A PROJECT REPORT

On

“BROMINE”

Guided By,
Shri. R. A. Shah

Prepared By,
SHINGADIYA HEMENDAR - 186458305018
VALAND PARTHKUMAR HASMUKHBHAI - 186458305022
VASAVA SUNIL - 186458305025

Chemical Engineering Department

Shree K. J. Polytechnic, Bharuch
Year – 2020

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 SHRI K. J. POLYTECHNIC

(Affiliated to Gujarat technical university Ahmedabad)

(Old N.H. No. 8, Bharuch-392001)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certified that the project entitled “ BROMINE” submitted by towards

the fulfillment of diploma 6th semester in chemical engineering for the exam
may 2020 conducted by Gujarat technical university, Ahmadabad is a record only
of bonofied work done by him under my supervision.

DATE :

( Guided by) ( H.O.D )

R. A. Shah P.D CHAUDHARI

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I extend my sincere gratitude to my guide, R. A. Shah Lecturer in Chemical

Engineering Department, Shri K.J Polytechnic, Bharuch for sharing her vast
knowledge and resources and also availability round the clock.

We are also Thankful to Mr. P. D. CHAUDHARI, Head of Department, Chemical

Engineering Department, Shri K.J Polytechnic, Bharuch for extending their help in
the course. We are also in departing to all the authors and editors of the various
reference books, research papers that helped me through this report.

We are sincerely thankful to the all other faculty members of chemical

engineering department for their direct or indirect coordination for the
preparation of the dissertation report.

DIPLOMA CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

(6TH SEM)

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 PREFACE

This project report describes the manufacture of BROMINE. It is prepared in

partial fulfillment in chemical engineering. It is purely academic in nature through
attempts have been made incorporate factual data, available from journals,
books and other sources, reasonable assumption have been made for data those
were not available.

This report includes the information based on theoretical background. So this

report cannot applicable to industrial scale totally. But for actual setting up of a
new chemical plant and expansion or revision of existing one requires the use of
design report as a preliminary estimate.

This report being with a general introduction including use, properties of raw
material well as product BROMINE and current demand and capacity in India
market. Various detailed & description of selected process and material balance
for the desired capacity are described in the subsequent chapters.

The reports provide preliminary information and gives an idea and in sigh into
the process and design aspects.

The reports also include safety consideration, instrument and process control,
cost analysis. The references section at the end lists the sources of information.

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 INDEX
SR. SUBJECT PAGE
NO NO.
1 Introduction , history, present status and list of industries 6

2 Properties of raw material and product and its application 12

3 Various manufacturing process with flow diagram Selection of process 16

4 Major equipment and instrument require for selected process 18

5 Material balance for selected process 20

6 Utilities require for Saponification Process 25

7 Site selection parameter, layout and location of plant 32

8 Economic evaluation of plant 38

9 Important aspects of safety 44

10 M.S.D.S. of product and raw material 47

11 Liquid and solid waste treatment 57

12 Conclusion 64

13 References 66

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 CHAPTER :- 1
INTRODUCTION AND
HISTORY OF PRODUCT

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 BROMINE

INTRODUCTION OF BROMINE

Bromine belongs to the family of halogens. The meaning of the

name, stemming from the Greek, is salt forming.

The halogens are not found as naturally occurring free elements,

but rather as different compounds, mostly with metals.

The properties of the different halogens show marked

differences as well as considerable similarities, due to the
identical arrangement of seven valence electrons.

The place of bromine in this special group of elements, between

chlorine and iodine, results in an absence of extreme properties.
Bromine is less electronegative than fluorine or chlorine, but its
electro negativity is not as low as that of iodine and astatine.
Nevertheless, bromine is sufficiently electronegative to act as a
distinctive non-metal element.

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 BROMINE

Halogens are known for their ability to form many inorganic and
organic compounds, ionic compounds, molecular compounds
and even polymers. Similarly, halogen compounds possess
many different properties and therefore have many application
areas.

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 BROMINE

HISTORY OF BROMINE

Bromine was discovered independently by two chemists, Carl

Jacob Löwig[4] and Antoine Balard,[5][6] in 1825 and 1826,
respectively.[7]

Antoine Jerome Balard (1802-

1876)

Löwig isolated bromine from a

mineral water spring from his
hometown Bad Kreuznach in
1825. Löwig used a solution
of the mineral salt saturated
with chlorine and extracted the
bromine with diethyl ether.
After evaporation of
the ether a brown liquid remained. With this liquid as a sample
of his work he applied for a position in the laboratory of
Leopold Gmelin in Heidelberg. The publication of the results
was delayed and Balard published his results first.[8]

Balard found bromine chemicals in the ash of seaweed from the

salt marshes of Montpellier. The seaweed was used to produce

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iodine, but also contained bromine. Balard distilled the bromine
from a solution of seaweed ash saturated with chlorine. The
properties of the resulting substance were intermediate between
those of chlorine and iodine; thus he tried to prove that the
substance was iodine monochloride (ICl), but after failing to do
so he was sure that he had found a new element, and named it
muride, derived from the Latin word muria for brine.[6]

After the French chemists Louis Nicolas Vauquelin, Louis

Jacques Thénard, and Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac approved the
experiments of the young pharmacist Balard, the results were
presented at a lecture of the Académie des Sciences and
published in Annales de Chimie et Physique.[5] In his
publication, Balard stated that he changed the name from
muride to brôme on the proposal of M. Anglada. Brôme
(bromine) derives from the Greek βρωμος (stench). [5][9] Other
sources claim that the French chemist and physicist Joseph-
Louis Gay-Lussac suggested the name brôme for the
characteristic smell of the vapors. [10][11] Bromine was not
produced in large quantities until 1858, when the discovery of
salt deposits in Stassfurt enabled its production as a by-product
of potash.[12]

Apart from some minor medical applications, the first

commercial use was the daguerreotype. In 1840, bromine was
discovered to have some advantages over the previously used
iodine vapor to create the light sensitive silver halide layer in
daguerreotypy.[13]

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Potassium bromide and sodium bromide were used as
anticonvulsants and sedatives in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, but were gradually superseded by chloral hydrate and
then by the barbiturates.[14] In the early years of the First World
War, bromine compounds such as xylyl bromide were used as
poison gas.[15]

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 Chapter :- 2
Properties and Application of Bromine

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 Property of Bromine

 OVERVIEW OF BROMINE
Atomic Number :- 35
Group :- 17
Period :- 4
Series :- Halogens

 NAMES
Synonyms Name
Brom [German] [ACD/IUPAC Name]
Brome [French] [ACD/IUPAC Name]
Bromine [ACD/Index Name] [ACD/IUPAC Name]
Broom [Dutch]
Dibrome [French]
Dibromine
Dibroom [Dutch]
Molecular bromine

 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Molecular formula :- Br

Molecular weight:- 79.90 gm/mole

Appearance :- Red-brown (gas or liquid),

metallic luster (solid)

Odour :- Sharp and penetrating odour

Boiling point :- 58.80C

Melting point :- -7.20C

Density :- 3.12gm/cm3 at 200C,

2.93gm/ml at 590C

Refractive index :- 1.647 at 200C

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 Vapour density :- 5.5

Solubility :- Soluble in water

 Chemical Properties :-

The bromamines are highly unstable compounds, having a

tendency to explode at low temperatures, if they are isolated. Traces of these
compounds can be formed when water containing small amounts of bromide and
ammonia is chlorinated.

Monobromamine, NH2Br, bromamide, was first prepared by

reacting a dilute solution of bromine in anhydrous ether with a 50% excess of ammonia
( in anhydrous ether ) at 608oC. (1) according to the reaction

2NH3 + Br2 --- NH2Br + NH4Br

After the ammonium bromide and excess ammonia are

removed, a pale straw-colored product solution remains. If the bromamine is isolated at
lowtemperatures, it decomposes violently when its temperature is allowed tp reach
708oC. the bromamine reacts in ether with Grignard reagents to produce primary
amines, ammonia, and nitrogen.

Dibromamine, NHBr2 (bromimide) [14519-03-0], is prepared by

adding an ether solution of ammonia to an excess of bromine (in ether) at a
temperature of 508oC, until the color of the bromine solution changes from red to
yellow (1,3).

3NH3 + 2Br2 --- NHBr2 + 2NH4Br

An ether solution of NHBr 2, after the removal of ammonium

bromide, is stable for several hours at 728 oC. when dibromamine reacts with Grignard
reagents, primary and secondary amines are formed, together with ammonia and N 2.
The disinfecting efficiency of dibromamine in water exceeds that of dichloramine.

Aliphatic bromides are used for the alkylation of aromatic

hydrocarbons in the presence of Lewis acids.

CBr4 + nCH2=CH2 --- CBr3( CH2 – CH2+)nBr

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 Use Of Bromine

Bromine can function as a solvent . One of the very few metal bromides
thathas significant solubility in bromine is cesium bromide, 19.3 g/100 g of solution, thus
providing a method of separating cesium bromide from the other alkali bromides.

Aluminum bromide also is reported to have significant solubility in

bromine but the published solubility values are not in good agreement. Bromine serves
as the solvent in some brominations of organic compounds, such as 1,2-diphenylethane

Zinc-bromine storage batteries are under development as load-leveling

devices in electric utilities. Photovoltaic batteries have been made of selenium or boron
doped with bromine.

Graphite fibers and certain polymers can be made electrically

conductive by being doped with bromine. Bromine is used in quartz-halide light bulbs.
bromine is used to etchaluminum, copper, and semi-conductors.

Bromine and its salts are known to recover gold and other precious
metals from their ores. Gold, as a precious metal, is found naturally as an element, at
very low concentration.

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 Chapter :- 3
Present Status Including List of Industries

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 List of Industries

 Manufacturing Industries in India :-

Sr. No. Company Name Location

1. Mettle biosciences Andhra Pradesh
2. Niyati network Tripura
3. Solaris Chemtech Industries Pvt. Ltd. Maharashtra
4. Aakas Trading Co. Maharashtra
5. Acid India Tamilnadu
6. Vandana Chemicals Chennai
7. Deep Finechem Pvt. Ltd. Maharashtra
8. Ved Chemicals Madhya Pradesh
9. S.r Pharma Chem Hyderabad
10. Freelancer New Delhi

 Manufacturing Industries in Gujarat :-

Sr. No. Company Name Location

1. Visual Pharma Chem. Bharuch
2. Hari Krishna Enterprises Ankleshwar
3. Tata Chemical Ltd. Jamnagar
4. Tata Chemical Ltd. Mithapur
5. Jigs Chemical Ahmedabad

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 Chapter :- 4
Properties of Raw Material

Property of Raw Material (Cl2)

Name of Substance : Chlorine, Cl2

 Greenish colored gas

 Melting point :- 100oC

 Boiling point :- 35oC

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  Density :- 2.99 gram/liter

 Solubility in water :- Slight ( with reaction ). 0.63 gram

In 100 cm3 water ( at 25oC ).

 Solubility in other solvents :- Dissolves well in CCl41,

Heptane, benzene, etc.

 Flammability :- Non-Flammable

 Toxicity :- Very toxic. Causes skin irritation and burns.

Dangerous on inhaling and for eyes

Typical Reactions :-

 Strong oxidizing agent

 Substitution reaction with alkanes and addition reactions with alkenes.

 Reacts easily with most elements.

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 CHAPETER : 5
VARIOUS PROCESSES OF
MANUFACTURING

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 VARIOUS PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING
There are two types of manufacturing process of Bromine :

1. Bromine from sea water and brine

2. Bromine by steaming-out process

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 CHAPTER-6
MOST SUITABLE PROCESS
IN DETAIL(DESCRIPTION)

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 Most Suitable Process

2. By steaming out process

Raw material
Basis : 1000kg of bromine by steaming out process (95% yield)
Raw brine 1250kg
Chlorine 445kg

Reaction
2NaBr + Cl2  Br2 + 2NaCl

Manufacture Process
Generally the concentration of bromine in ocean water is relatively dilute. Air proved as the best
economical blowing out agent, treatment of rich bromine sources brine, steaming out the bromine
vapour is the more suitable processes.

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 Brine was first pre-heated in heat exchanger at 900’C then the hot brine was run into the chlorinator.
Partial chlorination of brine was carried out. Then sent to steaming out tower where brine was
contacted with steam and chlorine counter currently and waste gases was discharged form chlorinator.
Halogen containing vapour in steaming out tower was passed to the condenser. The vapour was
condensed and then enters into gravity separator where upper layer containing water, Cl2 and Br2
layer was returned to steaming out tower and partially recycled to chlorinator.

Flow sheet

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 The bottom layer containing bromine and chlorine was separated out, which was then run into the
column where residue separated from bottom and vapour condensed in condenser where chlorine was
recycled and bromine purification was carried out in fractionating column where a trace of chlorine
vapour was recycled.

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 Chapter :- 7
Major Equipment and Instrument required

Major Equipment For Process

Heat Exchanger :-

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Chlorinater :-

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Steaming-Out Tower :-

Condenser :-

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Gravity-Separator :-

Distilling-Column :-

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Bromine Fractionating Column :-

Neutralizer :-

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 Major Instrument for Process
1. Pump
2. Valves
3. Compressor

1. Pump :-

A pump is a device used to move fluids, such as liquids, gases or slurries. A pump displaces a volume by
physical or mechanical action.

 Pump is created pressure in any fluid.

 Pump mostly use to gravity to opposite direction traveled fluid.

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 2. Valve :-

 Valves also use to control the flow rate and changed the direction of the flow
 Gate valves

3. Compressors :-

 It is mostly used for the gases

 It is increases of pressure of air or gases.

 It is run as higher speed.

 There are flow rate high and low pressure required

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 Chapter :- 8
Material Balance of Bromine

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  MATERIAL BALANCE FOR SELECTED PROCESS

 Material balances are important first step when designing a new process or analyzing an existing
one. They are almost always prerequisite to all other calculations in the solution of process
engineering problems.

 Material balances are nothing more than the application of the law of conservation of mass,
which States that mass can neither be created nor destroyed. Thus, you cannot, for example,
specify an input to a reactor of one ton of naphtha and an output of two tons of gasoline or
gases or anything else. One ton of total material input will only give one ton of total output, i. e.
Total mass of input = total mass of output.

 A material balance is an accounting for material. Thus, material balances are often compared to
the balancing of current accounts. They are used in industry to calculate mass flow rates of
different streams entering or leaving chemical or physical processes.

Input + generation = output + accumulation

Basis :- 1000kg of bromine by steaming out process (95% yield)

Raw brine 1250kg

Chlorine 445kg

2NaBr + Cl2 --- Br2 + 2NaCl

2(23+80) + 2(35.5) --- 2(80) + 2(23+35)

Basis :- 1000kg of Br2 Produced.

Material Balance of Cl2

Br2 Cl2

160 kg 71 kg

1000 kg ?

= (1000 × 71) / (160)

= 443 kg

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 Material balance of NaBr

Br2 NaBr

160 kg 206 kg

1000 kg ?

= (1000 × 206) / (160)

= 1625kg

Material balance of NaCl

Br2 NaCl

160 kg 117 kg

1000 kg ?

= (1000 × 117) / (160)

= 731.25 kg

Assume that the yield is 95 %,

=(100 × 443) / (95) = 466 kg

(Mass / Volume) = Density

(466kg/ Volume) = 3102.8 kg/m3

Volume = (466 / 3102.8) m3

Volume = 0.150 m3

Volume = 150 lit.

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 Chapter :- 9
Utilities Required

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  UTILITIES REQUIRED

1. Steam :

 It possesses properties like those of gases namely pressure, volume, temperature, internal
energy, entropy.

 Steam as a vapour would not obey the laws of perfects gases unless it is in a highly dried
condition.

 It is used as the working substance in the operation of steam engines and steam turbines.

 Steam used for evaporation and heating.

 It can be obtained from the boiler.

2. Water :

 The plant therefore must be located where a dependable water supply is available namely lakes,
rivers, wells, seas.

 Water is use as a solvent in many industrial processes.

 If the water supply shows seasonal fluctuations, it’s desirable to construct a reservoir or to drill
several standby wells.

 It finds use in steam generation.

 Water is available on the earth in three states i.e. solid, liquid and gas.

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  Water is also use as a coolant in power plant.

3. Electricity :

 Power and steam requirement are high in most industrial plants fuel is ordinaring required to
supply these utilities.

 Power, fuel and steam are required for running the various equipment’s like generator, motor,
turbine, plant lighting and general use and thus be considered as one factor is choice of plant
site.

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 Chapter :- 10
Layout and Location of Plant

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 Layout and Plant Location

 Layout:-

plant layout refers to the arrangement of Physical facilities such as machinery,

equipment, furniture etc.

with in the factory building in such a manner so as to have quickest flow of material at
the lowest cost and with the least amount of handling in processing the product from
the receipt of material to the shipment of the finished product.

According to Riggs, “the overall objective of plant layout is to design a physical

arrangement that most economically meets the required output – quantity and quality.”

It facilitates the production process, minimizes material handling, time and cost,
and allows flexibility of operations, easy production flow, makes economic use of the
building, promotes effective utilization of manpower, and provides for employee’s
convenience, safety, comfort at work, maximum exposure to natural light and
ventilation. It is also important because.

It affects the flow of material and processes, labor efficiency, supervision and control,
use of space and expansion possibilities etc.

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41 | P a g e
  Location of Plant:-

 Selecting a region for setting up an enterprise is dependent on the following factors

 Availability of raw materials

The availability of good quality raw materials in required quantity at close hand is very
crucial for the success of a new enterprise. The region must have abundant supplies of
at least the chief raw material required by the firm.

Such a location helps to ensure continuity of production and reduces the transport
costs. Few raw materials such as minerals, perishable food, cotton etc. play a vital role
in influencing the location of the plant. For e.g, paper manufacturing plants require a
regular supply of a large quantity of pure water and are, therefore, generally located
near river banks.

 Supply of Labor

The availability of the required grade of labor i.e. skilled, semi-skilled or unskilled is an
important factor influencing the location of the industry. Besides, the cost and
productivity of labor, attitude of trade unions and the state of industrial relations in a
particular region are also important. This also explains concentration of certain
industries in certain states.

 Proximity to the Product Market

An industry should ideally be located close to the market for the product produced by
the firm. This on one hand reduces the cost of transporting the finished product to the
market. On the other hand it ensures maximization of profits by selling the goods at a
competitive price. Generally, in case of the industries having national and international
markets, plants are spread over wide geographical areas to have close proximity to all
markets. In case of regional demand, plants are located near to the immediate market.

 Availability of Transport Facilities

A factory requires transport facilities both for getting its raw materials as well as for
reaching its finished products to the market. Hence, location is to be chosen in such a
way that its total transport cost is the lowest. Of the two elements of transport cost,
which one will have a decisive influence on the decision of location will depend on the
characteristics of the raw materials and the nature of the manufacturing process.

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 If the factory requires bulky commodities like iron ore, limestone, etc., it should be
situated nearer to the source of these raw material. But, if the manufacturing process
is such that the raw materials loose a substantial part of its weight like in the case of
the chemical and pharmaceutical products, the factory should be located nearer to the
market. Therefore, a region which provides adequate transport facilities attracts
industrialists.

 Supply of Power

With increased mechanization, a location which ensures a regular and adequate supply
of power and fuel for the business has become an indispensable requirement.

 Climatic Factors

Certain types of industries require a particular type of climate. E.g. flour mills need a
dry climate while cotton mills require a humid climate. Natural factors are particularly
important in extractive industries like plantations, fishing, agriculture, etc. climate
influences even the capacity to work on the part of the workers. But, the technological
advancements like, artificial humidification and air conditioning have reduced the
importance of climate as a factor.

 Government Regulations and Policies

Central Government and the State Governments have made several policy
announcements from time to time in order to encourage development of industries.
Various incentive schemes have been provided to attract investment especially in
backward areas. All this has become an important factor while selecting a suitable
location.

 Law and Order

Every entrepreneur is concerned about law and order as well as the political stability of
the area around which he wants to set up his industry. It is only natural for every
entrepreneur to locate his unit in those areas which are not subject to riots and
political disturbances. No industrialist can ignore such national and strategic
considerations while selecting the location of the industry.

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  Existence of Complementary and Competitive industries

Such a location on one hand provides backward and forward linkages for the industries
and on the other hand it provides a competitive environment for them. It increases the
supply of the required raw materials and enhances the demand for the goods
produced. It improves the labour market by attracting both skilled and unskilled
manpower.

It also improves the banking, credit and communication facilities in the area. It brings
into existence various commercial services like warehousing, packing, forwarding,
grading, appraising, advertising, etc. which helps in the growth and expansion of all the
business firms in the particular area.

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 Chapter :- 11
Site Selection Parameters

45 | P a g e
  SITE SELECTION PARAMETER

1. Accessibility.

 The site should be easily accessible by automobile and walking distance of some potential users.
However, pedestrian access will always be secondary. Parking is a key element of automobile
accessibility.

2. Image/Visual Quality.

 The quality of the existing neighborhood surrounding the library needs to complement rather
than detract from the library. The library site should be located in an area with a strong positive
identity and image. Placing the library at the site should also be compatible land uses, both
existing and proposed.

3. Visibility.

 A prominent location is required to attract a large number of people to the library. A highly
visible site along a major street with easy accessibility is ideal. If the site involves other buildings,
the library should be able to be printed in the portion of the site with highest visibility.

4. Demographic Patterns.

 A library should be located where people can easily reach it and conduct other activities during
the same trip. This means a place where people naturally converge. The site should be where
the largest percentage of all people to be served will have access to the library frequently in the
library frequently in the normal pursuit of their activities.

5. Site Capacity.

 The site should be large enough to provide a sufficient or rectangular library “footprint” ; the
required parking for users, staff and volunteers; future expansion; and the necessary allowances

46 | P a g e
 for sellbacks, zoning forced on a plot of ground that is too small. For general planning purpose,
the size of the approximately four then the proposed library facility.

6. Neighborhood Compatibility.

 Will the library be a good neighbor? Is the neighborhood fully developed? If so, how will the
library there is development is the future, will it be compatible with the mission and goals of the
library?

7. Legal Matters.

 The existence or other restrictions can serve to minimize the buildable area of a site. A site
owned by several persons/entities can be difficult to acquire. Zoning restrictions can hamper
development, including parking and/or entrance/egress to and from the site.

8. Utilities Availability.

 To avoid extra costs, the presence of electrical, water, gas, sewer, and other service should be in
place now, or by the time construction is scheduled to start.

9. Physiography.

 The suitability of the soil, the topography of the site and orientation are considerations.
Orientation consideration include the avoidance of west sun on the books, or north entrances
offer little winter sunlight and exposure to the cold northern winds.

10. Water Supply.

 The process industries use large quantities of water for cooling, washing, stream generation, and
as a raw material in process.

If the water supply shows seasonal fluctuations, it may be desirable to construct a reservoir or to drill
several wells. The temperature, mineral content, silt or sand content, bacteriological content, and cost
for supply and purification must also be considered when choosing the water supply.

47 | P a g e
 Chapter :- 12
Economic Evaluation

48 | P a g e
Economic Evaluations

 Capital investment ;-

Before investment can be put in to operation a large sum of money must be supplied to
purchase and installed the necessary machinery and equipment.

Land and service necessary must be applied and the plant must be erected complete in all piping
control and service.

The capital needed to the supplied the necessary manufacturing and plant capacity is called the
fixed capital investment.

 Working capital investment :-

It include the money investment in;

1. Raw materials and supplied in stock.
2. Finish product in stock and semi finish product in process.
3. Accounts receivables.
4. Materials in process inventory.
5. Product inventory.
6. Minimum case reserves.
7. New raw materials purchase.

Usually working capital is about 10% to 20% 0f total investment and 50% during seasonal
product.

 Fixed capital investment :-

Two types of fixed capital cost ;
1. Manufacturing fixed capital cost.
2. Non manufacturing fixed capital cost.

1.Manufacturing fixed capital cost :-

It includes capital cost of equipment needed for installation of equipment and all auxiliaries required
for complete running operation.

Auxiliaries include piping instrument, insulation, foundation etc.

2.Non manufacturing fixed capital cost :-

49 | P a g e
 Fixed capital required for overhead construction which is not related to process, operation is called
nonmanufacturing fixed capital cost.

It includes expenses for land processing, building, lab, transportation charges, west disposal facility etc.

 Estimation of equipment cost by scaling method :-

The estimation scaling cost of pipes of equipment when no data cost are available for the
particular size of operation capacity involved results can be obtained by using the logarithmic
relationship know as the six-tenth factor rule.

The actual values of cost capacity factor vary from less than 0.2 to greater than 1.

Cost of equipment (A) = cost of equipment (B) [ capacity of A / capacity of B ]

 Depreciation :-

Depreciation is an unavoidable lose in value of plant equipment and material with laps in time.

 Types of depreciation :-

There are two types of depreciation ;

1, Physical depreciation.
2, Functional depreciation.

1.Physical Depreciation :-

It includes decreases in value due to change in physical assets of property etc. Due to physical
depreciation service ability of property is reduced.

2.Functional Depreciation :-

Without physical depreciation other is called functional depreciation. They are due to technology
advance and development which make the present property absolute.

Due to functional depreciation economic service ability is reduce.

 Various methods for determine depreciation :-

1, Arbitrary methods taking no interest on investment :-

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 a) Straight line method.
b) Decline balance and double decline balance method.
c) Sum of the year digits method.

a. Straight line method :-

It is assume that value decreases linearly with time.

D = ( V - Vs ) / n

Where,

d :- Annual depreciation

V :- Original value

Vs :- Salvage value

n :- Service life

Va = V – (a) × (d)

Where,

Va :- Book value

a :- No. Of actual year

d :- Annual depreciation

V :- Original value

b. Decline balance method :-

The annual depreciation cost in fixed percentage of the property value at the beginning of
particular year.

Va = V ( 1 – f ) a

Va = V ( 1 – f ) n = Vs

f = 1 – ( Vs / V ) n

51 | P a g e
 Where,
f = Fixed percentage fact

Double decline method :-

f = 2 ( Vs – V ) If Vs = 0 then f = 0.2

C. Sum of the year digits method :-

The sum of the year digits annual depreciation based on the number of service life year
remaining and sum of arithmetic service and number of 1 to n.

da = 2 (n – a + 1) / n ( n – 1 ) × ( V – Vs )

2, Method taking interest on investment :-

a Sinking fund methods.

b Present work method.

a) Sinking fund method :-

Depreciation allowance is to accumulate a sufficient fund to provide for the recovery of the
original capital investment of the properties.

R = ( V – Vs ) i / ( 1 + i ) n -1
Where,
i = Annual interest rate
R = Uniform payment made of each year

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 V – Va = R ( 1 + i ) – 1 / i
Asset value after ‘a' year,

Va = V – ( V – Vs ) ( 1 + i ) – 1 / ( 1 + i ) a - 1

 Utility :-
The cost for utilities such as steam, electricity, process and cooling water, compress air, natural
gas and fuel gas various widely depending on the total amount of consumption, plant location
and sources.

Approximation utility cost for ordinary cost amount to 10% to 20% of the total production cost.

 Maintenance and repair cost :-

This expense include for labour material and supervision. If services demands are light to 20%
for gaseous in which there are engineering demand.

The process industries the total plant cost maintenance repair is regularly equal to and average
of fixed capital cost.

 Economic analysis :-

Economic analysis in broad sense is the determination of the relationship of income and
expanses
To the material welfare of the company. In previous section the development of cost or expanse
data has been demonstrate. In its simplest from, the problem is now to establish what the
income from the sales will be, substrate the total product cost, and obtain a gross income.

There are wide verity of problems which will come up for economic analysis. Several typical
would be ;
Problem 1 : Sales price already established by competition and plant capacity set by the
marketing and sales group. Determine the profitability.
Problem 2 : Sales price already established by competition. Determine profitability as the
function of plant capacity.
Problem 3 : A new venture sales price to be established in terms of profitability.

 Net and gross earning :-

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 The term gross income for gross revaneual is used by a come use for refer to the total amount of
capital receiver as a result of the cell of goods or services.

Net income or net revenue is the total profit remaining after reducing all cost including taxes
because of income tex demand. The final net profit is often much less than when the gross
earning red income tax is based on gross earning residue from all the company interest.

 Profitability analysis :-

The most commonly used method for profitability analysis can be under handling rate of return
on investment or percentage return on investment.

Descanted case flow based on full life performance.

 Net percentage worth
 Net percentage cost
 Capelized cost
 Pay out period

 Performance return on investment :-

Rate of return on investment is ordinary expressed on an annual percentage basis. Early profit
divided by the total initial investment necessary represent the friction return and this friction
time’s 100 is standard percentage return on investment according to formula given by ;

Rb = P × 100 / I
Where,
Rb = Annual % return on investment before taxes
Ra = Annual % return on investment after taxes
P = Annual gross profit before taxes
E = Annual net after taxes
I = investment for fixed and total.

 Payout time period :-

In making economic study involving the purchase of new plant or equipment is found desirable
to estimate the payout period.

Payout time before taxes Nb is most commonly expenses using Wr. A fix investment if as follows;

54 | P a g e
 Nb = If / P

The effect of both taxes and investment can be included in a payout calculation by means of a
step wise investment. It is given by following equation;

Ni = ( log 2 ) × log ( 2 – i If ) / log x – log y

Where,
i = effective fraction rate of interest
f = fraction tax rate applicable to earning
D = Depreciation allowed for tax purchase
P = Annual profit of the plant before taxes and Interest

 Turnover ratio :-

Turn ratio is defined as the ratio of gross annual cells to the fixed capital investment.

Turnover ratio = Gross annual sells / Fixed capital investment

Where the product of annual production rate and average selling price of the commodity is the
gross annual sells.

Turnover ratio of up to 5 are common for some business established and some are as low as 0 –
2 for chemical industries as a very rough rule of thumb. The ratio can be approximated is 1.

55 | P a g e
  Breakeven point :-

A = Production schedule per break even condition

B = Production schedule per minimum cost

C = Production schedule per maximum profit per day

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Figure gives a graphical analysis of the effect on cost and profit when the rate of production various.

The point where the total product cost equal to the total income is known as Breakeven point.
Breakeven means no profit no loss.

General expenses + n ( Production cost per unit) = n ( selling cost per unit)

57 | P a g e
 Chapter :- 13
Important aspects of safety

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 Section 1: Hazards Identification

Potential Acute Health Effects:

Very hazardous in case of skin contact (corrosive). Hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant,permeator),
of eye contact (irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation. Liquid or spray mist may produce tissue damage
particularly on mucous membranes of eyes, mouth and respiratory tract. Skin contact may produce
burns. Inhalation of the spray mist may produce severe irritation of respiratory tract, characterized by
coughing, choking, or shortness of breath. Severe over-exposure can result in death.

Potential Chronic Health Effects:

CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS: Classified 4 (No evidence.) by NTP, None. by OSHA, None. by NIOSH.
MUTAGENIC

EFFECTS: Not available. TERATOGENIC EFFECTS: Not available. DEVELOPMENTAL TOXICITY: Not
available. The substance is toxic to mucous membranes. The substance may be toxic to kidneys, liver,
cardiovascular system, central nervous system (CNS), thyroid. Repeated or prolonged exposure to the
substance can produce target organs damage. Repeated or prolonged contact with spray mist may
produce chronic eye irritation and severe skin irritation. Repeated or prolonged exposure to spray mist
may produce respiratory tract irritation leading to frequent attacks of bronchial infection. Repeated
exposure to a highly toxic material may produce general deterioration of health by an accumulation in
one or many human organs.

Section 2: First Aid Measures

Eye Contact:

Check for and remove any contact lenses. In case of contact, immediately flush eyes with plenty of
water for at least 15 minutes. Cold water may be used. WARM water MUST be used. Get medical
attention immediately.

Skin Contact:

In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water. Cover the irritated skin with an
emollient. Remove contaminated clothing and shoes. Wash clothing before reuse. Thoroughly clean
shoes before reuse. Get medical attention.

Serious Skin Contact:

Wash with a disinfectant soap and cover the contaminated skin with an anti-bacterial cream. Seek
immediate medical attention.

Inhalation:

If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is difficult, give
oxygen. Get medical attention immediately.

Serious Inhalation:

59 | P a g e
Evacuate the victim to a safe area as soon as possible. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or
waistband. If breathing is difficult, administer oxygen. If the victim is not breathing, perform mouth-to-
mouth resuscitation.

WARNING: It maybe hazardous to the person providing aid to give mouth-to-mouth resuscitation when
the inhaled material is toxic, infectious or corrosive. Seek immediate medical attention.

Ingestion:

Do NOT induce vomiting unless directed to do so by medical personnel. Never give anything by mouth to
an unconscious person. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband. Get medical
attention if symptoms appear.

Serious Ingestion: Not available.

Section 3: Fire and Explosion Data

Flammability of the Product: Non-flammable.

Auto-Ignition Temperature: Not applicable.

Flash Points: Not applicable.

Flammable Limits: Not applicable.

Products of Combustion: Not available.

Fire Hazards in Presence of Various Substances: Flammable in presence of combustible materials of

reducing materials of organic materials of aluminum

Explosion Hazards in Presence of Various Substances:

Risks of explosion of the product in presence of mechanical impact: Not available.

Risks of explosion of the product in presence of static discharge: Not available.

Fire Fighting Media and Instructions: Not applicable.

Special Remarks on Fire Hazards:

Flammable in the form of liquid or vapor by spontaneous chemical reaction with reducing materials.
May cause fire in contact with wood, sawdust, cotton, straw, etc. F L A M M A B L E W I T H A N T I M O N
Y , B O R O N , C E S I U M A C E T Y L E N E C A R B I D E , CHLOROTRIFLUOROETHYLENE, COPPER
HYDRIDE, CUPROUS ACETYLIDE, FLUORINE, GERMANIUM, LITHIUM CARBIDE, MAGNESIUM PHOSPHIDE,
PHOSPHINE, PHOSPHORUS, PHOSPHORUS OXIDE, PHOSPHORUS TRIOXIDE, RUBIDIUM ACETYLENE
CARBIDE, RUBIDIUM CARBIDE, & SODIUM ACETYLENE CARBIDE, STRONTIUM PHOSPHIDE & ZIRCONIUM
DICARBIDE. IT COMBINES READILYWITH POTASSIUM, PHOSPHORUS & TIN, & REACTION MAY BE
ACCOMPANIED BY SPONTANEOUS IGNITION.

Special Remarks on Explosion Hazards:

60 | P a g e
REACTS EXPLOSIVELY WITH ACETYLENE, ACRYLONITRILE, AMMONIA, DIMETHYL FORMAMIDE, ETHYL
PHOSPHINE, HYDROGEN, ISOBUTYROPHENONE, NICKEL CARBONYL, NITROGEN TRIIODIDE, OZONE,
OXYGEN DIFLUORIDE, PHOSPHORUS, POTASSIUM, SILVER AZIDE, SODIUM, & SODIUM CARBIDE. Lithium
is stable in contact with dry bromine, but heavy impact will initiate explosion, while sodium in contact
with bromine needs only moderate impact for initiation. Potassium ignites in bromine vapor and
explodes violently in contact with liquid bromine and rubidium ignites in bromine vapor. During
preparation of praseodymium bromide, accidental contact of liquid bromine with small particles of
praseodymium led to a violent explosion.

Section 4: Accidental Release Measures

Small Spill: Absorb with an inert material and put the spilled material in an appropriate waste disposal.

Large Spill:

Corrosive liquid. Poisonous liquid. Stop leak if without risk. Absorb with DRY earth, sand or other non-
combustible material. Do not get water inside container. Do not touch spilled material. Use water spray
curtain to divert vapor drift. Use water spray to reduce vapors. Prevent entry into sewers, basements or
confined areas; dike if needed. Call for assistance on disposal. Be careful that the product is not present
at a concentration level above TLV. Check TLV on the MSDS and with local authorities.

Section 5: Handling and Storage

Precautions:

Keep locked up.. Keep container dry. Do not ingest. Do not breathe gas/fumes/ vapor/spray. Never add
water to this product. In case of insufficient ventilation, wear suitable respiratory equipment. If
ingested, seek medical advice immediately and show the container or the label. Avoid contact with skin
and eyes. Keep away from incompatibles such as reducing agents, combustible materials, organic
materials.

Storage: Keep container tightly closed. Keep container in a cool, well-ventilated area.

Section 6: Exposure Controls/Personal Protection

Engineering Controls:

Provide exhaust ventilation or other engineering controls to keep the airborne concentrations of vapors
below their respective threshold limit value. Ensure that eyewash stations and safety showers are
proximal to the work-station location.

Personal Protection:

Face shield. Full suit. Vapor respirator. Be sure to use an approved/certified respirator or equivalent.
Gloves. Boots.

61 | P a g e
Personal Protection in Case of a Large Spill:

Splash goggles. Full suit. Vapor respirator. Boots. Gloves. A self contained breathing apparatus should be
used to avoid inhalation of the product. Suggested protective clothing might not be sufficient; consult a
specialist BEFORE handling this product.

Section 7: Stability and Reactivity Data

Stability: The product is stable.

Instability Temperature: Not available.

Conditions of Instability: Incompatible materials

Incompatibility with various substances: Highly reactive with reducing agents, combustible materials,
organic materials.

Corrosivity:

Extremely corrosive in presence of aluminum, of zinc, of stainless steel(304), of stainless steel(316).

Highly corrosive in presence of copper. Non-corrosive in presence of glass.

Special Remarks on Reactivity:

Incompatible with organic compounds containing active hydrogen atoms adjacent to the carbonyl group
(aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids). They may react violently in unmoderated contact with bromine.
Also incompatible with diethyl zinc, potassium, germanium, rubidium, aluminum, mercury, titanium,
liquid halogen, silane, acetylene, acrylonitrile, ammonia, dimethyl formamide, ethyl phosphine,
hydrogen, isobutyrophenone, nickel carbonyl, nitrogen triiodide, ozone, oxygen difluoride,
phosphorous, potassiuml, silver azide, sodium , sodium carbide, alkali hydroxides, arsenites, ferrous,
mercurous salts, hypophosphites, and other oxidizable materials, saw dust, antimony, tin, boron, cesium
acetylene carbide, chlorotrifluoroethylene, copper hydride, cuprous, acetylide, fluorine,lithium carbide,
megnesium phosphide, phosphine, phosphorous oxide, phosphorus trioxide, rubidium acetylene
carbide, rubidium carbide, sodium acetylene carbide, strontium phosphide, zirconium dicarbide, wood,
cotton, straw. Bromine reacts violently in contact with natural rubber, but more slowly with some
synthetic rubbers. Aluminum, mercury, or titanium react violently with dry bromine.

Special Remarks on Corrosivity:

Corrodes iron, stainless steel and copper. Severe corrosive effect on bronze.

Polymerization: Will not occur.

62 | P a g e
 Chapter :- 14
Effluent Treatment Related
To Bromine

63 | P a g e
  Primary Treatment :-

 Primary treatment includes bar screen chamber, Coagulation equipment,

Flocculation equipment, Primary Clarifier and Neutralizing Agents
 It features assured levels of heavy metal removal
 Each of the systems built as per the specific requirements of the customers
 Each and every process is modified to perfectly suit local conditions thereby
ensuring hassle free operations
 Level of pretreatment adjusted to meet downstream equipment tolerances
 Special recovery systems for recovering Acids, Precious Metals and other
effluents

 Secondary Biological Treatment :-

 Biological Systems complete with diffuser based aeration systems

 These systems are made for High rate removal of COD/BOD thus offering
highest level of treatment possible
 Proven technology for removal of Ammonia from waste water that contain high
amount of ammonia especially from pharma effluent
 Very high COD removal for given electrical power consumption
 High ruggedness with many installation working in hostile environment

Treated effluents Ideally suited for feed to tertiary RO plants for recycling back to
process

64 | P a g e
 Chapter :- 15
Conclusion

65 | P a g e
 Conclusion

 Discussion and Conclusion In this experiment, the bromination of an alkene will be observed and
a mechanism to account for the occurrence distribution of the products will be determined. In
the first part of the experiment the 0.9 grams of E-stilbene will be put in a flack with 10ml of
dichloromethane and then stirred to affect dissolution of the E-stilbene, since dichloromethane
is a nonpolar solvent which can dissolve the nonpolar alkene.

 After the E-stilbene has been dissolved, 5ml of bromine in dichloromethane will be added, which
will be stirred for thirty minutes until the solution is white, to ensure that the reaction has gone
to completion. Bromine in Dichloromethane is used because Dichloromethane works as a good
solvent for bromination reactions, due to the fact that it doesn’t react with bromine or most
other organic molecules.

 The reddish color of bromine is discharged upon addition to an alkene as the bromine reacts,
making this reaction a useful qualitative test for unsaturation when the reaction has gone to
completion. The mixture will still be stirred for thirty minutes, regardless of the change in color;
since there is a production of an intermediate, the reaction goes by an SN2 mechanism and is
dictated by second order kinetics.

 The dissipation of color will only indicate that the bromine in solution has reacted and not
necessarily that the rest of the solution has gone to completion. While this solution is being
stirred, the molecules of the mixture are coming in contact and the bromination reaction is
occurring. The electrons of the polarizable pi bond in the alkene E-stilbene acts as a nucleophile.

66 | P a g e
 Chapter :- 16
Refrance

67 | P a g e
 Refrance

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
 https://nptel.ac.in
 www.chemwiki.ucdavis.edu

1 Wikipedia

2 Dryden's Outlines of Chemical Technology

3 Sherive Book

4 Perrys Book

5 Chemical Reaction engg. K A gavane

6 Chemical process Industries by shreve

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