ELEC9712

ELEC9712
High Voltage Systems
ELECTRICAL INSULATION MATERIALS
¾ Power system function: to generate, transport and distribute

electrical energy over large geographical areas in an
economical and reliable manner.
¾ Power transmission is best accomplished at high voltage
(to reduce losses). Thus HV equipment is the backbone of
modern power systems. For such equipment, electrical
insulation of the HV conductors is critically important.
¾ For proper design, we need to know physical and chemical
phenomena which determine dielectric properties of the
insulation materials.
¾ Need to know processes which lead to degradation and
failure of such materials. Also, what appropriate diagnostic
techniques are available to assess the state of the materials?
¾ This lecture reviews the various insulants utilized in the
power system and describes the types of measurements
available for assessment of the basic materials and how
particular techniques are applied in the power industry.
¾ It must be emphasized that much of the value of diagnostic
testing would be lost unless several different techniques are
employed and, also, the measurements are carried out as
part of long-term routine maintenance programs.
ELEC712: Electrical Insulation Materials and HV Testing page 1/64

1. Electric stress and temperature effects
¾ High voltage → high electric stress → cause insulation
failure → short circuit.
¾ High temperature → gradual insulation deterioration or
thermal breakdown.
¾ Note also other effects, e.g. mechanical stress,
environmental → multi-factor ageing
1.1 Electric field stress

The electric field intensity E at any location in an
electrostatic field is related to the force F experienced by a
charge q as F=qE. Moreover, the electric flux density D
associated with E is given as D=εE. If the medium is free of
any space charge, the electric field is obtained from the
solution of the Laplace equation:
∇ 2φ = 0
where φ is the potential which is related to E and path l
through which the charge is moved by:
φ = − ∫ E.d l
The electric field in the insulation material must be known
under all possible conditions of operation, so that the
insulation can be designed and chosen to have a dielectric
strength greater than the applied field levels. This design
must be such that this is the case under normal operating
electric field stress and also under high-voltage transient
(impulse voltage) conditions.

In simple configurations such as cables and overhead lines,
the electric field can be calculated easily. However, in more
complicated field geometries such as those in bushings and
transformers, the electric fields have to be computed using
computer software which performs finite element analysis
solutions of the Laplace equation.
Operating Design stress Insulation

Equipment stress (kVpeak/cm) complexity
(kVrms/cm) (relative)
Generators 25 130 1.0
Transformers 15 115 0.9
SF6 equipment 40 180 0.3
Capacitors 600-1000 2000-3000 0.2
Dielectric design parameters of typical HV power equipment.
1.2 Temperature consideration

The conductor is at high temperature due to Ohmic heating.
Thus, the insulation temperature is primarily determined by
the temperature of the conductor that is in contact with the
insulation.
Furthermore, at HV there can be other contributions to

heating from the electric field in the insulation which will
cause dielectric losses:
(1) Ohmic heating:

This is due to conduction current through the insulation.
The insulation material is not ideal and hence its
resistance is not infinite.

(2) Polarization:
Most electrons in insulating materials are bound and not
free to move. Under influence of applied electric field,
resulting electrostatic forces cause polarization and form
dipoles. It is this electronic polarization which results in
ε r > 1 for most dielectrics.
In some crystalline dielectrics, relative displacement
occurs between positive and negative ions, producing
polarization.
In some organic substances including many polymers,
permanent molecular dipoles are reoriented in electric
field.
Interfacial polarization can occur in heterogeneous
materials whereby mobile conduction charges are held
up at some boundary within the dielectric, e.g. in
electrolytic capacitors.
(3) Partial discharges:
Electrical partial discharges can occur locally, e.g. voids
within the solid insulation structure. Such breakdowns
can also generate heat.
All the above-mentioned dielectric losses are lumped together

as the dielectric dissipation factor (DDF or tanδ). These
losses increase the temperature of the dielectric and are
themselves temperature dependent. In regions in which the
dielectric losses increase steeply with temperature, there is a
danger of overheating, and this will eventually leads to
thermal breakdown.
2. Examples
2.1 High-voltage cables
(i) Electric field
r=b
r=a
V V
E (r ) =
r.ln ( b / a ) r
Emax = E ( a )
Emin = E ( b )
E(a)
E(b) r
a b
i.e. highest stress occurs at surface of inner conductor. In
HV cables, this is taken as the operating stress, which is
the determining factor in the design. Usually, choose
Emax to be about 30-40% of insulation dielectric strength.
Typically, design electric field levels in HV cables are
about 10-15kV/mm (peak) for 50Hz polymeric insulated
cables (XLPE breakdown strength is about 40kV/mm).
(ii) Heating effects

1. Ohmic heating in the conductor
2. Eddy currents in outer sheath and armour
3. Dielectric losses in the insulation

2.2 Overhead lines
(i) Electric field
V
V ⎡1 1 ⎤
E ( x) = + VN VN
2ln ( d / r ) ⎣⎢ x d − x ⎦⎥
For d r E
E(x)
V
E ( x) =
2 x.ln ( d / r )
V
Emax = V/m x=d
2r.ln ( d / r )
x=0 x=r
x=d-r
x=d/2
The major problem is the generation of corona discharge

which can occur when the electric field at the bare
conductor surface is high enough to cause some local
ionization (discharge) of the air in the vicinity of the
conductor. Corona discharge will start at an electric field

level of about E 3kV/mm in air at normal levels of
temperature, humidity and pressure.
There are no permanent effects of breakdown in air
insulation. Recombination of ions and electrons occurs to
re-generate air molecules. There is no chemical change,
apart from a small ozone generation and thus there is no
permanent insulation damage. It is infinitely renewable
in open-air insulated installations.
Although corona is not a major problem (does not stop
operation of transmission system), it represents a power
loss and also produces significant electromagnetic
interference problems and so must be avoided in normal
operation.
(ii) Heating effects

The DDF of air is negligible and so heating is not a
problem. The only factors to be considered in the design
are ambient conditions. Rain or high moisture levels in
air will cause a reduction of dielectric strength, as will a
decrease in the air density, such as occurs in elevated or
mountainous areas.
Similarly, increase in temperature can cause reduction in
air density and thus also reduce dielectric strength. This
is particularly important when bushfires are burning
under HV lines. Fires can also inject conducting particles
(soot) which changes electric field distribution and result
in reduction of breakdown voltage of line to ground.

3. Electrical properties of dielectrics
The four electrical properties of practical importance are
resistivity, dielectric constant, dielectric dissipation factor,
and dielectric strength.
3.1 Resistivity
The volume resistivity ρ :
Insulators: 1019 to 106 Ω.cm
Semiconductors: 106 to 10-3 Ω.cm
Conductors: 10-3 to 10-6 Ω.cm
ρ varies with temperature T:

ρ ( T ) = ρ o e −α T
The decrease may be by a factor of 10 for about 100oC rise.
There is also a dependence on the electric stress E but it is
fairly weak.
3.2 Dielectric permittivity

Dielectric permittivity, also called relative permittivity or
dielectric constant, ε r , is defined as:
ε r = C / Co
where C is capacitance between two parallel plates having
space between them filled with the particular insulating
material, and Co is capacitance for same parallel plates when
these are separated by vacuum.

Generally, ε r is not a constant but varies with temperature,
frequency and molecular structure of insulating material.
3.3 Dielectric dissipation factor

The insulation is taken as a lossy capacitor and modeled as as
parallel RC network. Here R represents all dielectric losses.
I
IC I
IC IR
V R
C δ
φ IR V
δ is called the loss angle. Typically, it is very small and if so,

the (open-circuit) power factor of the dielectric is:
cos φ ≈ tan δ ≈ δ
tanδ or simply δ is the commonly-used factor to describe the
quality of the insulation. The correct terminology is the
dielectric dissipation factor (DDF) or loss tangent. The unit
is radian but typical level of a good insulation material is a
few milli-radians.
Note that in the above phasor diagram, I R ≠ V Rinsulation . The

insulation resistance is very high. The resistance used to
model the dielectric losses is only a notational, not a real
resistance.
I C = ωCV
I R = I C tan δ = ωCV tan δ
Power loss = VI R = ωCV 2 tan δ watts
Also: I = I R + jI C = ωCV tan δ + jωCV
= jωCoV ( ε r − jε r tan δ ) = jωCoV ε r
where ε r is the complex relative permittivity.
3.4 Dielectric strength (breakdown strength)

Defined as maximum value of applied electric field at which
a dielectric material, stressed in a homogeneous field
electrode system, breaks down. It is given as V/m.
In many practical applications, the breakdown strength under
inhomogeneous field conditions needs to be defined and is
sometimes referred to as the non-uniform field dielectric
strength.
Dielectric strength of insulation is dependent on frequency of
applied electric field. In general, high frequencies reduce
dielectric strength. This is important when considering effects
of very fast transient impulse voltages often present in power
systems. These voltages contain frequencies up to 100kHz or
higher. Note that dielectric strength to DC is usually greater
than that for AC voltage stress.

4. Insulating materials
Hundreds of insulating materials are used in electrical power
industries. These can be broadly classified into different
categories: gases, liquids, solids, vacuum and composites.
εr
o
kV/mm C W/(moC) kg/m3
Dry air 3 1 2000 0.024 1.29
Hydrogen 2.7 1 - 0.17 0.09
Nitrogen 3.5 1 - 0.024 1.25
Oxygen 3 1 - 0.025 1.43
Sulphur hexafluoride SF6 30 1 - 0.014 6.6
400kPa
Helium 1.5 1 - - -
Solid asbestos 1 - 1600 0.4 2000
Asbestos wool 1 - 1600 0.1 400
Askarel 12 4.5 120 - 1560
Epoxy 20 3.3 130 0.3 ~1800
Glass 100 5-7 600 1.0 2500
Magnesium oxide 3 4 1400 2.4 -
Mica 40-240 7 500-1000 0.36 2800
Mineral oil 10 2.2 110 0.16 860
Mylar 400 3 150 - 1380
Nylon 16 4.1 150 0.3 1140
Paper (treated) 14 4-7 120 0.17 1100
Polyamide 40 3.7 100-180 0.3 1100
Polycarbonate 25 3.0 130 0.2 1200
Polyethylene 40 2.3 90 0.4 930
Polyimide 200 3.8 180 0.3 1100
Polyurethane 35 3.6 90 0.35 1210
Polyvinylchloride (PVC) 50 3.7 70 0.18 1390
Porcelain 4 6 1300 1.0 2400
Rubber 12 – 20 4 65 0.14 950
Silicon 10 - 250 0.3 ~2300
Teflon 20 2 260 0.24 2200
Material properties - breakdown strength, relative permittivity, thermal
stability limit, thermal conductivity, and density.

4.1 Gases
In normal states, most gases are good insulators. Overhead

lines and some circuit breakers use air insulation. In addition
to air, a few gases are used as insulants. These include
sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), nitrogen (N2) for applications in
equipment such as switchgear, cables and transformers and
hydrogen (H2) in large turbo-generators.
Atmospheric air is the most abundant dielectric material

which has played a vital role in providing a basic insulating
function in almost all electrical components and equipment.
The electrical properties of air are well documented. As with
all materials, the electric strength of air is relatively stronger
for smaller spacings and is also a function of pressure. This
relationship is referred as the Paschen’s law. In some cases
the predictable breakdown strength and self restoring
property of air are used in protective devices, e.g., rod gaps
and gap type surge arresters. At very high voltages, and
therefore long gaps, it is found that switching surges (e.g.
200/2000μs) will cause flashovers at relatively low values if
the more highly stressed electrode is at positive potential.
This factor is of importance in the design of transmission
lines and substations having system voltages of the order of
500kV and above.
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas is non-toxic and non-

flammable. It has a relatively high dielectric strength
compared to other gaseous dielectrics. It possesses excellent
cooling capability and arc-quenching property. As such, SF6
has been one of the key gaseous insulants widely used in HV
power equipment such as switchgear, transformers and cables
for many years. The use of SF6 eliminates the problem of fire
hazards (associated with oil insulation) and also resulted in
considerable reduction in weight and size of the equipment.
There are some drawbacks associated with the use of SF6. It

is one of the most potent man-made greenhouse gases, about
25 thousand times worse than CO2 gas in terms of global
warming potential. It has a very long lifetime in the
atmosphere, estimated to be a thousand years or longer.
Nearly all the SF6 which has been released to date is still in
the atmosphere. Another concern is the decomposition of SF6
under electrical discharges as the decomposition process will
result in the formation of lower fluorides of sulphur which
are toxic and corrosive.
Consequently, much recent research interest has been on the

possible use of SF6/N2 gas mixtures as the alternative, in
particular mixtures of low concentration SF6 (<30% of SF6 by
volume in the mixture). Small amounts of electron attaching
gases such as SF6 in N2 can substantially increase the
dielectric strength of the mixture. Although SF6/N2 gas
mixtures do not have the full desirable properties of pure SF6,
it can be used to substantially reduce the amount of SF6 used
in the power industry.
Both air and SF6 exhibit high electric breakdown gradients at

small spacings and in near uniform fields. Nitrogen gas is
used at pressures up to 1.0 MPa in standard capacitors and in
some forms of cable: for large power transfers the use of SF6
may become economic. SF6 is widely used in many forms of
switchgear and busbar configurations - giving a great
reduction in volume compared with conventional systems.
Hydrogen exhibits a breakdown strength of about half that of
air at the same pressure. Little published data is available on
the freon gases but they have been used successfully for the
insulation of distribution transformers.
4.2 Vacuum
Has excellent insulating and arc quenching properties. True

vacuum is very difficult to achieve and vacuum insulated
equipment may have residual gas pressure of ~10-9 to 10-12
bar. In such equipment, material, shape and surface finish of
electrodes, residual gas pressure and contaminating particles
are important factors. Examples are medium voltage switches
and circuit breakers.
Note: 1atm = 1013mbar ; 1bar = 100kPa ; 1torr=133.32Pa
4.3 Liquids
Insulating liquids are used in electrical equipment such as

transformers, switchgear, cables, bushings, capacitors, mainly
as insulants but also in some cases (transformers, cables) as
cooling media. In certain cases, these liquids act as arc
extinguishers (switchgear) and even as lubricants where
moving parts are present (switchgear, tap changer).
Different types of equipment require dielectric fluids with

special properties. Transformers and most other types of
electrical equipment need liquids with high dielectric

strength, impulse strength and resistivity but low dielectric
dissipation factor. It must also possess high specific heat and
thermal conductivity along with low viscosity and pour point
in order to keep equipment cool. Good thermal and chemical
stability and gas absorption properties are also desired.
Capacitors also require dielectric fluids with high discharge

resistance and switchgear needs fluids with arc quenching
properties.
Other desirable properties are high flash points, if possible

liquids should be non-flammable and for ease of handling and
for ecological purposes they should be non-toxic.
It is also important to determine not only whether the fluid

possesses good electrical properties but also whether these
properties can be maintained during the life of the equipment
with or without processing or small additions to the liquid of
other materials (eg. oxidation inhibitors, passivators, acid
scavengers) to help the dielectric fluid to maintain its original
electrical properties.
Examples of liquid insulants include petroleum (mineral)

oils, esters, chlorinated liquids, silicones, synthetic
hydrocarbons, fluorinated hydrocarbons, liquefied gases,
electronegative fluids.
Petroleum oil is the most widely used. It is classified

according to proportion of 3 types of naturally occurring
chemical structures originating from crude oil used in their
manufacture: paraffinic oil, naphthenic oil and aromatic oil.
Synthetic oils were introduced for use in distribution
transformers many years ago in order to overcome the fire
hazard associated with hydrocarbons. The particular oil,
askarel (predominantly polychlorinated biphenyl - PCB) is
now unacceptable in the majority of cases because of health
reasons. An advantage of PCB oils is that they have a high
permittivity which is of value in power capacitor
applications. Alternatives have now been developed and are
replacing PCB as practicable: one difficulty is the disposal of
the existing PCB oils. Replacement oils include silicone
liquid, the price of which is now more acceptable. Other
liquids have been developed and are being used in mixed and
all-film capacitors. A well established synthetic oil is
dodecylbenzene (DDB) developed for use in high voltage
cables. It is claimed that the liquid has better ageing and gas
absorption characteristics than natural oils.
If low temperature cables prove to be commercially viable, it

appears that liquid nitrogen and/or helium will be considered
as impregnants for lapped plastic dielectrics. The technology
exists if such an application becomes economically viable.
4.4 Solids
The use of a "solid" material is essential in any system or

equipment as parts at different potentials must be held apart
physically. This is achieved by providing puncture strength
through the insulating material and a surface of sufficient
length around the external surfaces. The relative values of
thickness and creep will depend on the material, the ambient
medium and the electric field (magnitude and distribution).
The necessary existence of creep surfaces requires much
careful design of terminations and support structures. The
correct choice of materials is essential, especially where no
electric stress control is possible or economic and
environmental conditions are poor. In some cases the
insulation system is designed to flashover before puncture of
the solid, as for the components in an overhead transmission
line where air is the ambient medium.
Synthetic polymers
Organic Inorganic Thermoplastic Thermosetting

amber ceramics perspex epoxy resins
paper glass polyethylene phenolics
pressboard mica polypropylene melamine
rubber fiber glass polystyrene urea formaldehyde
wood enamel polyvinyl chloride crosslinked polyethylene
resins polyamid elastomers
polycarbonate
Classification of some commercial solid dielectrics.
Ideal solid dielectric must have some of properties mentioned

above for gases and liquids. In addition, it should have good
mechanical and bonding properties.
Solid dielectrics have high breakdown strength as compared

to liquids and gases. The most common classification method
is by chemical composition, such as organic, inorganic and
synthetic polymers. From application’s point of view, they
can be classified as: (1) thermoplastic compounds, (2)

thermosetting compounds and (3) embedding and jacketing
compounds.
Organic materials are derived from either vegetable or animal

matter. They deteriorate rapidly if operating temperature
exceeds 100oC. They are mostly employed after treatment
with varnishes or impregnation in oil, e.g. paper and
pressboard.
Inorganic solids are difficult to fabricate but they are good

dielectrics and can operate at higher temperature. The most
important inorganic materials are ceramic and glasses which
are used to manufacture insulators, bushings and other HV
components.
Synthetic polymers are divided into 2 groups: thermoplastic

and thermosetting. Thermoplastic polymers have low melting
temperatures (100-120oC). Thermosetting polymers are moldable
when first heated, but after they cool, they will no longer soften
when heated. The most prominent materials are thermosetting
epoxy resins or thermoplastic materials such as poly-
vinylchloride (PVC), polyethylene (PE) or cross linked
polyethylene (XLPE). Thermoplastic materials are mainly
used for manufacture of extruded dielectric power cables.
4.4.1 Wood
Wood is one of the oldest insulations used by electrical

engineers and despite limitations in the natural form it is still
widely utilized. Outstanding application is in transmission

lines where its relative cheapness and insulating properties
are attractive - particularly in areas with high lightning levels.
4.4.2 Glass
Glass is a thermoplastic inorganic material comprising a

complex system of oxides (SiO2). Glass is defined as a liquid
that has cooled to a rigid solid without crystallization.
Most common application is in the form of fiber glass, which

is used (1) in bandaging core packets of transformers, (2) as
resin-impregnated fiberglass cores for composite insulators,
(3) as resin-impregnated fiberglass mats and insulating plates,
and (4) as fiberglass reinforced plastics in the form of tapes in
electrical machines. Glass in the form of paper is also used
which is composed of glass microfibers.
Outstanding feature is thermal stability up to 538oC. Other

attributes include high thermal conductivity, low moisture
absorption and good chemical resistance.
4.4.3 Ceramics
Ceramics are inorganic materials produced by consolidating

minerals into monolithic bodies by high-temperature heat
treatment. Most common are porcelain (4K2O-Al2O3-3SiO2)
and alumina (Al2O3).
For many years porcelain, and to a lesser degree glass, had no

competitor as an insulation for overhead transmission lines.
It weathers well, even under moderate pollution, has good
flashover characteristics and methods have been developed to
meet the stringent mechanical requirements Also, radio
interference from the insulators has been reduced to an
acceptable level.
The design concepts are such that rain alone will not cause
breakdown. The interaction of electric field, leakage current
and environment is very complex and many investigations
have been carried out including tests for UHV applications.
Although having a relatively low puncture strength, porcelain

is used very extensively in bushings, current transformers,
stand-off insulators and similar components. In most of these
applications the resistance of the material to atmospheric
conditions and possible flashover without catastrophic failure
are the insulating properties being invoked.
4.4.4 Paper, boards and laminates
Paper and boards are produced from a variety of materials,

including wood, cotton, organic fiber, glass, ceramics and
mica. Paper is generally <0.8mm thick whereas boards are
thicker. Boards are also referred to as pressboard, transformer
board or fuller board. For >6mm, boards are laminated with
adhesive.
The paper used for insulation purposes is a special variety

known as Kraft paper. Paper is hygroscopic (attract moisture)
and thus it has to be dried and impregnated with oil.

The laminates include the paper and cloth based resin glued
boards, special plywoods either fully or partially impregnated
with resin, layered pressboard for oil impregnation and the
high quality materials of glass fibre lays impregnated with
silicone, epoxy, polyester and other resins.
For external use, and in some dry type equipment, the choice
of material will often depend on its tracking properties and
resistance to deterioration due to moisture and dirt. For
internal applications where good mechanical strength or
support is required in high electric fields, the presence of
voids between layers of the laminate can result in partial
discharges; also the losses in the resins can produce excessive
local dielectric heating and any impurities in layers parallel to
the field may give a low breakdown strength.
Production of high quality boards (and tubes) to meet most

requirements is possible but it is essential that the material
selected should have properties matched to the electrical test
and operating conditions. Meeting mechanical and thermal
specifications without detailed consideration of the electrical
conditions is often insufficient - especially in the long term.
4.4.5 Cast epoxy resins
The use of casting resins in power engineering is extensive:

manufacturers now offer a wide range of components in
which designs incorporating traditional materials have been
modified to exploit the advantages of cast epoxy resins.

Apart from thermal difficulties due to the differences in
expansion coefficients between the resin and conductors, a
major development problem was the elimination of partial
discharges in voids as it was found that the resins were
susceptible to PDs of low value. Initially this knowledge was
not available in some production units where items such as
current transformers were cast satisfactorily but contained
voids which discharged in service with subsequent failure.
Such events are now rare following improved production
techniques, introduction of routine PD testing and much
service experience, although continuous quality control is
still essential.
One major restriction was the limitation of cast resins for use
only indoors. After much R&D effort, the cycloaliphatic
epoxy resins (better UV resistant) with appropriate fillers
were introduced for outdoor applications. A number of
current transformers have been in service for many years and
long term tests have been carried out on line insulators
including one piece units for operation at very high voltages.
Such insulators with fibre glass reinforcement have been in
operation for about the same period.
4.4.6 Mica-based resin systems
Mica-based resin systems in formed or tape configurations

are widely used in high voltage rotating machines - both
motors and generators. The techniques are very specialised
but are of considerable interest in power station operations.
4.4.7 Polyethylene (including XLPE)

The use of polyethylene as an insulating material is attractive
as it has a low loss and high electric strength. Unfortunately
its thermal stability was unacceptable at the temperatures
required in power engineering until crosslinked polyethylene
(XLPE) became available. The material can be extruded and
was found suitable for cable manufacture once a number of
problems were solved. These included developments of
methods for curing and cooling long lengths, at the same time
eliminating voids in which PDs might develop: XLPE is also
very susceptible to discharges. Lapped polyethylene tape in
conjunction with SF6 has been proposed for high voltage high
power cables.
4.4.8 Elastomers
From the range of natural and synthetic "rubbers" which may

be classed as elastomers probably only two have the
properties suitable for electrical insulation; butyl and
ethylene-propylene (EPR). The latter has been well
developed for HV applications and is used, in extruded form,
for some 33kV cables. It has good environmental resistance
and one type is applied as sheds in combination with a fibre
glass rod to form a lightweight line insulator.
4.4.9 Heat-shrinkable materials
An important development was the introduction of heat

shrinkable polymeric materials. This led to changes in the
techniques adopted for 11kV cable terminations at switchgear
and similar locations. Much testing has been completed in the
laboratory and at outdoor test sites. Assessment included the
determination of the behaviour of the shrunken material when
subjected to thermal cycling, as in a cable. Air gaps must not
appear between the sleeve and the cable insulation (plastic or
oil impregnated) as this could result in partial discharges with
subsequent failure
4.5 Composites
More than one class of insulating materials used together.

Examples of solid/gas or solid/vacuum composites are in
transmission line and gas insulated switchgear (GIS). Here,
the interface is the weak link and has to be carefully
designed. It is important to ensure both components of the
composite should be chemically stable and not react with
each other and should have nearly equal dielectric constants.
At the higher voltages, it seems that liquid impregnated

insulation systems (solid/liquid composites) will continue to
retain their superiority in EHV cable, bushing, and
transformer technology, and in power capacitors. Despite its
apparent disadvantages, oil impregnated paper (O.I.P) has
proved a reliable and economic insulant in many applications.
The achievement of the efficient utilisation of natural
materials has resulted from R & D effort over many years: in
particular, the establishment of conditions necessary to
withstand high electric stresses for the expected life times of
20 to 30 years. Of special interest to the design and operating
engineers are: (i) moisture content, (ii) gas content of the
impregnant, (iii) losses at operating stresses (V 2ωC tan δ ) ,

(iv) the partial discharge inception stress and (v) the location
of any PDs.
The losses may be related to (i) as well as to the quality of the

material: a low loss paper for cable manufacture is used. It is
essential that low moisture contents are maintained in the
practical systems if thermal runaway (and PDs) is to be
avoided. This is particularly important with cables where the
conductor losses all pass through the O.I.P. and add to the
dielectric losses. In HV cables, arrangements are made to seal
the system against the atmosphere whilst in transformers the
situation is less critical, the stresses being lower and the
insulation structure not so compact. The latter fact also means
that gas absorbent oils are not usually required in
transformers. However, in cables and power capacitors the
existence of a gas bubble can be very significant as it may
lead to PDs which are confined, eventually leading to
deterioration of the tape or sheet material.
The drying and impregnation conditions necessary to avoid

failure are well established and form part of the production
"know how". Vacuum ovens capable of pressures down to
0.01 torr and temperatures of 100 – 130oC are common. The
processing times of 2 - 3 weeks for a large transformer may
be shortened by installation of vapour phase heating
equipment. This involves the use of, for example, a low
boiling point (50oC at 50 torr) kerosene for heat transfer in
the early stages of dry out.
Extensive developments in power capacitor insulation

systems included the introduction of polypropylene film in
conjunction with the more traditional paper, the latter acting
as an impregnating interface. However, for a number of years
all-film capacitors, in which a "hazy" polypropylene film is
used to enable impregnation to take place, have been in
service. Capacitor insulation is very susceptible to impurities
because of the thicknesses of only tens of micrometers(μm)
and the very high stresses (tens of V/μm) used. The dielectric
losses in the new designs are very low and no longer a
thermal limitation in design, giving DDF values of 0.05% or
less.

5. Insulation deterioration from high T
The great majority of electrical insulation is organic in its
chemical nature and is subjected to chemical change which is
caused by the chemical reactions which are continually
occurring.
These chemical reactions cause gradual deterioration and
reduce the effectiveness of the insulation. The reaction rate is
very sensitive to temperature, i.e. exponentially dependent on
temperature (following Arrhenius’ law).
Thus, the operating temperature of insulation is of primary
importance in determining effective lifetime of insulation and
of equipment. A higher operating temperature will result in a
shorter effective life.
A
Lifetime: L = B×e T
where A and B are constants which depend on the insulation

class and T is the absolute temperature.
A
Hence: log e L = + log e B
T
Plot of logeL against 1/T is straight line and slope is generally

such that an increase of 100K causes a 50% reduction in L.
Consequently, it is necessary to specify very precisely the
operating temperature of electrical equipment.

In most cases, it is the conductor temperature where it is
contact with the insulation that determines the insulation
operating temperature.
Class Examples
105oC Materials or combinations of materials such as cotton, silk, and
A paper when suitably impregnated or coated or when immersed in a
dielectric liquid such as oil.
o
130 C Materials or combinations of materials such as mica, glass fibre,
B asbestos, etc with suitable bonding substances.
o
155 C Materials or combinations of materials such as mica, glass fibre,
F asbestos, etc with suitable bonding substances.
o
180 C Materials or combinations of materials such as silicone elastomer,
H mica, glass fibre, asbestos, etc with suitable bonding such as
silicone resins.
o
200 C Materials or combinations of materials which by experience or
N accepted tests can be shown to have required thermal life at
200oC.
220oC Materials or combinations of materials which by experience or
R accepted tests can be shown to have required thermal life at
220oC.
240oC Materials or combinations of materials which by experience or
S accepted tests can be shown to have required thermal life at
240oC.
> 240oC Materials consisting entirely of mica, porcelain, glass, quartz, and
C similar inorganic materials. Other materials or combination of
materials may be included if can be shown to have required
thermal life at above 240oC.
Classes of insulation systems.
Above classes indicate normal life expectancy of 20,000 to

40,000 hours at stated temperature (approx. 2-5 years).

6. Applications of insulating materials
6.1 Transformers
HV power transformers use enameled conductors, paper,
glass or thermoplastic insulating tape, pressboard, glass
fabric, porcelain and mineral or silicone oil. Windings are
insulated by tape, held in place over iron core by pieces of
pressboard, glass fabric or porcelain, and impregnated with
an insulating liquid which also acts as cooling medium. Small
power transformers and also instrument transformers (VT,
CT) use thermosetting resins, insulating tapes, SF6 gas, etc.
6.2 Circuit breakers

HV breakers use SF6 gas, air, vacuum or mineral oil as the
main insulation and arc quenching medium. Ceramic or
epoxy resin parts are used for mechanical support, bus bar
insulation and arc chamber segments. In low-voltage
breakers, synthetic resin moldings are used to carry the
metallic parts.
6.3 Power cables

Use paper or plastic tape, thermoplastic materials (such as
PE, XLPE or PVC), silicon rubber, EPR, thermosetting
resins, SF6 gas and mineral oil. In oil-filled cables, conductor
is insulated by lapped paper tape and impregnated with
mineral oil. In polymeric insulated cables, conductor and
insulating materials are extruded jointly and then insulation is
cured and crosslinked. In gas-insulated cables, inner
conductor is held concentrically in a metallic tube by
insulating spacers made of thermosetting resins and tube is
filled with pressurized SF6. Low-voltage cables employ PVC,
PE or XLPE insulations without the outer screen.
6.4 Bushings
Made of porcelain, glass, thermosetting cast resin, air, SF6
gas, paper tape and oil. Typically, feed-through conductor is
insulated by paper tape and oil and is housed in a porcelain
tube that enters the HV equipment enclosure. Usually,
condenser-graded bushing types are used for rated voltages
>50kV and non-condenser bushings for lower voltages. The
paper tape is typically resin bonded paper, oil impregnated
paper or resin impregnated paper.
6.5 Overhead lines

Use porcelain, glass, thermosetting resin and air. Conductors
are suspended via insulator chains from towers. Insulators are
made out of porcelain or hard glass, or recently of fibre glass
and cast resins. Room-temperature vulcanized rubber (RTV)
is also used for coating the ceramic insulators as protection
against polluted environment.
6.6 Gas insulated switchgear (or GIS)

Use SF6 gas, thermosetting resins and porcelain. Different
components such as bus bars, interrupters and earthing
switches are located in adjacent cylindrical compartments
which are air-tight, and contain compressed SF6 gas. Inner
live conductors are separated, at regular intervals, from
grounded enclosure by epoxy resin spacers.

6.7 Surge arrester and protective gaps
Used for limiting transient overvoltages. Consist mainly of
air, SF6, porcelain and metal oxide resistors. In its simplest
form, air-insulated rod-rod chopping gaps are used.
Alternatively, non-linear resistors made of metal oxide (eg.
zinc oxide) with or without series spark gaps are used.
Ceramic or porcelain housing is used for mechanical support
and for protection against environment.
6.8 Power capacitors

Modern power capacitors consist of metallized polypropylene
film, aluminum foil and polypropylene film, or metallized
paper electrodes and polypropylene, and the impregnation
fluid. The fluid (eg. isopropylbiphenyl, silicone liquid)
minimizes the voids and increases the dielectric strength.
6.9 Rotating machines

Generators use mica tape system on conductors impregnated
with either an epoxy or polyester resin. Other materials
include polyvinyl acetal, polyester enamel or bonded fiber
glass for inter-turn insulation; bakelized fabric, epoxy fiber
glass, mica glass sheet, epoxy impregnated mica paper and
varnished glass for inter-coil or phase-to-earth insulation; and
bakelized fabric or epoxy fiber glass strips for slot closure.
The impregnation treatment normally consists of alkyd
phenolic estermide or epoxy based varnishes.

7. Assessment of insulation materials
No two pieces of insulation are identical. This can be due to
any number of reasons, some of which are: (i) tolerance in
manufacture, (ii) presence of impurities, (iii) presence of
voids, (iv) variation in external factors such as temperature,
pressure, radiation and humidity.
Any or all of these may alter the performance of a given

insulation. Therefore, any method for the assessment of a
particular insulation system or the comparison of different
insulation materials must be statistical in nature and based
upon an accumulation of large amounts of data from both
controlled laboratory conditions and from field experience.
In addition to normal overvoltage tests, the condition of new

and aged insulation as used in power system equipment may
be assessed by application of various diagnostic procedures.
The preferred methods are non-destructive although some of
the tests are designed to check the ultimate strength, or end-
point, of samples utilized in quality control or long term
stability measurements. The more important techniques
adopted for assessment of the materials, and some structures,
are outlined below, together with references to relevant
standard specifications.

7.1 Assessment techniques
A complete review of all the diagnostic techniques available

for assessing insulating materials is not practical in the
present lecture. However, the following list is a useful guide:
(A) Electrical measurements

1. Insulation resistance and Resistivity: IEC 60167 and
60247
2. Loss tangent/dielectric dissipation factor: IEC
60894, 60247, 60250, 61620
3. Capacitance and Permittivity: IEC 60247, 61620
4. Polarisation Index (machine insulation) - IR
changes.
5. Partial discharge characteristics: AS 60270-2001
6. Electrical Endurance: e.g. AS 2897:1986 App.C
7. Resistance to surface tracking under polluted
conditions: IEC 60112 and 60587
8. Electrostatic charging tendency (ECT) of oil
9. Radio interference measuring apparatus: e.g.
AS/NZS 1052:1992
(B) Physical/Chemical measurements on liquids

1. Gas chromatography for analysis of dissolved gases
in oil (DGA): IEC 60599
2. Moisture content of liquids: AS 1767
3. Chemical characteristics of oils: AS 1767 and AS
1883:1992

4. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
for detection of heavy molecules dissolved in oil:
CIGRE Paper 15-08, 1988
5. Particle concentration
(C) Mechanical/Physical/Chemical measurements on solids

1. Thermal endurance: AS 2768-1985, IEC 60216 and
60610
2. Moisture content of solids
3. Water absorption: e.g. AS 1795-1979 Pt.1
4. Degree of polymerisation e.g. for ageing of
cellulosic materials
5. Mechanical strength, e.g. under compression,
bending, tension, shear, torsion and vibration
according to application
6. Multi factor assessment methods: CIGRE papers 15-
01 and 15-11, 1986
(D) Measurements on gases

1. Moisture content (dew point) of hydrogen and SF6
2. Types of particulate in hydrogen (as monitor of
machine insulation condition)
3. Air content of SF6 samples: Electra 113, 1987
4. Contaminant and particulate levels of SF6
(E) Special Measurements

1. X-ray examination
2. Ultrasonics for partial discharge location

7.2 Sample measurements in the laboratory
In the power industry laboratories, many of the tests listed

above would not be required as samples of solid materials are
rarely available - except, perhaps, after a failure on test or in
service.
The major effort is normally aimed at assessing condition of

the insulating liquids from such plant as power transformers,
instrument transformers, bushings, cables and switchgear. In
most cases the oil condition is used as an indication of the
state of the solid materials impregnated or immersed in the
liquid. The most common tests are those specified and
described in AS1767 and AS1883 (for oils in service). A
brief outline is given here of three measurements often
performed on a routine basis. This is followed by summaries
of more recent techniques which may become of considerable
value in assessing long term effects.
7.2.1 Dielectric dissipation factor (DDF) of oil
The measurement is carried out using a special test cell with a

suitable guarding system. A 50Hz bridge, e.g. a transformer
ratio arm type, is used for determining DDF values of a few
milli-radians. A sensitivity of tanδ<10-4 is required. Facilities
should be available for testing over a range of temperature up
to 100oC. The method of cleaning the cell and the
temperature of measurement are very critical and many
investigations have been carried out in this respect.

Resistivity measurements are made with similar test cells but
the repeatability (even within the same laboratory) can prove
erratic and the method is no longer specified in the IEC
document. Measurements on solid materials use identical
principles and bridges but the guarding often has to be
adopted to the type and form of sample.
7.2.2 Determination of moisture content in liquids
The well established method for determination of moisture

content in oil (and some cellulosic materials) is the
application of the Karl Fischer technique. With care it is
claimed that moisture contents of a few ppm (10-6) can be
quantified in oil and perhaps 0.1% in O.I.P. The development
of the new automated instruments has removed much of the
'art' involved in these measurements and many hundreds of
such tests are now carried out on a routine basis. As with
such techniques, good house keeping is required with special
attention being given to calibration and the method of
obtaining and presenting the oil sample. Each supply
authority would be expected to issue special instructions to
field personnel in this respect.
A supplementary method is sometimes practised where a

measurement is made of the dew point of the moisture in the
oil. This enables the Relative Humidity (RH) to be related to
the moisture content of the O.I.P. with which the oil sample
is assumed to have been in equilibrium. The method was
developed in an attempt to overcome the problem of relating
oil moisture content, which varies with type and condition of
the oil, to the paper moisture content.
7.2.3 Analysis of dissolved gas in oil (DGA)
For twenty years it has been possible to detect, separate and

quantify gases such as hydrogen, methane, ethane, ethylene
and acetylene produced by thermal or electrical degradation
of oil and the carbon oxides created when associated
materials deteriorate. Oil samples are carefully obtained from
the power equipment - predominately power transformers and
instrument transformers at the present time - and a gas
chromatograph used for analysis in the laboratory. The earlier
manual instruments have been replaced by automated units
enabling DGA in oil measurements to become a routine
procedure. However when comparing results between
laboratories, as might be required following transformer heat
runs in the factory, it is important to have confidence in the
reproducibility of results, especially for the lower values of
gas content (few ppm). Australian Panel AP15 of CIGRE
recently conducted a series of round-robins to determine the
order of statistical variations to be expected under Australian
conditions- this includes the effects of sampling techniques
and transport methods as well as the different laboratory
procedures practised.
7.2.4 High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
A complementary analytical technique to DGA which has

been developed overseas and is being investigated within
Australia is the application of high performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC). The methods allow the heavier
molecules dissolved in oil to be separated and identified. For
example furfuraldehyde is produced by the mild overheating
of paper and the phenol and cresols similarly produced from
synthetic resin-impregnated paper board. Also it is possible to
detect cumyl alcohol and -methyl styrene from deteriorated
XLPE in cables.
The basic instrumentation for liquid chromatographic studies

has long been available and its commercial adaptation for
analysis of the specific compounds produced by insulation
deterioration is now well established.
7.2.5 Electrostatic charging tendency (ECT) of oil
In the early 80s it was considered that oil being circulated at

high velocity in directed flow ducts in transformer windings
might produce hazardous electrification effects. As part of the
many investigations carried out in a number of countries -
notably Japan and America - a technique was developed for
measuring the electrostatic charging tendency of different
oils. Although the effect is still not fully understood the test
arrangement is being utilised by some manufacturers and
users in order to allow comparisons to be made between
different types and between new and aged oils.
7.2.6 Degree of polymerization (DP)
Cellulosic materials decompose into alcohol, aldehyde, acid

and finally into carbon dioxide based on the degree of ageing.
The number of cellulose molecules indicates the degree of
polymerization (DP). For many years it has been known that

one measure of the ageing of cellulosic insulating materials is
the DP compared with the value for the new material.
Although strictly a destructive test the amount of material

required is small and could possibly be removed from
transformer windings being overhauled, in addition to
damaged units under investigation. The procedures for
determination of the DP are well known and can be
completed by most chemical laboratories without undue
difficulty. Values of DP for Kraft paper vary from about 1000
for new material to 500 or so for insulation known to be near
the end of its life when the paper becomes extremely brittle
and cracks upon bending.
7.2.7 Moisture determination in XLPE insulation
An important area of investigation is ability to quantify the

small amounts of moisture, probably in the form of water
trees, which might be present in aged XLPE insulated cables.
The subject has been under study for many years thus
reflecting its importance. No simple technique has evolved
but a CIGRE paper describes some of the sophisticated
methods now being developed, particularly with respect to
localised changes in the XLPE. This work was carried out on
behalf of EPRI in the U.S.A.
7.2.8 Determination of air pollution in SF6 gas
A simple technique has been developed within CIGRE for

determining the amount of air pollution allowable in gas of
G1S equipment before the breakdown strength of the SF6
becomes unacceptable. By applying a breakdown test on a
sample, it is possible to estimate the condition of the
insulating gas. The concept is similar to that often used by
field personnel for checking the condition of oil with the
AS1797 standard cell.

8. Diagnostic measurement on power equipment
The insulation condition is the primary factor which
determines the life of major HV equipment plant. During its
life the insulation deterioration can be accelerated by
excessive operating temperature, by moisture or other
contamination, by mechanical stress or by environmental
factors such as UV radiation. Because of this multiplicity of
potential degrading factors, insulation condition monitoring is
perhaps the most important feature of asset management in
large HV power systems. Thus the tests methods used for
insulation assessment are of primary importance.
The most generally used tests for insulation condition

assessment in high voltage electrical power equipment are:
Dielectric Dissipation Factor (DDF) measurement.
Dissolved gas-in-oil analysis (DGA) for oil-impregnated
paper insulation
Insulation Resistance (IR) measurement (and associated
quantities).
Overvoltage Tests on equipment
o Power Frequency.
o Impulse (lightning) Tests.
o Switching overvoltage Tests.
Partial Discharge Tests.
Other diagnostics
Of the above diagnostics, the DDF, DGA and the IR

measurement can be done easily on-site and usually off-line
(although the actual DGA tests have to be performed later in

a chemical laboratory). DDF measurement usually requires a
separate HV test source, but some tests today can be
performed on-line using sophisticated test techniques to
determine and record the phase angle difference between the
operating voltage and current for the item of equipment under
test. The DGA tests are perhaps the simplest to perform in
that only a small sample of oil is required for chemical
analysis and this sample removal can be done while
equipment is on-line.
Similarly, partial discharge tests are usually done off-line and

require a separate HV source, but modem techniques now
allow on-line monitoring of PDs, but electromagnetic
interference is a major problem that must be contended with.
The overvoltage tests must be performed as separate source

tests. Normally only power frequency overvoltage tests can
be performed on-site: the impulse and switching tests are
normally done only in the laboratory or in the factory.
8.1 DDF (or tanδ or loss angle) tests
The DDF (tanδ) and the capacitance value C of the dielectric

are normally measured by a high voltage AC (4-terminal)
bridge technique. The measurement must be done with the
insulation at rated voltage (or higher) to determine its
efficiency at rated operational voltage, because the DDF is a
voltage-dependent parameter. Also, because the variation of
DDF with voltage is an important parameter, the test is
usually done over a range of voltage above and below the
normal operating voltage. Usually insulation will exhibit a
"turn-up" in the DDF vs. V curve just above operating
voltage. If this insulation is degraded the "turn-up" may occur
at a lower voltage level and this will be an indication of
potential insulation problems.
The most commonly used bridge arrangements for DDF

measurements are the Schering Bridge and the Transformer
Ratio Arm Bridge. These tests are performed with the test
object held at full rated voltage (or higher), but the variable
balance impedance components which have to be manually
adjusted for balance are effectively at earth potential [modern
bridges are automatically balancing, however, and do not
require manual manipulation of the dials]. Both of the above
types are 4-terminal bridges and thus require both amplitude
and phase balance. The typical circuit used with the Schering
bridge for DDF measurement at power frequency is shown
below:
Earth
Z1
Z2
C1 R2
R1
V
δ
H.V.
Z3
C Rx } Cx
Test object
Z4
Note that:

a) C1 and R1 are the variable impedances (they are high
precision components: R2 may sometimes also be
variable).
b) R2 is a standard non-inductive resistor, also of high
precision.
c) C is a standard HV precision capacitor with negligible
losses.
d) Rx and Cx is the test object (represented by a series
equivalent combination)
The bridge is energised at the rated voltage of the equipment

item, but there are only a few hundred volts at most on R1, C1
and R2, the components which are manually operated to
achieve balance.
Z 2 Z1 Z Z
At balance: = or 2 = 4
Z 4 Z3 Z1 Z 3
From the circuit diagram, we can write the following (ω is

the angular frequency):
1 1
= + jωC1
Z1 R1
Z 2 = R2
1
= jωC
Z3
1
Z 4 = Rx +
jωCx

and thus, for balance of the bridge, we have the following
relationship:
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
R2 ⎜ + jωC1 ⎟ = ⎜ + Rx ⎟ ( jωC )
⎝ R1 ⎠ ⎝ jωCx ⎠
R C
or: jωC1 R2 + 2 = + jω Rx C
R1 C x
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get:
R2 C R1
(a) = ⇒ Cx = ×C
R1 C x R2
RC
(b) ω R2C1 = ω Rx C ⇒ Rx = 2 1
C
tanδ is the required quantity of the DDF test measurement,

and is given by the following:
Rx R C RC
tan δ = = ω Rx C x = ω 2 1 1 = ω R1C1
Xx C R2
Typical values of tanδ are millradians or less at 50Hz. Tanδ

(and the capacitance) values are important characteristics of
HV insulation because of the following features:
a) It gives a measure of impurities (e.g. moisture) in the
insulation.
b) It gives information on partial discharge activity in the
insulation.

c) ωCV2tanδ gives the dielectric heat loss and this will
determine, to a considerable degree, the operating
temperature at high voltage.
d) Plots of tanδ vs. Voltage below and above rated voltage
will give useful information on the insulation condition.
As the Schering Bridge uses a series equivalent circuit for Rx-

Cx, the value of Cx may vary from that for a parallel circuit,
but this only occurs for high levels of DDF
8.2 Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
The majority of large power transformers, many older cables

and many switchgear components are insulated by oil and by
oil-impregnated paper. Whenever any faults occur that may
cause deterioration of the oil-based insulation, the generation
of gases by discharges in the oil is almost always a
concurrent event. These gases are then dissolved in the oil
and an analysis of the gas constituents and their quantities
(and particularly their relative quantities) can provide very
useful information about the fault. In many cases it is
possible to identify the type of fault from the relative
quantities of the gas components.
The gases which are generated in such oil based insulation

include:
Carbon monoxide CO
Carbon dioxide CO2
Hydrogen H2
Methane CH4

Ethane C2H6
Ethylene C2H4
Acetylene C2H2
The above are not the full list of gases but they are the ones
which are used to determine any deterioration effects of the
oil and to identify any particular fault types that may be
generating the gases. Also, O2 and N2 are also often
monitored to give indication of possible oxidation. The
measurement is done by gas chromatograph.
In general, CO and CO2 are generated by hot spots such as

may arise from hot metal shield surfaces or core surfaces or
winding hot spots in the transformer. Hydrogen, methane and
to a less extent ethane may also be generated by such effects.
Ethylene and acetylene are not generated significantly by hot
spots. Partial discharge (low level sparking) will generate
hydrogen, methane, ethane and ethylene. High power arcing
will generate hydrogen, ethylene and particularly acetylene.
The key gas method identifies faults by association as

follows:
Hydrogen: Partial discharge
Ethylene: Overheating in oil
Acetylene: Arcing in oil
CO & CO2: Solid insulation deterioration (e.g paper)
In addition there are the various ratio methods which take the
ratios of the quantities of specific pairs of gases and then use
these ratios to predict the type of fault. The ratio methods
currently in use include:
1. Rogers ratio method
2. IEC (International Electrotechnical Committee) ratio
method
3. Dornenberg ratio method
4. Duval triangle method (this analyses data using groups
of three gases)
In addition to the above there are also many "home-grown"

methods of analysis used by various utilities. In recent years
the fuzzy logic technique has also become popular for
analysis of dissolved gas data.
DGA is a valuable diagnostic technique and is probably one

of the most widely practiced techniques in current use. It is
simple to do, does not require disconnection of equipment
from supply and most utilities have the chemical analysis
tools available. The problems with the technique are that
there may be a delay in getting results and as it is often used
as a routine maintenance technique, the data is generally not
analysed as thoroughly as is warranted. The other problem is
that DGA gives only a measure of the integrated effects of
the fault. It does not give any information as to whether the
fault has been in existence for a short or long time and thus it
is not easy to identify the magnitude of the fault. It is also not
able to give continuous on-line monitoring. There are some
continuous on-line DGA monitors (HYDRAN monitors)
available but they are restricted in the range of gases that can
be identified and not so wide-ranging in identifying fault
types as the full DGA laboratory tests.

In addition to normal DGA, which essentially identifies
mainly problems with oil, there are more sophisticated test
techniques of a similar type which are used to monitor more
accurately the degradation of the paper insulation. These tests
look at gases generated by the chemical decomposition of the
cellulosic structure of the paper as it ages. The gases
generated in this case are much more complicated in structure
and thus more difficult to extract and analyse than the
relatively simple hydrocarbons analysed by DGA techniques.
The gases are the so-called furans or furfuraldehyde group of
gases. Their measurement requires the use of HPLC or high
performance liquid chromatography, a technique which is not
available in-house to many utilities.
[It should be noted that the “paper” referred to above is an

inclusive term which also includes pressboard and wood etc.
which are cellulosic in their chemical structure].
8.3 Insulation Resistance (IR)
Insulation resistance is a very simple test to apply and can be

done very quickly and easily, but must be done off-line. The
IR must be measured using DC voltage (usually between
500V DC to 10kV DC, depending on the application).
However although it is a simple test, the insulation resistance
value in itself is not a particularly useful parameter except
when the insulation is extremely poor and near to failure.
However the time variation of the insulation resistance is a
much more useful property because the IR-t characteristic
depends on the dielectric polarization properties of the
insulation and thus on its condition. A number of useful
parameters for insulation assessment can thus be derived
from the IR vs time variation.
The transient current that flows in a dielectric material when

it is subjected to a DC voltage step is made up of a number of
current components, all of which are time varying. The total
current (I) is composed of three components:
(i) a conduction (Ohmic leakage) current (Ie),
(ii) a displacement (true capacitive) current part (Ic) and
(iii) a so-called absorption current component (Ia). It is Ia
which is dielectric-dependent and thus useful for
insulation condition analysis.
The various transient current components are shown below:
The Ohmic leakage current is that (constant) component

which is left after a long period (1 minute, say) of DC voltage
application. It is affected by moisture, and contamination etc.,
as well as the intrinsic material insulation resistivity and
geometry. Because of the effect of contaminants leakage
current is important for insulation condition monitoring.
The absorption current is affected by the nature and condition
of the insulation dielectric and is thus an important
component for insulation condition monitoring.
The capacitive current is determined only by the insulation
capacitance. It is not important for condition monitoring.
From above, the leakage current and absorption current are

the two quantities which are indicative of insulation quality
and their comparative values can give useful information
about the condition of the dielectric.
The insulation resistance (IR)-derived parameters which are

used for assessment are:
(a) Short-time Test

Here, the insulation resistance is measured just once,
after 60 seconds of DC voltage application. This is the
simplest but least useful form of IR test.
(b) Resistance-time variation
Time variation of insulation is recorded for a period up
to 10 minutes. For good insulation, resistance increases
with time. This is not a specific test in itself, but the data
obtained is used to derive the following quantities:
(c) Polarisation Index (PI)

This quantity is ratio of insulation resistance measured at
10 minutes to resistance measured at 1 minute. A value
of 1-2 is characteristic of poor insulation, a value greater
than 3 is representative of good insulation.
(d) Step Voltage Test
This test uses different DC voltage levels applied in
steps: eg. 500 V followed by 2500 V over 60 seconds.
(e) Dielectric Absorption Ratio
This is a variation of the Polarisation Index parameter.
Usually the absorption ratio is obtained from IR value at
60 seconds divided by that at 30 seconds. A value less
than 1.3 is characteristic of poor insulation, and a value
greater than 1.5 is characteristic of good insulation.
Insulation resistance is measured simply by using a

"MEGGER" type tester. The tester is normally battery-
operated and should be capable of application of any voltage
in the range up to 10,000 volts DC, with an accuracy of about
1-2%. In the basic form, the tester provides a reading of
insulation resistance only and the values must be recorded
over time and then plotted to determine the required IR-
derived parameters. Modem instruments however are
microprocessor-controlled to apply the chosen voltage
(including the step variations if necessary), record the data
over time and then calculate the parameters with the test
result then printed out.
Typical insulation resistances of HV equipment are in the

hundreds of MΩ to GΩ levels and at these levels the
accuracy of measured resistances are only about 10-15%
when performed in the field. Care must be taken to ensure
that no surface leakage current paths are involved in the
measurement as these will obscure the test result. Normally
guard electrodes should be used if possible, although this is
not always possible. The instrument accuracy should be
checked regularly against standard high value resistors. The
advantage of using parameters which involve calculation of a
ratio of resistances is that any measurement errors are
minimised (assuming the errors are systematic).
8.4 Overvoltage Tests
Overvoltage tests are essentially pass or fail tests and are

usually performed at the final stage of manufacture in the
factory for power frequency and impulse tests and again after
installation in the case of the power frequency overvoltage
test. These tests may also be performed on suspect equipment
or on refurbished equipment. The power frequency test can
be done on-site, but the impulse and switching tests are
normally done in the test laboratory or factory only.
Overvoltage tests can cause damage to the insulation if the

tests and test voltage levels are not properly controlled. The
table below shows the range of standard test voltages for
power frequency and impulse voltage tests for transformers.
Note that the power frequency overvoltage test requirement is
about twice system voltage for one minute: the criteria of
success is simply that no insulation breakdown failure occurs.
Normally only one such test is performed. Voltage is
monitored during the test to aid in identifying breakdown as
the breakdown current is limited to prevent damage.
The impulse test level varies greatly with rated voltage of the
equipment: a number of tests (perhaps about 5 may be
required) and different polarities may also be required. The
impulse voltage waveform is recorded and will indicate if any
failure occurs during the test. The equipment buyer may also
specify other insulation tests that must be done before the
item of equipment is accepted from the manufacturer. For
example an induced overvoltage test at a higher frequency
may be performed on transformers.
8.4.1 Power Frequency Overvoltage Test
These are relatively simple to achieve if the necessary power

supplies are available. For on-site tests this will require use of
a mobile HV transformer, which may not be easily available
for the full transmission voltage range of a transmission
utility's operation. Generally only items with low capacitance
can be tested on-site because of the problems of supplying
large quantities of reactive power with low capacity mobile
test transformers. Thus, only items such as transformers,
instrument transformers, circuit breakers and similar
equipment items are able to be tested at full voltage on site.
Cables cannot be tested in this way because of reactive power
requirements. For HV power cable overvoltage tests, HV
resonant test sets using tunable inductors to achieve resonant
conditions with the cable capacitance are used. At resonance,
the HV transformer only needs to supply the pure ohmic
losses, which are generally quite small as they arise only
from leakage currents in the cable.

It can be seen from the table that a typical power frequency
test voltage is about 2 per unit or 2Uo. There are some
reservations about imposing such a high test voltage on new
equipment but the accepted standard tests require these
levels.
Line Phase AC test Imp. test Power Current

Voltage Voltage Voltage Voltage Ratings Ratings
(kV) (kV) kV rms kV MVA kA
1 minute 1.2/50μs
11 6.35 23 100/75
18 (2) 10.4 (600) 20
(1200) 40
22/23 (2) 12.7/13.3 45 500 16
33 19.05 66 220
66 38.1 132 380
132 76.2 264 550
275 158.8 460 1050
330 190.5 570 1300
510 1175
400 230.9 630 1425 600 0.866
1000 1443
500 228.7 1400 ?
750 433 950 2200
1100 635.1 2900 ? 600 0.314
1200 693 1400 3200 6000 3.14
1500 (4) 866
Typical test voltage levels for overvoltage tests on power Tx.
8.4.2 Impulse testing
There are two types of transient overvoltages that must be

tested for in high voltage equipment. These are:
lightning overvoltages
switching overvoltages
Power system equipment items must be tested for their ability

to withstand the effects of such transient voltages, of
magnitudes which are typical to their voltage rating, without
suffering dielectric breakdown.
8.4.2.1 Lightning impulse testing

Lightning impulses can be up to 1000kV or more in
amplitude and the associated current may be up to 100 kA in
each stroke, although 10-20 kA is typical. If the actual strike
is to an overhead line, a travelling wave results which then
moves along the transmission line (unless it causes
breakdown of the air insulation between lines). This HV
propagating surge may test the electrical insulation of any
equipment connected to the line and thus the equipment must
be tested for its withstand ability to such transients. Even if
the strike is not to a line, but occurs close to it, induced
overvoltages may be coupled into the line inductively or
capacitively.
The test waveform used for equipment to test against

lightning impulse voltage is the generally agreed shape of
1.2/50μs. The voltage rises to a peak in 1.2μs and decays to
half peak in 50μs. There are some tolerances allowed for the
rise time and decay time when testing (typically about +/-
20%). In some cases chopped wave tests are performed
where the voltage is driven to zero very quickly. This test can
be used to provide tests of, for example, inter-turn insulation
where the capacitive voltage coupling is enhanced by the fast
chopping. If failure occurs under impulse testing, the
disruptive discharge will produce something akin to a
chopped wave shape.
The figures above show typical lightning impulse voltage

waveshapes for (a) full wave, (b) chopped wave on decaying
side and (c) chopped wave on the rise. Typical standard test
voltage amplitudes are listed in the previous table.
8.4.2.2 Switching impulse testing
Switching impulses occur as a result of operation of circuit

breakers, switches etc. in the power system. Their shape is
very dependent on the system parameters and there are thus
very substantial variations in magnitudes and in shape of
switching impulses. However their risetime is generally much
slower than that of lightning impulses and their duration is
also generally much longer.
The amplitude of typical switching impulses is about 2-3 pu

and is thus a little lower than lightning impulse amplitudes.
However the longer duration may stress the insulation
equally as much as lighting effects or even more in some
cases.
A standard switching impulse waveform has a risetime of

about 250μs and a decay to half peak of about 2500μs. This
is designated as the 250/2500μs switching waveform. There
are tolerances of about 20% on the rise and fall time values in
testing. Because of the variability in shape for different
systems, there are other standard waveshapes which can be
used if required by the test situation: these include the
100/2500μs and 500/2500μs. The amplitudes of switching
impulses are generally a little lower than lightning impulses,
with the amplitude depending on the application.

The figure above shows a typical waveshape of a switching
transient test voltage. Note that switching transients are not
applied as chopped waves.
8.4.3 Impulse voltages for LV and communications systems
With the increasing susceptibility of modem electronics to

impulse voltages and with the increasing use of power
electronics and such hard switching elements as IGBTs, there
is now a need to impulse test low voltage equipment. There is
also particular need to test information technology equipment
for impulse voltages and in the case of IT equipment there are
very many different impulse voltage waveshapes that are
used for these tests.
8.5 Partial Discharge Tests
Partial discharges (PD) in insulation can cause substantial

degradation of the insulation because of the very high
energies of ionized particles which are produced in the partial
discharge ionization processes. These ions and electrons can
then change the chemical structure and composition of the
insulation, thereby degrading it over time. The damage due to
PDs is primarily to organic insulation: mica-based insulation
such as is found in large generators is able to withstand very
high levels of partial discharge activity without any
significant deleterious effect on insulation properties.
Because of this direct damage to insulation and because PDs

can be monitored directly, PD testing and monitoring is
perhaps the best insulation assessment technique available.
Modern developments in computer-based data acquisition
systems have allowed the development of PD testing to a
stage where it is able to give a very sensitive measure of the
insulation integrity. To this end there are very substantial
programs of PD research which are aimed at:
Developing continuous on-line PD monitors
Development of signal processing techniques to remove
interference
Using PD data to determine fault type and location
Using PD data to estimate the remnant life of insulation
These are very ambitious programs and may not be fully

realisable, but PD monitoring is the area where most
development is occurring at present. The attached sheets
give some basic information about PD monitoring methods.
PD monitoring covers the widest spectrum of voltages and

equipment. It is used for transformers, for cables, for
switchgear, for bushings, for insulators, for busbars systems,
for SF6 gas insulated systems, for instrument transformers
and for motors and generators. The PDs can be monitored
electrically by resistive, inductive or capacitive sensors or by
EHF aerial-coupling units at frequencies up to many GHz.
PDs can also be monitored by using piezoelectric detectors
sensitive to the ultrasonic acoustic pressure waves generated
by the PDs. The major problems with PDs are interference
from corona discharge for example, and the difficulties in
some cases of gaining access to the appropriate location for
the sensor in or on the equipment item.
8.6 Other diagnostic tests
The present situation in the electrical industry is aimed at

extending the life of large items of capital equipment and
thus asset management and condition monitoring are now
very important aspects of operation. There is a very
substantial program of development of new monitoring
techniques. These include, for example:
Frequency response analysis (FRA) of windings
Recovery voltage (RV) tests of insulation.
Isothermal relaxation testing of cables
Very low frequency testing of cables
On-line DDF monitoring systems
On-line PD monitoring of cables
Fibre-optic acoustic sensors for PDs
Dielectric spectroscopy
Polymerisation testing of composite insulators
On-line leakage current monitors for insulators
Oscillating voltage tests of cable joints
EHF (up to a few GHz) PD monitoring systems for
transformers

AS1931.1-1996 High-voltage test techniques – General
definitions and test requirements
AS1931.2-1996 High-voltage test techniques – Measuring
systems

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High Voltage Systems

ELECTRICAL INSULATION MATERIALS

¾ Power system function: to generate, transport and distribute

ELEC712: Electrical Insulation Materials and HV Testing page 1/64

1.1 Electric field stress

ELEC712: Electrical Insulation Materials and HV Testing page 2/64

Operating Design stress Insulation

1.2 Temperature consideration

Furthermore, at HV there can be other contributions to

(1) Ohmic heating:

ELEC712: Electrical Insulation Materials and HV Testing page 3/64

All the above-mentioned dielectric losses are lumped together

2.1 High-voltage cables

(i) Electric field

(ii) Heating effects

ELEC712: Electrical Insulation Materials and HV Testing page 5/64

(i) Electric field

The major problem is the generation of corona discharge

ELEC712: Electrical Insulation Materials and HV Testing page 6/64

(ii) Heating effects

ELEC712: Electrical Insulation Materials and HV Testing page 7/64

ρ varies with temperature T:

3.2 Dielectric permittivity

ELEC712: Electrical Insulation Materials and HV Testing page 8/64

3.3 Dielectric dissipation factor

δ is called the loss angle. Typically, it is very small and if so,

Note that in the above phasor diagram, I R ≠ V Rinsulation . The

where ε r is the complex relative permittivity.

3.4 Dielectric strength (breakdown strength)

ELEC712: Electrical Insulation Materials and HV Testing page 10/64

ELEC712: Electrical Insulation Materials and HV Testing page 11/64

In normal states, most gases are good insulators. Overhead

Atmospheric air is the most abundant dielectric material

Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas is non-toxic and non-

There are some drawbacks associated with the use of SF6. It

Consequently, much recent research interest has been on the

Both air and SF6 exhibit high electric breakdown gradients at

Has excellent insulating and arc quenching properties. True

Insulating liquids are used in electrical equipment such as

Different types of equipment require dielectric fluids with

ELEC712: Electrical Insulation Materials and HV Testing page 14/64

Capacitors also require dielectric fluids with high discharge

Other desirable properties are high flash points, if possible

It is also important to determine not only whether the fluid

Examples of liquid insulants include petroleum (mineral)

Petroleum oil is the most widely used. It is classified

If low temperature cables prove to be commercially viable, it

The use of a "solid" material is essential in any system or

Organic Inorganic Thermoplastic Thermosetting

Ideal solid dielectric must have some of properties mentioned

Solid dielectrics have high breakdown strength as compared

ELEC712: Electrical Insulation Materials and HV Testing page 17/64

Organic materials are derived from either vegetable or animal

Inorganic solids are difficult to fabricate but they are good

Synthetic polymers are divided into 2 groups: thermoplastic

Wood is one of the oldest insulations used by electrical

ELEC712: Electrical Insulation Materials and HV Testing page 18/64

Glass is a thermoplastic inorganic material comprising a

Most common application is in the form of fiber glass, which

Outstanding feature is thermal stability up to 538oC. Other

Ceramics are inorganic materials produced by consolidating

For many years porcelain, and to a lesser degree glass, had no