than normal sand [24]. The influence of the dif-
ference between CS and natural aggregate density should be con-
sidered in the design of concrete proportioning. A high CS
content will lead to bleeding and segregation of fresh concrete
and damage the efficiency of hardened concrete [56,57]. Therefore,
the higher the CS content is, the higher the risk of concrete bleed-
ing will be. Gupta and Siddique [58] indicated that the safe replace-
ment rate of CS for self-compacting concrete (SCC) is up to 60%. In
view of water-to-binder ratio (w/b), air content and other factors,
the replacement rate should be < 40% to avoid bleeding
[24,57,66]. Given the similarities of CS and iron slag, the process
used to avoid the bleeding of iron slag concrete, such as adding sil-
ica fume or limestone as supplementary cementitious materials
into the mixture, is also applicable to CS concrete [67].
3.3. Setting time
Setting time is an important property of fresh concrete. Some
scholars have concluded that the effects of different CS particle
sizes on setting time are also different, and the smaller the particle
size is, the longer the setting time will be [28,68,69]. In addition,
the effect of CS on setting time is reduced by increasing the wash-
ing time [28]. Some scholars have concluded that CS can extend the
initial and final setting times of concrete instead of cement, which
is the reason for the existence of zinc, lead and other heavy metals
in CS [24,65]. Lye et al. [24] considered the retarding performance
of CS in concrete is beneficial for concrete pouring in hot weather.
R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371

Fig. 6. Compressive strength of concrete with CS.

4. Mechanical properties of concrete produced with CS
4.1. Compressive strength
CS content has a great influence on the compressive strength of
concrete with CS. The 28-day compressive strength of concrete
with various CS replacement ratios is shown in Fig. 5
[26,56,62,70–72]. From the figure, when the replacement rate is
less than the optimum level (40%), the compressive strength is
improved. Some studies have shown that when CS replaces fine
aggregate, the compressive strength increases with the CS substi-
tution rate [31,36,60]. Al-Jabri et al. [60] found that the strength

Fig. 7. Microscopic view of concrete specimens at different CS replacement ratios (50 magnification) [59].

8
R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al.
of high strength concrete can even be increased more than three
times by using CS aggregate. Compressive strength increases for
three reasons, as follows. (1) CS particles present high density,
abrasiveness and compressibility, which ensures that the concen-
trated stress can be released in concrete [31,73]. (2) Given that
the surface of CS is smooth, the sharp edge of CS particles will
increase the bond strength of concrete matrix [58,74,75]. (3) CS
can play a role as filler particles to fill the voids of mixture and
improve the strength of concrete when the particles are small
[36]. As shown in Fig. 6, CS is used to replace limestone as coarse
aggregate concrete. After comparing the representative failure sur-
face of the specimen after a compression test, the debonding phe-
nomenon of CS as coarse aggregate is not obvious compared with
limestone. In addition, compression loss does not extend cracks
along the edge of CS aggregate [74].
As shown in Fig. 5, when the fine aggregate substitution rate is
higher than 40%, the compressive strength will be reduced [36,57].
For example, researchers have found that the compressive strength
Fig. 8. Statistical data on the compressive strength of concrete as a function of CS
particle size and CS replacement ratios. Source: [30–32,35–36,56–63,70,75,78].
Fig. 9. Tensile strength of concrete with various CS replacement ratios.
9
Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371
decreased by 2%–30% with the addition of CS fine aggregate substi-
tution rate from 0% to 100% [73,76]. The effect of CS content on
compressive strength is further quantified with relative values
and gives a linear relationship (CR for compressive strength and
PCs for CS replacement rate). Three reasons were reported for the
reduction in strength. (1) As shown in the SEM in Fig. 7, pores,
microcracks and capillary channels in the concrete increase with
the CS addition. The weakening of the binding force between the
components in the specimen and the surface of the specimen dur-
ing the loading process is due to the premature loss caused by
these weak links [59,61]. (2) Heavy metals in CS can delay hydra-
tion and lead to excessive free water [77]. (3) Surface smoothness
and poor water absorption of CS particles also have an adverse
effect on compressive properties [54].
Generally, cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate can be
replaced according to different CS particle sizes. A rich set of liter-
ature on CS replacing fine aggregate is available. Therefore, to fur-
ther understand the effects of CS characteristics on compressive
strength, Fig. 8 shows the statistical result on CS concrete compres-
sive strength with particle size and replacement rate under similar
w/b. From this diagram, the average relative compressive strength
of CS concrete with particle size of < 10 mm increases by 20%–50%
compared with that with particle size of < 5 mm. In addition, incor-
porating an appropriate CS content with a maximum particle size
of < 10 mm helps improve the compressive strength of CS concrete.
When the particle size is < 5, 5–12 and 12.5–30 mm, the
compressive strength decreases by 0%–50% [35], increases by
1.4%–159% [60,74] and increases by 3.2%–30.8% [75], respectively.
Therefore, generally, excessive grinding of CS (the maximum parti-
cle size is < 5 mm) will reduce the strength of the specimen,
whereas insufficient grinding (the minimum particle size
is greater than 12 mm) will make CS unable to play its best perfor-
mance. In sum, the best substitution particle size should be 5–
12 mm, and the best substitution rate should be not more than
40%.
Although not as well reported in the literature, CS, instead of
cementitious materials and coarse aggregate, has also shown the
capability to change strength. Researchers have reported that the
compressive strength of the specimens will be reduced by 6%–
50% as CS replaces cementitious materials [35,65]. The result
may be caused due to the content of free lime in CS being far less
than Portland cement [27]. However, when finer CS is used as a
R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371

Fig. 10. Relationship among 28-day compressive strength: (a) 28-day tensile strength; (b) 28-day flexural strength of concrete with CS as replacement.

Fig. 11. Flexural strength of concrete with various CS replacement ratios.

10
R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371

Fig. 12. Static modulus of elasticity tests: (a) static modulus of elasticity values; (b) correlation of static modulus of elasticity with cube compressive strength [63].

cement substitute for high strength concrete, the compressive
strength of the mixture can be improved [68], because a higher
specific surface area can accelerate the hydration of cement. When
CS replaces the coarse aggregate, the compressive strength of con-
crete can be improved because CS has higher density and better
wear resistance compared with natural aggregates [54].
decreases with the increase of substitution rate. Wu et al. [73]
considered that the tensile strength of high-strength concrete with
CS as fine aggregate decreases with the increase of substitution
rate, because the internal pores of concrete increase with the CS,
which results in the failure of the weak surface of the structure.
Dos Anjos et al. [61] used sand blasting CS as the fine aggregate
of concrete. The decrease in strength is due to the more impurities

4.2. Tensile strength

Similar behaviours to compressive strength, tensile strength

can also be increased when the replacement rate is less than the
optimum level, as shown in Fig. 9 [60,70,78]. Sharma and Khan
[70] claimed that the tensile strength of SCC is higher than the con-
trol mixture when CS is used as fine aggregate and FA and meta-
kaolin (MK) as auxiliary cementitious materials. Enhancement in
the splitting tensile strength of concrete mixes as CS substitution
may be attributed to the angular shape of CS particles, which
increases the cohesion of the concrete matrix, resulting in an
improvement in the splitting tensile strength [70,78]. At a high
substitution rate, the strength decrease may be due to the increase
of pore volume caused by excessive free water. Generally, the ten-
sile strength of concrete reaches the maximum at a certain substi-
tution rate (40%–50%) [31,56,63]. According to the fitted linear
function given in Fig. 9, the relative tensile strength generally Fig. 13. Effect of CS replacement on water absorption.

11
 Table 6

R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al.

Durability properties of concrete using CS as aggregate replacement.

Properties CS size (mm) Replacement pattern CS replacement ratio (%) Concrete type w/b Results The optimum replacement Reference
Water absorption 0.1–1.5 (grinding fine aggregate 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, UHSC 0.20 ;4.8–12.5% 60% [31]
CS) 90, 100 by weight
0.15–4.75 fine aggregate 0, 25, 50, 75, 100 by volume OPC + GGBFS 0.40 ;21.6–32.4% 100% [62]
0.01–10 fine aggregate 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 by weight OPC + FA 0.42 ;1.5–12.3% 20% [58]
fine aggregate 100 by weight OPC 0.37–0.57 "1.2–16.7% [26]
;14.3% (Mix 4)
0.075–10 fine aggregate 0, 10, 20, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100 by HPC 0.35 ;0–36.8% 40% [56]
weight "42–121% (60–100% CS)
0.075–10 fine aggregate 0, 30, 50, 70, 80, 100 by weight HSC 0.35–0.27 ;5.1–23.1% "10.3% (100% CS) 50% [60]
0.075–10 fine aggregate 0, 10, 20, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100 by OPC ;18.9–35.1% "21.6–113.5% (100% 40% [57]
weight CS)
0.1–5 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight OPC + FA + MK 0.45 ;2.2–23.9% "8.7–17.4% (80–100% 40% [70]
CS)
Chloride ion cement 0, 5, 10, 15 by weight OPC 0.50 ;0.2–2.0% 10% [65]
penetration
0.06–10 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40 by weight OPC 0.45 ;3.8–28.5% 40% [75]
0.06–30 coarse aggregate 0, 20, 40 by weight OPC 0.45 ;14.6% 40% [75]
0.1–1.5 (grinding fine aggregate 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, UHSC 0.20 ;3.3–13.3% 60% [31]
CS) 90, 100 by weight
fine aggregate 100 by weight OPC 0.37–0.57 "27.0–66.0% [26]
Sulfate and acid cement 0, 5, 10, 15 by weight OPC 0.50 Change in strength (50 g/L 15% [65]
resistance Na2SO4)
"40.0–56.1%
Expansion ;0.003–0.005%
0.15–4.75 Fine aggregate 0, 25, 50, 75, 100 by volume OPC + GGBFS 0.40 Change in strength (10% Change in strength (10% [62]
Na2SO4) "1.6–7.9% (10% MgSO4) Na2SO4) 75% (10% MgSO4) 100%
12

"3.3–8.2% (H2SO4) ;1.6–16.7% (H2SO4) 0%

Change in mass (H2SO4) Change in mass (H2SO4) 100%
;14.3–166.7%
0.1–5 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight OPC + FA + MK 0.45 Change in strength (5% Na2SO4) Change in strength [70]
;0–3.1% (5% Na2SO4)
"10.8–21.4% (0–80% CS) 40%
Change in mass Change in mass
"0.02–0.16% 0%
Carbonation 0.2–2.5 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight OPC 0.55 "33.3–100% 60% [63]
resistance ;33.3% (80% CS)
0.2–2.5 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight OPC 0.45 "200–300% 40% [63]
;40% (40% CS)

Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371

0.1–5 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight OPC + FA + MK 0.45 ;5.6–27.8% 100% [70]

0.06–10 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40 by weight OPC 0.45 ;16.7–66.7% 40% [75]
0.06–30 coarse aggregate 0, 20, 40 by weight OPC 0.45 ;16.7–33.3% 40% [75]
R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371

(such as rust) in it, and the higher the replacement rate is, the more
Reference

impurities there will be.

When CS is used as the substitute of coarse aggregate [54,74]
[36]

[75]

[75]

[76]
[70]
and cementitious material [65], the tensile strength change laws
are the same as compressive strength. Generally, a certain relation-
ship exists between the tensile strength and the compressive
strength. The tensile strength from the design point of view can
pffiffiffiffiffiffi
The optimum replacement

be approximately 0.45 f cu [56,57]. The strength of CS concrete in

several studies and the exponential relationship among compres-
sive strength, tensile strength and flexural strength are shown in
pffiffiffiffiffiffi
Fig. 10. The results obtained are similar to ft = 0.45 f cu .

4.3. Flexural strength

100%

100%
40%

40%

40%

As shown in Fig. 11, most of the results in the literature show

that flexural strength increases with the substitution rate within
a certain range and decreases at a high replacement rate
[25,36,60,63]. Some studies have considered that the addition of
Electrical conductivity

CS decreases flexural strength [56,63]. Al-Jabri et al. [56] observed

Electrical resistivity

;12% (80–100% CS)

that the decrease in the flexural strength of CS instead of fine

Surface scaled

aggregate is also attributed to the low water absorption of CS

;80.0–90.0%

and the high free water content in the mixture. Rajasekar et al.
"7.1–92.9%
Mass loss

"0–16.0%
"143.9%

[31] compared the effect of ground and unground CS on the

Results

"86.8%

strength of ultra-high strength concrete (UHSC) under different

curing conditions. The results show that the flexural strength of
the ground CS as fine aggregate concrete increases monotonically,
and the effect of adding CS after grinding is better than that with-
0.45

0.45
0.45

0.46
0.60

out grinding [31].

w/b

Regardless whether CS is the replacement of fine or coarse

aggregate, research shows that, similar to tensile strength, the
OPC + FA + MK
Concrete type

flexural and compressive strengths of specimens have a direct

OPC + HCFA

relationship. Lori et al. [54] concluded that fr = 0.201 fcu, whereas

other scholars have concluded that the flexural strength of con-
pffiffiffiffiffiffi
OPC

OPC

OPC

crete can be approximately 0.75 f cu [57]. As shown in Fig. 10(b),

summarising the strength of CS concrete in several studies
0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight

0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight

indicates that fr = 0.1791 fcu1.0014. In comparison with the Eurocode

0, 25, 50, 75, 100 by weight

2 correlation curve [79], the flexural strength of concrete with CS is

CS replacement ratio (%)

better than ordinary concrete.

0, 20, 40 by weight

0, 20, 40 by weight

4.4. Elastic modulus

CS concrete has similar elastic modulus compared to control

mixture [27,62,63]. Some research results show a slightly increas-
ing trend. Mithun and Narasimhan [62] noted that the elastic mod-
ulus increases slightly by 7%–14.3% with all levels of CS content in
Replacement pattern

AASC. In this manner, it can be considered similar to the approach

proposed by Mavroulidou [63], as shown in Fig. 12(a). In addition,
coarse aggregate
fine aggregate

fine aggregate

fine aggregate

fine aggregate

the elastic modulus of CS concrete has a correlation with compres-

sive strength, as shown in Fig. 12(b) [63]. The results of another
research show a marginal decreasing trend. Dos Anjos et al. [61]
found that the elastic modulus of concrete slightly decreases by
= data about unground CS heat-cured specimens.
= data about ground CS heat-cured specimens.
GGBFS = Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag.

1%–8% when mixed with CS, which may be caused by impurities

contained in blasted CS.
Rate of change = [1 - (NAC)/CSC ]  100%.
CS size (mm)

5. Durability of concrete produced with CS

NAC = Natural Aggregate Concrete.

HPC = High Performance Concrete.

0.06–10

0.06–30

0.01–10
0.1–5

0.1–5

HSC = High Strength Concrete.

5.1. Water absorption

HCFA = High Carbon Fly Ash.
Increase: "; Decrease: ;.

Water absorption corresponds to the pore structure of materi-

als, and various CS particle sizes and replacement ratios result in
Table 6 (continued)

CSC = CS Concrete.
resistance

different water permeabilities of concrete [31,56–58,60,70,80].

resistivity
–thawing
Properties

The mathematical fitting reveals that the water absorption reaches

Electrical
Freezing

the minimum value at a substitution rate of 40%; when the substi-

Note:

tution rate exceeds 60%, the water absorption will be higher than
the control mixture (Fig. 13). Al-Jabri et al. [56] found that the
b
a

13
R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al.
Fig. 14. Rapid chloride ion permeability of UHSC with ground CS [31].
water absorption of concrete with 40% CS is 40% lower than that of
plain concrete when the particle size of CS is 0.075–10 mm. Raja-
sekar et al. [31] reported that the porosity and water absorption
of UHSC with 60% CS are 0.2% and 16.7% lower than those of plain
concrete, respectively, when the particle size of CS is 0.1–1.5 mm.
The decrease in water absorption is due to CS fine particles filling
and refining the pores of concrete. The presence of CS may also
increase the density of the mixture. When the substitution ratio
is high, the water absorption decreases, because the porosity
increases with the free water content in the mixture. However,
Mithun and Narasimhan [62] found that the water absorption of
AASC at 28 days and 90 days is significantly reduced at all CS
replacement levels. This result may be due to the existence of
extremely refined, tortuous and blocked porosity in the AASC,
which prevents the rapid infiltration of water and also resists the
hydration reaction in the elderly.
From the effect of particle size, when CS is used as a replace-
ment for small particle size (0.001–4.75 mm), the water absorption
rate decreases, because the particle filling properties and the con-
crete structure are dense [31,58,62]. When the CS particle size is 5–
10 mm, the water absorption rate will increase under the condition
of high substitution rate (60%–100%) due to the high content of free
water. Therefore, the key factors affecting water absorption are CS
particle size and substitution rate [56,57,60].
5.2. Resistance to chloride ion penetration
As shown in Table 6, the permeability of chloride has a similar
trend to water absorption. The results suggest that a reduced
degree of chloride penetration is a result of the inclusion of CS in
concrete. However, at lower replacement ratios, the use of CS is
reported as decreasing chloride ion penetration more significantly.
[31,65,75]. De Schepper et al. [75] stated that the chloride ion
migration coefficient of concrete with CS as aggregate decreases
at a low replacement rate level. Rajasekar et al. [31] compared
the chloride ion permeability of UHSC obtained by replacing sand
with CS of different substitution rates. As shown in Fig. 14, the
results show that the addition of CS reduces the permeability of
concrete. The substitution of CS for cement is beneficial to the
14
Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371
resistance to chloride ion attack. Najimi and Pourkhorshidi [65]
observed that the reduction in chloride ion permeability of cement
with 0%–15% substitution rate CS is limited to 10%, and the effect is
more obvious in long-term curing. This result is mainly attributed
to the pozzolanic activity and filling characteristics of CS rendering
the mixture of a dense structure.
5.3. Sulphate and acid resistance
On the basis of the weight and strength changes in Table 6, the
use of CS can be helpful for sulphate attack resistance; however, CS
concrete is more easily damaged in the acid solution compared
with the control mixture. Sharma and Khan [70] reported that
the mass loss of SCC in 5% Na2SO4 solution decreases with an
increase in CS content; the compressive strength loss of SCC after
immersion decreases with the increase of substitution amount.
The results may be attributed to the following reasons. (1) The
sulphate solution penetrates the structure through the pores, and
the precipitate formed by the reaction with calcium hydroxide
(Ca(OH)2) results in the increase of mass. (2) As shown in Fig.
15(a)–(g), the dense structure of C-S-H gel is the main reason for
resistance against sulphate attack. However, a reduction in
strength of AASC (from Fig. 16.) when exposed to MgSO4 environ-
ment was observed. This may be due to the absence of Ca(OH)2,
which limits the formation of protective brucite layer [62]. When
CS acts as an auxiliary cementitious material, it is advantageous
for the sulphate resistance of concrete. Najimi and Pourkhorshidi
[65] demonstrated that the mechanical properties’ loss and expan-
sion rate of concrete exposed in 50 g/L Na2SO4 solution are reduced
by using CS. As shown in Fig. 17, the CS mixture can detect a lower
sulphur content after 60 days of immersion.
CS concrete is easily destroyed under acid erosion [10,24,62].
This result is due to CS containing approximately 50% of ferrous
compounds; the ferrous compounds in CS concrete converts into
ferrous salts, which disintegrate the concrete, thereby causing loss
in mass and strength when the hardened concrete containing CS is
immersed in sulphuric acid [10]. Mithun and Narasimhan [62]
showed that the mass loss of AASC mixed with CS and the com-
pressive strength loss increase with the CS content. AASC with
R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al.
Fig. 15. SEM analysis after 120 days of sulphate exposure for (a) OF-CS0; (b) OFM-CS0; (c) OFM-CS20; (d) OFM-CS40; (e) OFM-CS60; (f) OFM-CS80; (g) OFM-CS100 (Note: O-
OPC; F-FA; MMK) [70].
sand shows better performance than CS as fine aggregate AASC and
OPC concrete. Thomas et al. [10] found that CS concrete loses more
5%–6% in mass to the sulfuric acid solution than the control mix-
ture after exposure to the acid.
5.4. Carbonation resistance
Limited research is available on the use of CS in the assessment
of changes to the carbonation resistance; the carbonation
resistance of CS concrete does not indicate a clear trend, as shown
15
Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371
in Table 6 [63,70,75]. Some studies have found that the increase of
carbonation depth is associated with the increase in rates of w/b
and replacement. Mavroulidou [63] used water-cooled CS to
replace natural fine aggregate and utilised two w/b rates of 0.45
and 0.55 for testing. The results revealed that the test of concrete
mixed with CS is nearly the same as OPC, and the carbonation
depth improves with the w/b and replacement rate. The study of
De Schepper et al. [75] also reported similar results.
However, other studies have shown that CS can reduce the car-
bonation depth of the mixture. Sharma and Khan [70] suggested
R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al.
Fig. 16. Compressive strength of AASC mixes in (a) 10% Na2SO4 solution; (b) 10%
MgSO4 solution [62].
that the carbonation depth decreases with the increase in the
degree of CS replacing sand. However, the carbonation level
decreases more significantly with the increase in curing time,
Fig. 17. EDS of concrete specimens at (a) CS-0 and (b) CS-10 (maximum percentages indicated) [65].
16
Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371
which may be due to the high content of iron oxide in CS that cre-
ates the matrix alkaline. The protective layer around the reinforce-
ment is composed of iron oxide, which is alkaline, and plays a role
in protecting the reinforcement from corrosion [81].
5.5. Freezing–thawing resistance
Some different views on the freeze–thaw resistance of CS as fine
aggregate concrete are shown in Table 6. Peirovi et al. [36] found
that the use of CS, instead of fine aggregates, can significantly
enhance the freeze–thaw resistance with a minimum mass loss
at 40% CS replacement rate. As shown in Fig. 18 [36], after 40%
CS replaces the fine aggregate, the pore scale and pore spacing of
the specimen surface are relatively better than other specimens.
If the CS content is further increased, the free water in the mixture
will increase, resulting in the increase of pores and decreased resis-
tance to frost. However, De Schepper et al. [75] observed that the
surface spalling of concrete using CS as aggregate increases by
144% in the de-icing agent freeze–thaw research. The reason is
related to the physical properties of CS, that is, the low water
absorption and glassy surface create a water excess. For these rea-
sons, air entraining agent and water-reducing agent can be used to
improve the defects of concrete specimen.
5.6. Electrical conductivity
Although the literature on the use of CS in concrete is limited,
various studies have shown the differences in the influence on
electrical conductivity. Lim et al. [76] found that the electrical con-
ductivity of concrete can be improved by 7.1%–92.9% using high
carbon FA and CS, and the growing trend is bilinear. When the sub-
stitution rate of CS is < 50%, the electrical conductivity increases
slightly until the substitution rate is greater than 50%, and the elec-
trical conductivity increases rapidly. However, Sharma and Khan
[70] used MK and FA as auxiliary cementitious materials, and the
resistance of concrete made of CS as fine aggregate increases by
0%–16% with the change of substitution rate from 0% to 60%,
whereas the resistivity decreases by 12% when the substitution
rate exceeds 80%. This result may be due to the reduction of resis-
tivity caused by the increase of water in concrete [70] .
R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371

Fig. 18. SEM micrograph of concrete specimens at different CS replacement (100  magnification): (a) control concrete; (b) specimen with 40% substitution amount of CS; (c)
specimen with 100% substitution amounts of CS [36].

Fig. 19. Energy consumption and CO2 emission for OPC mixes with varying amount of CS [63].

6. Environmental impact of CS of concrete production [84]. However, as the main component of

The rapid development of the construction industry has a high
demand for cement and aggregate, which causes environmental
problems, such as greenhouse gas emissions and natural resource
depletion [82,83]. The results show that the emission of cement
accounts for 8.6% of anthropogenic emissions of CO2 in the process
concrete, aggregate accounts for 60%–70% of the total volume
[85]. The ways to produce natural aggregates will lead to the
degradation of the natural environment [60,86]. At present,
industrial waste is facing a large number of landfills and environ-
mental problems and cannot be used [87]. To coordinate the con-
tradiction between development and environment, using

17
R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371

Table 7
Global analysis and ranking of the reviewed studies based on the research aspects of CS*.

Aspect No. Studies Availability (R1) Importance (R2) Total

Long-term behavior 5 5 5 25
Leaching test 7 5 5 25
Abrasion resistance 8 5 5 25
Chemical treatment only 0 5 4 20
Freezing-thawing resistance 4 5 4 20
Chemical attack resistance 14 4 5 20
Physical treatment only 11 4 4 16
Shrinkage 3 5 3 15
Setting time 7 5 3 15
Bleeding 8 5 3 15
Workability 25 3 5 15
Elastic modulus 9 4 3 12
Water absorption 15 4 3 12
Use in geopolymer 1 5 2 10
As a coarse aggregate replacement 3 5 2 10
Electrical resistivity 4 5 2 10
As a cement replacement 5 5 2 10
Microstructure 20 3 3 9
Flexural and tensile strength 31 2 4 8
Environmental impacts of CS 33 2 3 6
Compressive strength 40 1 5 5
As a fine aggregate replacement 33 2 2 4
Chemical characteristics of raw material 42 1 1 1
Physical characteristics of raw material 42 1 1 1

Note:
R1: 1 (35–42 studies): widely available, 2 (26–34 studies) & 3 (17–25 studies): sparse and/or questionable, 4 (9–16 studies) & 5 (0–8 studies): scarce and/or unavailable.
R2: 1: relevant but not essential, 2 & 3: important, 4 & 5: critical.
*Sorted by total score (R1  R2).

reasonable substitutes, which also include industrial wastes, is an
effective method. For any alternative material, an environmental
impact assessment must be conducted to quantify the potential
benefits or disadvantages of use [88].
A large number of studies have shown that CS as building mate-
rials can significantly reduce energy consumption and the impact
on the environment. Gursel and Ostertag [55] found that the
impact of concrete on the environment decreases with the increase
of CS replacement rate. The replacement of CS with 40% and 100%
in concrete can reduce 8% and 40% of intrinsic energy, 8% and 41%
of acidification, 12% and 30% of global warming potential and 7%
and 35% of particulate matter formation, respectively. As shown
in Fig. 19, Edwin et al. [64] used secondary CS to replace a part
of cement to prepare reactive powder concrete, which reduces
energy consumption and carbon emission. The higher the replace-
ment rate is, the more significant the effect will be. Through life
cycle inventory assessment, Kua [89] found that replacing cement
with CS will reduce the emissions of Co, CO2, CO, NOx, Cr, Cu, Pb, Hg
and SO2, and the use of CS can reduce the environmental impact.
The above literature mainly analyses the environmental impact
of CS on the greenhouse effect. However, the effect of waste on the
environment should involve more aspects. The research on envi-
ronmental safety quality includes the impact of waste on soil,
groundwater and seawater. The effect of the use of solid waste
on environmental safety quality has attracted the attention of
many scholars, and some scholars have reported relevant research
results on Steel Slag [53], BFS [23] and EAFs [44]. Limited research-
ers have published research results on CS. The Japan Society of Civil
Engineers has introduced the environmental safety quality
requirements for the design and construction of CS aggregate con-
crete with the corresponding standards and limits. According to
Japanese Industrial Standards JIS A 5011–3-2003 [90], the CS pro-
duced by each manufacturer shows that the contents of Cd, Pb and
As are higher than the limit value. Therefore, the content of these
three factors can serve as basis for the environmental safety quality
detection of CS. The recommendations state that if the mixing ratio
of CS aggregate is < 30%, the increase of the mass per unit volume
18
of concrete is lower than approximately 100 kg/m3, and it can meet
the standards requirements of environmental safety quality [91].
The environmental impact of copper production and recovery
has also been analysed. Northey et al. [92] claimed that the copper
content of ore is the key factor that affects the energy and water
demand for copper mining. The priority of mining high content
ores will require more energy and emit more greenhouse gases
[93]. Moreover, in comparison with the greenhouse gas produced
by pyrometallurgical process, the production rate in the mining
and beneficiation stages of the hydrometallurgical process is rela-
tively small [94]. Research shows that the massive accumulation of
copper tailings has an adverse effect on the surrounding human
beings and the environment [95]. Song et al. [96] found that
through the comparison of open-loop recovery process, CS
flotation recycling for cement has higher environmental and eco-
nomic benefits than the recovery of unfired brick.
In conclusion, the use of CS as a building material can effectively
reduce the energy consumption and the environmental impact.
Considering the effect of solid waste on environmental safety qual-
ity, the proportion of CS aggregate should be < 30%. A large number
of cheap and clean CS can be regarded as one of the alternatives to
concrete mixture materials; however, it is still a direction to seek a
method with lower energy consumption to produce copper.
7. Global analysis of results and future recommendation
A global analysis is used to evaluate the importance and degree
of existing research on CS concrete, and the results can help
researchers point out the focus of the next stage of research. Such
analysis is measured by frequency and quality. It refers to the num-
ber of studies (frequency) and the depth and importance of
research (quality). The research on CS concrete is not further as
OPC. Several references do not analyse the results deeply enough
and merely discuss the data obtained from laboratory tests. Global
analysis of results provides the basis for further research. Such
analysis may not provide a comprehensive comparison of the
aspects and factors of the report but should be indicative.
R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al.
The research aspects and characteristics listed in Table 7
describe the research status of CS as an alternative building mate-
rial. A 5-point Likert scale is used to score the usability and impor-
tance of 42 studies. The availability of data (R1) is assessed
according to the number of studies: 1 point (35–42 studies) is
widely available, 2 points (26–34 studies) denotes available, 3
points (17–25 studies) and 4 points (9–16 studies) are sparse
and 5 points (0–8 studies) indicates unavailable. The importance
of the study (R2) is the opposite: 1 indicates the aspect that pro-
vides additional information about the use of CS, but has little to
no impact on its use in construction; whereas 5 points refers to
the aspect that has a significant impact on the utilisation rate of
CS in the building; and the value between the two is based on judg-
ment [97]. The total score is obtained by the multiplication of
usability and importance (R1  R2). After ranking according to
the total score, the priority of research is determined. The results
are sorted by the total score to prioritise the areas of research, such
that the highest ranked aspect is believed to be critically important
and least researched.
After the global analysis, as shown in Table 7, the long-term
behaviour of CS as an alternative to concrete is considered to
require the most attention. Gupta and Siddique [58] evaluated
the mechanical properties, water absorption and chloride ion cor-
rosion resistance test of CS concrete for one year. Notably, it is the
only document that evaluates the duration of long-term behaviour.
In 36 studies, the short-term durability of concrete containing CS is
studied from the aspects of water absorption, chemical corrosion
resistance and wear resistance. Construction and manufacturing
industries are conservative in the use of new products [98].
According to the direction given by the global analysis, research
needs to focus on improving the characteristics of new materials
and discussing the long-term durability of CS concrete alternative
materials, which is conducive to the application of CS as building
materials and provides confidence for material selection. For
example, for the long-term application of concrete, the effect of
acid rain on the durability of concrete should be considered.
In view of the sustainability of resource conservation, CS has
great potential as a fine aggregate geopolymer concrete. In 42 stud-
ies, only one research examines geopolymer concrete with CS as a
partial substitute of fine aggregate. Sreenivasulu et al. [29] studied
geopolymer concrete using CS as a partial substitute of fine aggre-
gate. The microstructures of gel permeation chromatography were
studied by SEM and EDS. The mechanical properties were deter-
mined at the macroscopic level, and the prediction model was
developed. The substituted geopolymer concrete performs better
in the microstructure and mechanical properties of gel permeation
chromatography than traditional concrete.
Among the 42 reviewed studies, only 7 have discussed the
leaching process of concrete. CS concrete leaches only a small
amount of harmful elements [61]. However, these tests are limited
to mortar or concrete, where CS is used to replace cement or fine
sand. The research on CS replacing coarse aggregate and geopoly-
mer has not been reported. To widely apply CS in the construction
industry, relevant environmental protection policies must be for-
mulated. The study of CS chemical treatment and concrete chemi-
cal corrosion resistance is helpful to formulate relevant policies. Of
course, the physical and chemical properties of CS are different due
to different sources.
Other research aspects, such as freezing–thawing resistance,
drying shrinkage, setting time, bleeding, elastic modulus, water
absorption, flexural and tensile properties, are different in terms
of availability and importance. Strengthening the research on the
performance of building materials can describe the advantages
and disadvantages of materials more comprehensively. The
research on CS raw materials have been widely investigated. In
addition, the effect of raw material treatment on the results is also
19
Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371
worthy of attention. Physical treatment (11 studies) is more com-
mon than chemical treatment (0 studies) in the studies; however,
no study has combined physical and chemical treatments. No more
optimised treatment is available other than grinding [56,57] and
washing [28]. The treatment of CS raw materials is not discussed
in most literature, and the waste residue collected from incinerator
is directly used. The reuse of CS, which has been used as landfill as
a substitute for building materials, has not been studied.
Through the global analysis of results, the aspects that require
further research can be identified. Although CS is a potential sus-
tainable building material, it is still in the stage of exploration
and development. In addition, in comparison with traditional con-
crete, CS concrete research is less, lacking quantitative data of
durability and mechanical properties. After decades of develop-
ment, on the basis of a number of engineering application experi-
ence, traditional concrete has more comprehensive specifications
and standards. Therefore, before the practical application of CS
concrete, in-depth and comprehensive research from the different
aspects must be conducted. The freeze–thaw resistance and elec-
trical conductivity of CS concrete need further study. In addition
to the use of alkali activators and the grinding of CS, the treatment
method of CS should be optimised and studied. At present, con-
ducting extensive durability research, especially long-term perfor-
mance exploration, is necessary. These studies will be a reliable
basis for formulating relevant standards in the future. Further
study on the influence of CS output characteristics in different
countries will also be beneficial to future research.
8. Conclusion
In the past decade, a large number of papers have studied the
performance of concrete containing CS. This paper has presented
a critical summary of more than 90 articles on the topic. The prop-
erties of CS and concrete containing CS are discussed in detail.
Based on this review, the following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) When compared with natural aggregates, most CS has
higher specific gravity and smoother surface. CS generally
has lower water absorption and more prone to bleeding than
normal aggregates due to the glassy nature and irregular
surface and shape of CS. The key components of CS are
Fe2O3 and SiO2; however, its lime content is considerably
less than OPC. In addition, although CS contains many metal
elements, CS is a non-toxic and non-reactive material.
(2) When CS is used as a substitute for concrete composition,
workability generally increases with the CS content. How-
ever, high CS content may lead to concrete bleeding and
other adverse events. To avoid bleeding, the replacement
rate should be < 40%, and some auxiliary cementitious mate-
rials can also be added. The smaller the CS particle size is, the
longer the setting time will be. The effect of CS on the setting
time is reduced by increasing the washing times.
(3) Generally, the compressive, tensile and flexural strengths of
the specimen will be reduced by excessive grinding (particle
size is < 5 mm), whereas inadequate grinding (particle size
is greater than 12 mm) will make CS unable to give full play
to its best performance. The optimum CS replacement rate is
40%. When the substitution rate is < 40%, the strength of
concrete increases with the degree of partial CS replacing
aggregate. The results show that the tensile and flexural
pffiffiffiffiffiffi
strength of concrete is normally considered as 0.45 f cu
1.0014
and 0.1791 fcu , respectively. The elastic modulus of con-
crete obtained from the use of CS has no obvious effect.
(4) Generally, when the substitution rate is < 60%, the water
absorption of CS concrete is lower than that of OPC. The
R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al.
use of CS is beneficial for resistance to chloride penetration
and sulphate attack, but is more easily damaged to acid solu-
tion. The carbonation resistance trend is close to that of ordi-
nary concrete. The freeze–thaw resistance and the
conductivity of CS concrete have no obvious change laws.
(5) As a potential substitute of building materials, CS can signif-
icantly reduce energy consumption and carbon emissions,
reduce costs and protect the environment. In terms of envi-
ronmental safety quality, the replacement rate of CS aggre-
gate should be < 30%. The environmental problems caused
by the recovery and production of CS need to be further
studied to obtain a cleaner approach.
(6) On the basis of the analysis of particle size, substitution
mode and substitution rate, the substitution scheme is rec-
ommended as follows. The fine aggregate is preferred, fol-
lowed by coarse aggregate and cementitious material. To
ensure the good performance of concrete, the particle size
range and fine aggregate replacement rate should be
between 5 and 10 mm and < 40%, respectively. If auxiliary
cementitious materials are used, then the replacement rate
can be increased appropriately, but should not exceed 50%.
(7) The global analysis of results shows that the future research
on CS concrete can focus on exploring its long-term perfor-
mance in terms of abrasion resistance, freezing–thawing
resistance, chloride ion penetration resistance, sulphate
resistance, acid resistance, water absorption, electrical con-
ductivity and mechanical properties, and compare the over-
all research with traditional concrete to provide a more
comprehensive basis for CS as a building material. In addi-
tion, the optimisation of CS treatment method before mixing
concrete needs to be further studied. Such studies will pro-
vide a reliable basis for the future development of relevant
standards and practical application.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This study was financially supported by Project funded by China
Postdoctoral Science Foundation (Program No. 2020M683687XB);
the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Program No.
52009110; 51879217); Natural Science Basic Research Program
of Shaanxi (Program No. 2019JQ-318; 2021JM-331); and Scientific
Research Program Funded by Shaanxi Provincial Education Depart-
ment (Program No. 19JS048).
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