CHAPTER 4

HIGH VOLTAGE INSULATION

4.1 Introduction

High voltages are used for transmission and distribution of electricity in

electrical power systems and high voltage equipment is the backbone of
modern power systems. High voltages are also used for many industrial,
scientific and engineering applications as discussed in chapter 1. In all such
applications, high voltage conductors have to be properly insulated from the
nearby conducting object which may be at a different potential, for the safety
of equipment and personnel as well as for reliability of the power supply
system. Therefore, proper insulation of the high voltage conductor is of great
significance. For proper design and safe and reliable operation of high voltage
components and systems, knowledge of the physical and chemical phenomena
which determine the dielectric properties of the insulating material is essential.
In addition, the basic processes which lead to degradation and failure of such
materials and appropriate diagnostic techniques are very important since any
such failure can cause temporary or permanent damage to the system, thereby,
influencing its reliability and cost.

This chapter provides a brief overview of the main areas of applications

of electrical insulation materials and their general classification. It further
outlines some definitions and basic concepts which are needed for an
understanding of the electrical insulation behavior. Some desirable properties
for various classes of insulation materials are also discussed in this chapter.

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Subsequent chapters provide the detailed properties, applications, failure modes,
and techniques used for evaluating and testing different insulating materials.

4.2 Need for Electrical Insulation

If a potential difference (V) exists between two conductors x and y, then a

current (I) will flow between x and y. By Ohms law:

V
I (4.1)
R

where R is electrical resistance between x and y and is given as:

.
R (4.2)
A

In equation (4.2),  = length of the current path from x to y,  = resistivity of

material between x and y and A is the cross-sectional area through which
current can flow. In high voltage equipment, since potential difference
between various points are very large, the resistance R between such points
must be kept very large in order to minimize the flow of current to
neighboring conductors maintained at different potentials or between the high
voltage and the grounded conductors. Thus, electrical insulation materials
having very large resistivity () values must be used to minimize or to prevent
unnecessary leakage of current from the high voltage conductor to the other
nearby objects or the grounded conductors. Flow of such a current can cause
electric shock and pose safety hazard for workers and can lead to short circuits
and interruptions of the power supply in the system. Thus all high voltage
conductors must be surrounded by suitable electrical insulation materials in
order to achieve a high value of resistance between the live and grounded
components or between live components which are at different potentials.

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4.3 Areas of Insulation Application

There are four main areas where electrical insulation must be applied in
high voltage power equipment. These four areas can be classified as:

(i) Between the phase conductor (or coil) at high voltage and the earth (or
the grounded conductor). This is generally referred to as phase-to-earth
insulation.

(ii) Between conductors (or coils) of different phases. This is generally

known as phase-to-phase insulation.

(iii) Between the adjacent turns in a coil (or winding). This is known as
inter-turn insulation.

(iv) Between the coils (or windings) of the same phase when the phase
winding is made of several layers. This is known as inter-coil
insulation.

Phase-to-earth insulation is required in all high voltage equipment.

Phase-to-phase insulation is required in all equipment used on multi-phase
systems. Inter-turn insulation is required in windings of transformers, motors,
and generators. Inter-coil insulation is required, for example, in transformer
windings where the winding consists of several layers on top of each other.

4.4 Functions of Electrical Insulation Materials

The main function of insulation materials in high voltage equipment is

to provide a high electrical resistance. However, common insulation materials
also perform several other functions. Three of the most important other
functions are summarized next.

(i) Mechanical Support: Insulation materials provide mechanical support

to the high voltage conductor and maintain certain clearances between

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 different conductors or the conductor and the earth. Transmission line
insulators, for example, are required to withstand the conductor weight
and forces created by wind, snow, rain, and to keep conductors at a
specified minimum distance from the tower structure under all weather
conditions.

(ii) Heat Transfer: Insulation materials help in the transfer of heat from the
current carrying conductor to the surroundings thereby keeping the
conductor temperature within safe limits. As an example, insulating oil
in an oil filled transformer provides the electrical insulation and the
heat transfer functions.

(iii) Arc Quenching: In circuit breakers, insulation materials help in the arc
extinction at current zero in order to successfully interrupt the high fault
currents. Oil, SF6 and air are used in circuit breakers for arc
interruption in addition to their function as electrical insulation.

Thus, besides dielectric properties, physical, mechanical, thermal, arc

quenching and chemical properties of insulation materials are also important.

4.5 Basic Electrical Properties of Dielectric Materials

There are several properties of a dielectric material which are of practical

importance for an engineer. The most important of these properties are briefly
outlined here.

4.5.1 DC resistivity

DC resistivity,  is a material property. Dielectrics have a large value

of . From equations (4.1) and (4.2),  can be defined as:

E
= (4.3)
J

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where E is applied electric field (V/m) and J is current density in the material
(A/m2).  can be calculated from measured value of the insulation resistance.
Alternatively, if  and the geometry are known, insulation resistance can be
calculated. Insulation resistance is used as an indication of conduction behavior
of insulating materials in many practical applications such as in high potential or
hi-pot testing.

4.5.2 DC conductivity

DC conductivity,  is defined as  = J/E. It is the reciprocal of resistivity

 of the dielectric,  = 1/. For most insulating materials,  depends upon the
material purity, its temperature, T and electric stress, E. The conductivity
generally increases with increase in ionic impurities in the insulation. Similarly,
 also tends to increase with T and E in most cases and follows a relationship of
the type;

(T) = Ae-E/kT (4.4)

where k is Boltzman constant, A is a constant, and (T) is value of  at

temperature, T. In addition, due to polarization effects,  also depends upon
time of application of the stress. The conductivity influences the power loss in a
dielectric and controls the electric stress distribution under direct voltage
applications.

4.5.3 Dielectric permittivity

An ideal dielectric is perfectly loss-free and its behaviour in an electric

field can be completely described by a real dielectric constant  = o r, where r
is the relative permittivity of the dielectric and o = 8.854 * 10-12 F/m, is the
permittivity of free space or vacuum. The relative permittivity or dielectric
constant, r of an insulating material is defined as r = C/Co where C is
capacitance between two parallel electrodes having the space between them

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filled with the insulating material under discussion, and Co is the capacitance for
the same parallel electrodes when these are separated by a vacuum. Generally, r
is not a fixed parameter but depends upon temperature, frequency and molecular
structure of the insulating material.

4.5.4 Electric polarization

Let us consider a parallel plate capacitor having surface charge

densities, q on its opposite plates of area, A and separation d. When
electrostatic units are used in which case o = 1, and  = r. Then the resultant
electric field, Eo in vacuum is given as:

Eo = 4  q (4.5)

Thus charge density in terms of electrostatic units is q = Eo/4. If we

insert a dielectric material of relative permittivity r between the plates, it will
cause a decrease in the electric field intensity between the plates even when
these plates had the same initial surface charge density. This is because the
dielectric material tends to neutralize some of charges at the electrode surfaces
due to the formation of dipoles, as shown in Fig. (4.1). This phenomenon is
called dielectric polarization. The charge density in the presence of dielectric
becomes E/4 which is less than the charge density in vacuum i.e. Eo/4.
Here E is the field inside the dielectric which will be equal to Eo/r. Electric
polarization P, is defined as:

Eo E E E
P=  = o  o (4.6)
4 4 4 4 r

Eo
P =  r  1   r  1
E
or (4.7)
4 r 4

In terms of the flux density D, polarization is related to E by equation

(4.8) since in a vacuum D = Eo, whereas in the presence of the dielectric
D = Eor.

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 D = E + 4P (4.8)

These equations provide a direct relationship between P,  and E, and

emphasize that polarization is increased with permittivity and applied electric
stress.

Fig. (4.1). Electric polarization in a dielectric.

4.5.5 Types of polarization

The majority of dielectrics are nonpolar where the centers of the

positive and negative charges in the molecule coincide. Therefore in the
absence of an applied electric field, the net charge on the molecules of a
nonpolar dielectric material is zero. When an external field is applied to it, the
electrons are slightly displaced with respect to the nuclei and thus induced
dipole moments result and cause the electronic or displacement polarization
of the dielectric.

In a polar dielectric such as polyvinylchloride (PVC) or C2H3Cl, the

size and charge of the chlorine atoms are quite different from those of
hydrogen atoms. Thus a net dipole forms under an electric field. The dipoles
of such a polar dielectric tend to get oriented along the field lines causing
orientational polarization.

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 In addition to this orientational polarization, the applied electric field
exerts a force on each positive charge (be it a positive ion or even a nucleus of
an atom) and on each negative charge (negative ions and electrons) and thus
slightly displaces them along the field lines. Displacement polarization results
in all dielectrics, both polar and nonpolar.

When atoms of different types form molecules such as NaCl will

normally not share their electrons symmetrically, as the electron clouds will be
displaced eccentrically towards the stronger binding atoms. Thus, atoms
acquire charges of opposite polarity, and an external field acting on these net
charges will tend to change the equilibrium positions of the atoms themselves.
This displacement of charged atoms or groups of atoms with respect to each
other results into atomic polarization of materials.

In dielectric liquids containing impurity particles with permittivities

and conductivities that differ from those of the parent material, the impurity
particles would get charged and tend to migrate along the applied field lines
causing migrational polarization. Yet another mechanism is interfacial
polarization which is observed for heterogeneous materials. In this case, mobile
conduction charges are held up at some boundary within the dielectric.
Electrolytic capacitors where charge is held up at the electrode surface double
layer is an example of this type of polarization.

When a field is suddenly applied across a dielectric, it will attain finite

polarization in a very short time provided it is only due to electronic or atomic
polarization processes. However, in the case of the slower movement of
orientation dipoles, the polarization will attain saturation only with some time
lag (also called relaxation time, p) due to slower migration of ions. When the
applied field is alternating, the dipoles or the charges must change their
direction every half cycle. If the frequency is very low, or when the duration
of half cycle is longer than p the polarization will attain its maximum value.

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But at higher frequencies, the duration of half cycle could be shorter than p.
Therefore in this case the dipoles cannot follow the change in the field
intensity. This results in reduction in polarization, which will ultimately
diminish to zero at a very high frequency. Fig. (4.2) illustrates variation of
polarization and hence complex permittivity as a function of frequency.

In normal operation the effect of temperature on the permittivity and

polarization of nonpolar dielectrics is negligible. In polar materials, however,
the random thermal motion of the dipoles is heavily influenced by the
temperature. The higher the temperature, the lower will be the relaxation time
in such cases. Thus polarization is influenced by temperature as well as
frequency, besides the purity and structure of the dielectric material.

Fig. (4.2). Schematic plot of variation of complex permittivity with frequency.

4.5.6 Loss angle and dissipation factor

A practical dielectric is always lossy and such a dielectric can be

represented by a parallel (or a series) RC network. Fig. (4.3) shows such a
parallel RC network where the resistance, Rp represents the lossy part of the
dielectric taking account of losses resulting from conductivity, dipole
formation and space charge polarization, and the capacitance Cp represents the

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capacitive elements. Fig. (4.3) also shows the phasor diagram for the circuit
under the application of an AC voltage.

Assume that an AC voltage, v = 2 Vsin t is applied across this

dielectric, then the capacitive component of the current is IC = jCpV, while the
resistive component of the current is IR = -jI tan , where  is known as the loss
angle. Since loss angle  is usually very small, IC  I and, therefore, IR = -
jICtan. Hence, total current I = IR+IC can be expressed as:

CpV

Fig. (4.3). Parallel equivalent circuit (a) for an insulating material, and (b) its
phasor diagram.

I = jCoV(r - jr tan) = jCoV *r (4.9)

where

*r = r - jr tan = r - j'r (4.10)

Generally, r tan  is known as the loss factor and *r is known as

complex relative permittivity of the dielectric. Its real part equals the dielectric
constant, r while it imaginary part 'r is equal to the loss factor, r tan. The loss
factor differentiates the losses in one dielectric material from those in the other
one.

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 tan  is commonly known as the loss tangent or the dissipation factor and
sometimes as power factor of the dielectric. It is defined as the quotient of
active and reactive power loss in a dielectric. It is derived from Fig. (4.3) as
follows:

Active Power I R ( total )

tan  =  (4.11)
Re active Power I C ( total )

It is a function of frequency and magnitude of the applied voltage as

well as the temperature of the dielectric, because these parameters affect the
conductivity and the polarization processes in the dielectrics.

Thus, tan depends upon frequency, DC conductivity and permittivity

and may also be influenced by the applied electric stress as well as the
temperature.

  'r
tan  = = (4.12)
 o  r  r

In terms of Rp and Cp, tan  is given as:

1
tan  = (4.13)
 R p Cp

Sometimes, a network consisting of a resistance, Rs in series with a

capacitor, Cs is used to represent a lossy dielectric as shown in Fig. (4.4). In this
case, it can be easily shown that tan  is given as:

tan  =  Rs Cs (4.14)

For a fixed frequency, both series and parallel circuits hold good and one
circuit can be obtained from the other. However, the frequency dependence is
just the opposite in the two cases.

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4.5.7 Power loss in a dielectric

The power loss, PL in the dielectric is given as:

PL =  CV2 tan  =  Co V2 r tan  =  Co V2 'r (4.15)

Fig. (4.4). Series equivalent circuit (a) for an insulating material and (b) its
phasor diagram.

It is clear from eqn. (4.15) that the dielectric power losses are influenced
by applied voltage, dielectric permittivity and loss tangent. Sometimes, losses
also occur in a dielectric due to partial discharges in the insulation. In such a
case, the equivalent circuit of a dielectric needs to be modified to account for the
occurrence of partial discharges. Partial discharges are discussed elsewhere in
this book.

4.5.8 Breakdown voltage

Breakdown voltage of a given insulation system is defined as the lowest

voltage at which a dielectric will start conducting. Usually breakdown is
accompanied by a spark or an arc through the dielectric or over the dielectric
surface. If the spark occurs through a solid dielectric material, the process is
known as a puncture. However, when the spark occurs over the surface of the

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solid dielectric, it is called a flashover or a spark over. Usually spark over
causes a temporary failure whereas a puncture results in permanent failure of
the insulation. The breakdown voltage of an insulation system depends upon
the insulating material itself, the shape, size, surface smoothness and sometimes
the materials of the electrodes used, the distance between the electrodes, the type
and polarity of the applied voltage as well as the atmospheric and environmental
factors, etc. Therefore, it is essential that experimental conditions are specified
when reporting on the breakdown voltage of an insulation material. Breakdown
voltage is always given in peak values.

4.5.9 Dielectric strength

It is defined as the maximum value of applied electric field at which a

dielectric material, stressed in a homogeneous or uniform electric field electrode
system, breaks down and loses its insulating property. Dielectric strength is
given in V/m. The breakdown strength or dielectric strength of most dielectrics
depends upon the purity of the material, time and method of the voltage
application, type of the applied voltage as well as other experimental and
environmental parameters. In many cases, it may be difficult to assign a unique
value of dielectric strength to a given material and a range of values can be found
and used for engineering applications. Although dielectric strength by definition
refers to a uniform field system, in many applications breakdown strength under
inhomogenous or non uniform electric field conditions needs to be defined and is
sometimes referred to as the non-uniform field dielectric strength. Similarly AC
or impulse dielectric strength means dielectric strength measured using AC or
impulse applied voltages, respectively. Usually dielectric strength of gases or
liquids can be measured by using sphere-sphere electrodes while keeping the gap
separation less than the sphere radius. Breakdown voltage, V is measured
against the gap distance x and a curve is plotted between V and x. Then the
slope of this curve i.e. dV/dx gives the dielectric strength. Sometimes, parallel

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plate or other similar electrode systems are used to measure the dielectric
strength.

4.5.10 Partial discharge and corona

In many cases, the electric field in the dielectric material is

nonhomogeneous. When such a material is stressed electrically between two
electrodes, only a part of the insulation may break down. This type of
breakdown is known as a partial discharge (PD). The occurrence of a PD
plays an important role in the reliability and life expectancy of insulation
systems. When the applied voltage is gradually increased, the voltage at
which PD starts is called PD onset or PD inception voltage. If PD is already
initiated and voltage is gradually reduced, the voltage at which the PD stops or
disappears is known as the PD extinction voltage. PD inception and extinction
voltages are important parameters for most insulation systems. When a PD
occurs in a nonuniform field air gap, it is known as corona. Therefore, in this
case the PD inception and extinction voltages are commonly referred to as
corona onset (or corona inception) and corona offset (or corona extinction)
voltages, respectively.

4.6 Important Non-Electrical Properties of Dielectrics

In addition to the electrical properties discussed in the last section,

some non-electrical properties such as physical, chemical, and mechanical
properties, etc. need to be considered when a choice among different dielectric
materials is made. The non-electrical properties which are mostly of interest
to high voltage engineers are density, specific heat capacity, thermal
conductivity, chemical and thermal stability, mechanical properties such as
tensile strength and elongation at break, toxicity, flammability, and cost etc.
In addition, for liquid dielectrics, viscosity, pour point relative density, gas
absorption behavior and thermal decomposition characteristics are important.
Similarly for a gas, the temperature and pressure at which state change occurs

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is also important. Sometimes, a material possesses excellent dielectric
properties, but cannot be used for electrical insulation applications if it does
not possess suitable non-electrical properties.

As mentioned earlier, the dielectric materials have to perform functions

such as mechanical support, thermal cooling and arc quenching, etc. in
addition to their function as electrical insulation. It is for these reasons, that
the above mentioned non-electrical properties are important. For example, for
cooling of oil-immersed equipment, specific heat, thermal conductivity,
viscosity and variations of these parameters with temperature are very
important. Other important parameters in this regards are coefficient of
thermal expansion, and power point which is the temperature below which the
liquid starts to thicken and solidify and thus will not provide adequate cooling
of the equipment immersed in it. Fig. (4.5) shows an example of the effect of
temperature on viscosity of two commonly used insulation oils [1].

Fig. (4.5). Effect of temperature on viscosity in two types of commonly used

insulating oil.

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 For solid insulation materials, mechanical properties play a very
important role. For example, for use of glass or porcelain in making insulators
for overhead transmission and distribution lines, the mechanical strength under
compression and tension is very important. Similarly, for polymer insulations
applications in power cables and other equipment require suitable physical,
chemical, and mechanical properties. Tables (4.1) and (4.2) provide some
selected electrical and nonelectrical properties for glass, porcelain and several
commonly used polymers [3]. Further properties of some solid insulation
materials are provided in Tables (8.2) to (8.8) in chapter 8.

Table (4.1) Electrical and mechanical properties of glass and porcelain [3].

Property Glass Porcelain

Maximum operating temperature (C) 110 to 460 1000

Volume resistivity (-cm) 1012 1012 - 1014

Dielectric strength (kV/cm) 4500 94 - 380

Dielectric constant at 25 C
60 Hz 6.25 - 7.0 4.4 - 8.83
103 Hz 6.16 8.18 - 8.83
106 Hz 6..00 8.16 - 8.80
Dissipation factor at 25 C
60 Hz 0.00495 0.0014 - 0.0020
103 Hz 0.0042 0.00057-0.0013
106 Hz 0.0027 0.0002-0.0009
Hardness (KH100) 465

Modulus of elasticity (psi) 10.0 * 106 (2.5-15)*106

Linear coefficient of expansion (cm/cm/C) 92 * 10-7 (5-6.8)*10-6

Thermal conductivity (cal/cm/s/C) 0.0016 - 0.0029 --

Specific gravity (g/cm3) 2.47 2.3 - 2.5

Tensile strength (psi) -- 3000 - 1300

Compressive strength (psi) -- 100,000

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Table (4.2).

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4.7 Classification of Insulating Materials

There are virtually hundreds of insulating materials which are used in

electrical power industry. All such materials can broadly be classified into five
main categories, namely gas, liquid, solid, vacuum and composite. Some of the
materials commonly used under each category and their desirable properties are
summarized next.

4.7.1 Gases

In their normal state, most gases offer good insulation. Consequently,

overhead transmission lines and open air circuit breakers using air insulation are
in service since the early days of electrical power industry. Since the last 30-40
years, metalclad switchgear and gas insulated cables and transformers insulated
with compressed sulfur hexafluoride gas, SF6 are extensively being used in the
electric power systems. In special applications, as for instance in Van de Graf
generates or in measurement capacitors, other gases or mixtures of SF6 with
gases such as N2, O2, CO2, air, etc. are also used.

An ideal gaseous insulation should be cheap, chemically and thermally

stable and should not form toxic, corrosive or flammable products under
prolonged electrical stress. It should have good heat-transfer and arc-quenching
properties, and exhibit low condensation temperature even when it is
pressurized. Most importantly, it should have high uniform and nonuniform
dielectric field strength under DC, AC and impulse voltages and should not
suffer any loss of these values under prolonged use. It should be economical and
environmental friendly.

4.7.2 Vacuum

The absence of any solid, liquid and gas in the interelectrode gap space
results into a vacuum medium which has excellent insulating and arc quenching

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properties. A true vacuum is very difficult to achieve and maintain and residual
gas pressure of the order of 10-9 to 10-12 bar may exist in vacuum insulated
equipment. In such equipment, electrode material, shape and surface finish,
residual gas pressure and contaminating particles are important factors which
influence the breakdown in a vacuum gap. Vacuum insulated switches and
circuit breakers are increasingly being used in power systems now.

4.7.3 Liquids

An ideal liquid insulant should have high value of dielectric strength,

volume resistivity, specific heat, thermal conductivity and flash point and low
values of loss factor, viscosity, pour point and density. Furthermore, the liquid
should be non-corrosive, non-flammable, non-toxic and chemically stable having
good arc quenching as well as gas-absorbing properties.

No single liquid is available which possess all of the desirable properties

and usually a compromise has to be made. Mineral oils having alkanes, cyclo-
alkanes and aromatics as the main constituents have been used in power
equipment for over one hundred years. Another class of liquids which have been
used for transformers and capacitors are chlorinated aromatics or askarels. They
are also called PCBs and exhibit excellent flame resistance and very good
electrical properties and are derived from benzene or from biphenyl. In 1970's, it
was found that these compounds exhibit a considerable health hazard and most
countries have now legally banned the production and use of these liquids.
Many new liquids have since been developed which are without adverse
ecological effects and also possess properties which are comparable with those
of PCBs. These include silicone oil, synthetic hydrocarbons and fluorinated
hydrocarbons. Thus, at present a variety of liquid insulation materials are used
in transformers, cables, capacitors, circuit breakers, and other high voltage
equipment.

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4.7.4 Solids

An ideal solid dielectric must have some of the properties mentioned

earlier for gases or liquids. In addition, it should have good mechanical and
bonding properties. Inorganic as well as organic solid insulating materials are
widely used in electrical power components. The most important inorganic
materials are ceramic and glass which are used to manufacture insulators,
bushings and other high voltage components. The most prominent organic
materials are thermosetting epoxy resins or thermoplastic materials such as
polyvinylechloride (PVC) and polyethylene (PE). Cross-linked polyethylene
(XLPE) and thermoplastic materials are mainly used to manufacture extruded
dielectric power cables. Kraft paper, natural rubber, ethylene polypropylene
rubber (EPR), silicon rubber and polypropylene are some of the other solid
dielectric materials which are widely used.

4.7.5 Composites

In many engineering applications, more than one class of insulating

materials are used together giving rise to a composite or a hybrid type of
insulation system. Example of such systems employing solid/gas insulation are
transmission line insulators and solid spacers used in gas insulated switchgear,
(GIS). In solid/gas composites, the solid/gas interface usually represents the
weakest link and has to be very carefully designed. Similarly, in vacuum
insulated systems, the interface of solid insulating spacer with a vacuum proves
to be a weak link. Examples of solid/liquid composite insulation are oil
impregnated paper tapes used in high voltage cables, transformers, capacitors
and bushings. Similarly, oil impregnated, metallized plastic films used in power
capacitors also belong to this category. Solid composites are used in laminated
insulation sheets, etc.

In the applications of composites, it is important to ensure that all

components of the composite are chemically stable and do not react with each

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other under combined thermal, mechanical and electrical stresses over an
expected life of the equipment and have nearly equal dielectric constants.
Furthermore, the liquid insulant should not absorb any impurities from the solid
which may adversely affect its resistivity, dielectric strength, loss factor and
other properties.

4.8 Life Controlling Parameters for Insulation

There are several parameters which can significantly influence the useful
life of an insulation material. The most important of these parameters are briefly
summarized here.

4.8.1 Temperature

The temperature to which an insulation material is exposed controls its

rate of degradation. Therefore, the useful life of the insulation material is
decreased when the temperature to which the insulation is exposed is increased
above a certain level. It is for this reason that thermal classification system
discussed in chapter 8 is adopted for different insulation materials.

For paper based insulation systems, when the temperature is increased by

8 - 10 K above the safe level, its useful life is approximately halved. Thus, the
conductor temperature, the ambient temperature, as well as the characteristics of
the cooling system are important parameters in the design of high as well as low
voltage insulation components.

4.8.2 Electric stress

Usually the conduction and breakdown of a dielectric material is caused

by high electric stress. The working values of electric stress in high voltage
components are usually much smaller than the design stresses and depend upon
the type of equipment. Generally, insulation life is adversely affected by an

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increase in the operating stress values. Thus, there is an influence of the applied
electric stress on the life expectancy of insulation materials.

4.8.3 Environmental factors

Environmental factors such as pressure, temperature, relatively humidity,

solar and ultraviolet radiation, ground water and presence of various chemicals
in the water, and presence of other chemicals and pollutants in the environment
can strongly influence the rate of aging and degradation of most of the
dielectrics. Therefore, environmental factors play a vital role in the long term
performance of insulation systems. For example, different chemicals present
in subsoil water, greatly influence the water treeing degradation of polymeric
insulation. Similarly, ultraviolet radiation significantly influences the life time
and performance of outdoor polymeric insulation.

Fig. (4.6) illustrates an example of the effect of ultraviolet radiation

exposure time on the tracking breakdown time of three kinds of epoxy resins
[4]. These resins were: S1 = bisphenol epoxy resin filled with silica flour, S2
= cycloaliphatic epoxy resin filled with silica flour and S3 = cycloaliphatic
epoxy resin filled with saline-treated silica flour. The output power of uv
lamps used was 400 W. This figure shows that three kinds of epoxy resins
show similar tendency, in that under uv radiation, the time to tracking
breakdown initially increases, but then it decreases considerably with
continued uv radiation. Thus tracking resistance of epoxy is influenced by
exposure to uv radiation. Similarly, other radiations also influence most of
organic and polymeric insulation materials. Thus environmental factors must
always be considered in the selection of insulation systems.

4.8.4 Other factors

Depending upon the type of insulation material, there may be several

other factors which can affect the life of insulation components. Thus, it is

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important that a suitable insulation material is selected for a specific
application after considering all the relevant factors and it is operated while
keeping the thermal, electrical and environmental stresses within the
acceptable levels.

Fig. (4.6). Effect of ultraviolet radiation exposure time on the time to tracking
breakdown of three epoxy systems [4].

4.9 Solved Examples

Example 4.1:

The following measurements were made for a dielectric material.

The air capacitance of the electrode system = 100 pF

The capacitance and loss angle of the electrodes with dielectric

specimen = 230 pF and 0.009, respectively. Find the dielectric constant,
complex permittivity and complex relative permittivity of the test specimen:

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Solution

C 230
The dielectric constant  r    2.3
C o 100

Complex relative permittivity *r = r - j r tan  = 2.3 - j 0.0207

Complex permittivity = o *r = 8.854 * 10-12 (2.3 - j 0.0207)

= (2.036 - j 0.018) * 10-11 F/m

Example 4.2:

Derive a parallel RC equivalent network for the above case assuming

that f = 60 Hz.

Solution

 = 2  f = 377 rad/s

tan  = 0.009

Cp = 230 pF

1
For a parallel network tan  =
 R p Cp

Therefore

1 1
Rp    1281.41 M
 
 C p tan  377 230 *10 12 0.009

Example 4.3:

For the system of example (4.1), estimate the value of DC conductivity ,

and resistivity .

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Solution

From equation (4.12)

 =  o r tan 

 = (377) (8.854 * 10-12) (2.3) (0.009) = 6.91 * 10-11 (m)-1

Therefore

1
  1.447 *1010 m


Example 4.4:

Derive a series equivalent circuit for the dielectric of example (4.2).

Solution

Since Cs  Cp. Thus, Cs = 230 pF.

However, from equation (4.14)

tan  =  Rs Cs

Therefore

tan  0.009
  103794.3 
Rs =

 C s 377 230 *10 12 
Example 4.5:

Determine the heat power generated in 1 m3 of the test specimen due to

dielectric loss if the dielectric constant and loss tangent of the specimen are 2.3
and 0.009 respectively. The electric field is 20 kV/cm at 60 Hz. Assume the
specimen is stressed in parallel plate electrode system.

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Solution

The dielectric power loss =  Co V2 r tan 

Assume that the sample is represented by a parallel plate capacitor with

o A
plate area of A (m2) and separation of d(m). Then Co = . Moreover, the
d
volume = Ad (m3). Thus, heat generated in 1 m3 (or specific heat power Hs) is
given as

 A
  o  V 2  r tan  2
 d  V
Hs =   o  r   tan 
Ad d

Since E = V/d = Electric field, the specific heat power H is

Hs =  o r E2 tan 

where  = 2f = 377 rad/s, E = 20 kV/cm = 2*106 V/m

Hs = (377) (8.854 * 10-12) (2.3) (2*106)2 (0.009)

Hs = 276.4 W/m3

Example 4.6:

The following data were obtained in an experiment using uniform field

electrodes. Find the dielectric strength of the insulation at a gap of 2 mm.

Gap (mm) 1 2 3 4

Breakdown voltage (kV) 100 190 275 535

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Solution

Dielectric strength is the slope of breakdown voltage versus gap

distance curve = V/x. To find dielectric strength at a gap of 2 cm we find
slope between 1 and 3 cm.

V = 275 - 100 = 175 kV

x = 3 - 1 = 2 mm

v 175
Thus  = 87.5 kV/mm is the required dielectric strength.
x 2

Example 4.7:

An XLPE cable has  = 1017 m, and the radius of inner and outer
conductors are 1 and 2 cm, respectively. Find the insulation resistance of this
cable if cable length is (a) 1m, and (b) 1 km.

Solution

Consider the cable cross-section shown in Fig. (e4.7).

Fig. (e4.7). Coaxial cable.

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 The insulation resistance, dR of the layer between x and dx can be
obtained from equation (4.2) by realizing that in this case.

 = dx, and A = 2  x. Thus,

 dx
dR 
2 x 

Total insulation resistance can be obtained by integration of dR as follows

x 2
 x  2 dx  2
R   dR    n  
x 1
2 x 1 x 2  1 

1017
Thus, for  = 1m, R= ln 2  1.103 * 1016 
2 1

1.103 * 1016 
and for  = 1 km, R= ln 2  1.103 * 1013 
1000

Note that the insulation resistance is inversely proportional to the length

of the cable.

Example 4.8:

A coaxial cable has inner and outer conductor diameter of 5 and 7 can
respectively. The insulation material has a resistivity of 2*1010 m while it
relative permittivity is 3.5. Calculate: (i) dissipation factor, (ii) loss factor,
(iii) dielectric losses per meter of cable when energized at 100 kV, 60 Hz, and
(iv) insulation resistance of the cable.

Solution

 1 1
(i) tan  =  
  o  r 2 f  o  r  2 * 60 * 8.854 *10 12 * 3.5 * 2 *1010

= 4.28*10-3

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(ii) Loss factor = r tan  = 3.5 * 4.28 * 10-3 = 1.5*10-2

2  o  r 2 * 8.854 * 10 12 * 3.5

(iii) C=   5.79 * 10 10 F / m
b  3.5 
ln   ln  
a  2.5 

PL = dielectric losses = 2 f C V2 tan 

= 2  * 60 * 5.79 * 10-10 (100000)2 * 4.28 * 10-3

= 9.34 W per m of cable length

V2
(iv) Since power in a resistor is given as PL =
R

V 2 1000002
Hence R = Insulation Resistance =   1.07 * 109  per m of
PL 9.34
cable length

  b  2 * 1010  3.5 
Alternatively R = ln    ln    1.07 * 10  per m of cable
9
2  a  2  2.5 
length and also

1 1
tan  = 
CR 2 * 60 * 5.79 *10 10 *1.07 *109

= 4.28 * 10-3

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4.10 Questions / Problems

Q.4.1 Name the main electrical and non-electrical properties required for
use of an insulation material in high voltage cables.

Q.4.2 The resistance of a transmission line conductor increases with

conductor length whereas the insulation resistance of a high voltage
cable decreases with the length of the cable. Explain this behavior.

Q.4.3 Derive an expression for the conductivity of a coaxial cable

insulation if its insulation resistance is R (), length is (m) and
inner and outer conductor radii are a and b, respectively.

Q.4.4 Why dipoles are formed when an insulating material is subjected to

high electric stress? Why formation of such dipoles cause losses in a
dielectric? What are different polarization mechanisms?

Q.4.5 List some of environmental and atmospheric parameters that may

affect the life of a polymer insulator used in hot and dry atmosphere.
If such insulator is to be used in wet atmosphere, what other factors
must also be considered?

Q.4.6 Is it preferable to have an insulating material with a high tan  or a

low tan  for use in:

(a) low voltage cables?

(b) high voltage cables?

Give reasons for your answer.

Q.4.7 How could you measure the resistivity of an insulating liquid?

Propose a circuit to be used, the measurements to be made and the
required calculations.

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Q.4.8 Should transformer oil possess a high or a low value of viscosity?
Should this material have a high or low value of specific heat
capacity? Give reasons for your answers.

Q.4.9 A dielectric slab is 10 cm2 in area and 1 mm in thickness. If its

capacitance is 32 pF, what is its relative permittivity? If the
dielectric has a loss angle of 5 degrees, applied voltage is 10 kV and
frequency is 60 Hz, calculate the following:

(i) Capacitive component of current

(ii) tan 

(iii) Complex absolute and relative permittivity of the dielectric

(iv) Parallel equivalent circuit of the dielectric

(v) Series equivalent circuit of the dielectric

(vi)  and  for the dielectric material

(vii) DC insulation resistance for the specimen

(viii) Dielectric losses and specific dielectric losses

(ix) Applied electric stress value

Q.4.10 A high voltage cable has a capacitance of 200 pF/m whereas its
insulation resistance is 104 Mm. If the cable length is 1 km, find
parallel equivalent circuit for this cable and calculate its loss tangent.

Q.4.11 (a) The breakdown voltage of an insulation material of thickness d

cm is V (kV). If its dielectric strength Ds kV/cm, what is the
breakdown voltage for a thickness of d + 1 cm.

(b) Assuming that V = 120 kV, and Ds = 30 kV/cm, what is value of

d?

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References

[1] N.H. Malik, A.A. Al-Arainy and M.I. Qureshi, "Electrical Insulation in
Power Systems", Maral Dekker Inc. New York, USA, 1997.

[2] R. Bartnikas (editor), "Engineering Dielectrics - Vol. III: Electrical

Insulating Liquids", ASTM Press, Philadelphia, USA, 1994.

[3] R. Bartnikas and R.M. Eichhorn, "Engineering Dielectrics - Vol. IIA:

Electrical Properties of Solid Insulation Material - Molecular Structure
and Electrical Behavior", ASTM Press, Philadelphia, USA, 1983.

[4] Y. Yoshimura, S. Kumagai and B.Du, "Research in Japan on the

Tracking Phenomena of Electrical Insulating Materials", IEEE
Electrical Insul. Magazine, Vol. 13, No. 5, 1997, pp. 8-19.

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