Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Introduction
Dielectric strength is a measure of the electrical strength of a material as an insulator. Dielectric strength
defined the maximum voltage required producing a dielectric breakdown through the material and
expressed as volts per unit thickness. A higher dielectric strength represents a better quality of insulator
[1]. The dielectric strength test is the third test required by the electrical safety testing standards. The
dielectric strength test consists in measuring the current leak of a device under test, while phase and
neutral are short circuit together. The measure result of a dielectric strength test is a current value, which
has to be lower than the indicated limit from the international standards. Dielectric Strength tester (also
called hipot tester, dielectric strength tester, flash tester, high voltage tester is used to measure this current.
[2].
A dielectric material is a substance that is a poor conductor of electricity, but an efficient supporter of
electrostatic fields. If the flow of current between opposite electric charge poles is kept to a minimum
while the electrostatic lines of flux are not impeded or interrupted, an electrostatic field can store energy.
This property is useful in capacitor s, especially at radio frequencies. Dielectric materials are also used in
the construction of radio-frequency transmission lines. In practice, most dielectric materials are solid.
Examples include porcelain (ceramic), mica, glass, plastics, and the oxides of various metals. Some
liquids and gases can serve as good dielectric materials. Dry air is an excellent dielectric, and is used in
variable capacitors and some types of transmission lines. Distilled water is a fair dielectric. A vacuum is
an exceptionally efficient dielectric. An important property of a dielectric is its ability to support an
electrostatic field while dissipating minimal energy in the form of heat. The lower the dielectric loss (the
proportion of energy lost as heat), the more effective is a dielectric material. Another consideration is the
dielectric constant, the extent to which a substance concentrates the electrostatic lines of flux. Substances
with a low dielectric constant include a perfect vacuum, dry air, and most pure, dry gases such as helium
and nitrogen. Materials with moderate dielectric constants include ceramics, distilled water, paper, mica,
polyethylene, and glass. Metal oxides, in general, have high dielectric constants. The prime asset of high-
dielectric-constant substances, such as aluminum oxide, is the fact that they make possible the
manufacture of high-value capacitors with small physical volume. But these materials are generally not
able to withstand electrostatic fields as intense as low-dielectric-constant substances such as air. If the
voltage across a dielectric material becomes too great -- that is, if the electrostatic field becomes too
intense -- the material will suddenly begin to conduct current. This phenomenon is called dielectric
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breakdown. In components that use gases or liquids as the dielectric medium, this condition reverses itself
if the voltage decreases below the critical point. But in components containing solid dielectrics, dielectric
breakdown usually results in permanent damage [7].
When an electrical insulation is stressed in the electric field, ionization causes electrical discharges which
may grow from one electrode of high potential to the one of low potential or vice versa. This may cause a
high current rise, i.e., the dielectric loses its insulation property and thus its function to separate different
potentials in an electric apparatus or equipment. For the purpose of this book, this phenomenon shall be
called ‘‘breakdown’’ related to the stressing voltage: Definition The breakdown is the failure of
insulation under electric stress, in which the discharge completely bridges the insulation under test and
reduces the voltage between electrodes to practically zero (collapse of voltage). Current flows in a
material when an electromotive force is applied that is strong enough to force the movement of electric
charge. This charge movement is carried by electrons in the material, and can be measured as electric
current. Metals, such as copper, have many free electrons available to transfer electric charge. This makes
copper a good conductor because there is little resistance to the flow of charge and the energy lost as heat,
due to current is minimal. The performance of conductive materials is in marked contrast to that of
insulating materials, which have a physical structure that prevents the easy movement of electrons. Since
the electrons cannot move freely, they cannot effectively carry charge through the material. However, it is
always possible to force the material to conduct by exposing it to sufficiently high voltage [8].

1.2 Historical background

The word dielectric comes from the Greek ‘dia = through’ + ‘electric’, which was condensed into
‘dielectric’ for ease of pronunciation. In 1836 Faraday discovered that electric charges created by high-
voltage generator could not create an electric field inside a room enclosed by a metallic envelope (what is
since called a Faraday cage) [9]. In practice, electric field lines do not ‘pass through’ an electrical
conductor, in opposition to what happens with any material not carrying electricity (like glass or air).
Faraday thus needed a new term to define such ‘non-electrical-conducting’ materials allowing the electric
field to pass through and consulted William Whewell who, in December 1836, invented the term
dielectric. It is interesting to note that Whewell coined an impressive series of other important scientific
terms, in certain cases by analogy to other words (scientist, physicist in analogy to the word artist), in
other cases to help friends facing specific scientific issues (among others Lyell with the terms Eocene,
Miocene and Piocene and Faraday with the terms anode, cathode, dielectric, diamagnetic, paramagnetic,
ion, electrode) [10].
Oils have been used in electro technology for a long time, leading to the creation of IEC TC 10, initially
called "transformer oils", as early as 1924. The scope of this TC has been extended a number of times,
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first in 1926 to include "insulating oils" and later to cover additional applications and equipment,
including lubricants for steam turbines and substances like gases. Some electrical equipment and systems,
such as power transformers and switchgear, use mineral insulating oils. The functional requirements of
these oils are insulation, heat transfer and arc quenching. The standards issued by TC 10 in this domain
provide guidelines to insulating fluids producers and are of interest to manufacturers of electrical
transformers, switchgear and other equipment, and to engineers in charge of plant operation and control.
For the purpose of this standard, mineral insulating oils are classified into two categories: transformer oils
and low temperature switchgear oils. To maintain the quality of mineral insulating oils as long as possible,
chemicals such as oxidation or corrosion inhibitors need to be added to them to improve some of their
properties. IEC 60296 expands significantly on the previous version as regards the definition of some of
these additives. The revised standard also includes a comprehensive note, lacking in the previous edition,
on specifications for corrosive Sulphur compounds that can lead to the build-up of certain substances in
transformers and on their potentially corrosive impact. Other International Standards prepared by TC 10
concern different aspects of the use of mineral insulating oils in electro technical equipment [11].

1.3 Necessity of oil testing

The transformers oil acts as an insulation but also it is used for cooling of the transformer. It carries away
the heat generated in the transformer. It is highly important that the properties of transformer oil are
maintained so that they do not change in due course of time. But the properties of the oil change when
exposed to the atmosphere because of the ingression of moisture, dust, etc. In this project, an attempt has
been to study the change in properties of transformer oil when it is exposed to the atmosphere. The
degradation of oil is measured by the change in the electrical properties of the oil as breakdown voltage
(BVD), tan delta and part per million (ppm).
Insulating materials are used for insulating the conductor from the atmosphere. There are so many types of
insulators in which liquid is also used as an insulator. Therefore in transformer the oil is used for
insulation and heat dissipation.
Transformer oil needs to be tested periodically to ensure that it is still fit for purpose. Testing sequence
and procedures are by various international standards by American Society for Testing and Material
(ASTM).
As transformer oil is an important factor for protection of transformer winding, also used for heat
dissipation inside the tank. it is important to investigate the healthy condition of transformer oil with
respect to its properties. This research work deals with such investigative test s used to study the
properties and the experiment on the sample taken to calculate the healthy condition of transformer oil.
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with deterioration in healthy condition of transformer oil when exposed to atmosphere causes bubble
formation, atmospheric changes, surface breakdown and tracking effect in transformer oil. Before
investigating it important to discuss the properties standard required for healthy insulating material. Based
on the properties the investigative test can be carried out in order verify the healthiness of the insulating
material. Transformer oil properties are discussed in this paper and investigative test are perform on
variable sample to judge the healthiness of insulating material. Low viscosity is the ease with which
convection flow can be induced clearly is very dependent on the viscosity of the fluid and it is therefore
very important. Resistance to oxidation is the neutralization value of Transformer oil increases on getting
oxidize. The neutralization value must not go beyond 0.4mg KOH/ gm. after oxidization and total sludge
after oxidization must be not more than 0.1 % of the weight of oil used. Sludge is a poor conductor of
heat, sludge deposited over the Transformer parts leads to poor heat dissipation. It blocks the flow of oil in
the ducts and impaired cooling. Therefore once sediments of perceptible sludge are detected oil is
considered not usable.
Dielectric strength of Transformer oil the dielectric breakdown voltage measurement of the electrical
stress that the insulating oil can withstand without failure. This property is measured by applying the
voltage through the oil sample between two electrodes under a certain prescribed condition in the oil. The
dielectric strength of Transformer oil is also known as Breakdown Voltage (BDV) of Transformer oil. The
specific resistance of transformer oil is with an increase in temperature the resistivity of oil decreases
rapidly. The resistivity of the insulating oil must be high at room temperature. Also, it should have good
value at high temperature as well. That is why specific resistance of resistivity of Transformer oil should
be measured at 27°C as well as 90°C.
Moisture content is a Testing sample of Transformer oil gives the content of moisture/water in it, due to
the presence of this moisture the dielectric constant of oil is reduced. Any increase in moisture content
will decrease the insulating property of oil. Water in solution is normally determined by chemical means
and is measured in parts per million (ppm).
Dielectric strength is the dielectric breakdown voltage is the measurement of the electric stress that
insulating oil can withstand, without failure. This property is measured by applying a voltage through the
oil sample between two electrodes under certain prescribed conditions in the oil. Power Factor- The Power
Factor is the valuable screening test. It is the ratio of true power to Apparent power. If the new oil has a
power factor greater than 0.05% it indicates a significant power loss, because the oil may be contaminated
with water, oxidation products, or other polar contaminants. Effect of oxidation-The effect of oxygen
moisture contamination is one of the most obvious causes of deterioration in the insulating quality of
Transformer oil. This contamination can be eliminated by purification. A less Rapid, but more serious

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characteristic deterioration if the formation of acid and sludge, which is caused by oxidation. Thus the
exclusion of oxygen is of prime importance. In open breather Transformers, the oxygen supply the almost
unlimited and oxidative deterioration is much faster than in sealed Transformers. Atmospheric oxygen is
not the only source of oxygen available for the oxidation of insulating oil; water also serves as a carrier of
Oxygen and Leaky gaskets constitutes a real hazard, causing both oxidation and moisture contamination.
The rate of oxidation also depends on the temperature of the oil; the higher the temperature, and the faster
oxidative breakdown. This point to the importance of avoiding overloading of Transformers, especially in
Summer time. Oxidation results in the formation of acid in the insulating oil which in turn, contributes to
the formation of sludge.
The effect of temperature on moisture-The amount of moisture that can be dissolved in oil increases
rapidly as the oil temperature increases. Therefore, insulating oil purified at to higher temperature may
lose a large percentage of its dielectric strength on cooling, because the dissolved moisture is them
becomes an emulsion.
Effect of contamination is solid and metal particles in oil-Solid particles in suspension in insulating oil
affect the dielectric strength, depending on concentration, type, and size. Particles counting with automatic
laser particle counter have become simple. A particle size distribution lists the size and amount of
different particles. The particle in insulating oil settles rapidly and in only about an hour, all particles
larger than 50 Micron are deposited. Smaller particles take more time. This means that sample must be
agitated before PSD (particle size distribution) analysis.
Humidity-Various types of humidity are as follows:
Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of vapour pressure at a temperature to the saturation vapour
pressure at the dry bulb temperature. It should be kept in mind that for calculating relative humidity,
saturation vapour pressure is taken at dry bulb temperature and not at wet bulb temperature.
Specific humidity is defined as the mass of water vapour present in the kg per kg of dry air. Absolute
humidity- it is defined as the amount of water vapour present in a unit volume of air. It is usually
expressed in kilograms per cubic meter.
A principle of tan Delta test-
A pure insulator when connected across line and Earth, it behaves as a capacitor. In an ideal insulator, as
an insulating material which acts as a dielectric too, it is 100% pure, the electric current passing through
the insulator, only have capacitive component. There is no resistive component of the current, flowing
from line to earth through insulator as an ideal insulating material, there is 0% Impurity. In the pure
capacitor, the capacitive electric current leads the applied voltage by 90° in practice; the insulator cannot
be made 100% pure. Also due to the aging of the insulator are the impurities like dirt and moisture enter

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into it. These impurities provide a conductive path to the current consequently, leakage electric current
flowing from line earth through insulator has also the resistive component. Hence it is needless to say that,
for good insulator, this resistive component of leakage electric current is quite low. In another way, the
healthiness of an electric insulator can be determined by a ratio of the resistive component to the
capacitive component for good insulator this ratio would be quite low. This ratio is commonly known as
Tan δ or tan Delta. Sometimes it is also called as dissipation factor (DDF).
The resistive components IR are in phase with the voltage on the x-axis. The inductive component IL lags
capacitive component IC. As the capacitive component of leakage electric current IC lead system voltage
by 90°, it will be drawn along the y-axis.
Now total leakage current IL (IC +IR) makes an angle δ with the y-axis.
Now from the diagram above, it is cleared; the ratio IR to IC is nothing but tan δ
Thus, tan δ=IR/IC
Where, IR – Resistive component
IC- Capacitive component
This tan δ angle is known as a loss angle.
When the oil is kept open to atmosphere, it contaminates and the properties of the oil change because of
the ingression of moisture, dust particles etc. To study these, two samples of oil are taken and the
electrical parameters of oil such as breakdown voltage, dielectric dissipation factor, and PPM are regularly
monitored. Two tanks filled with oil is taken as exposed to the atmospheric condition. These tanks are so
covered that dust, dirt couldn't enter but at the same time provide sufficient ventilation to the oil. These oil
samples are taken into glass bottles as per the quantity required for different testing. The test performed on
the oil that is breakdown voltage test (BDV), tan delta test and water content test breakdown voltage is
performed to check the dielectric strength of the oil: Tan Delta test is performed to check the loss angle of
oil: water content test is performed to check water in oil in parts per million (ppm) initially the fresh oil
was tested and reading was noted, then after the changes in the property irregularly monitor for 65 days.
The relation between the deterioration of properties and the number of days is studied. It was observed
that in the first 6 days of exposure, the dielectric strength of oil drastically decreases.
Ref: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328651039

1.4 Key points of the thesis

 Dielectric strength  IEC Standard  Flash over voltage
 Transformer oil testing  IEEE standard  Leakage current

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1.5 Objective
Generally, the measurements in this thesis project follow the international standards (IEC). In this project
a new tool for Tan Delta in oil measurement has been developed by the high voltage laboratory.
The objectives of this thesis and associated project work are:
 To analyze the dielectric properties of insulating material (transformer oil), such as the breakdown
voltage during an accelerated thermal aging process the dielectric properties are measured along the
accelerated aging process.
 To consider insulating material (oil) samples underwent thermal aging which influenced their
chemical reaction rate at high temperature. Besides, the humidity value during the aging or moisture
instability of the oil samples was measured to see its influence on the dielectric characteristics. In
order to compare with different temperature, the same aging process and dielectric tests are carried out
on insulating oil (transformer oil). Later, the final result will acknowledge the difference of dielectric
characteristics of each temperature insulated oil types.

1.6 Organization of the thesis

The thesis is organized in seven important chapters in which each chapter has its own way of describing
and analyzing the fundamentals of the work followed by the theoretical, experimental and simulation
results reveals the lubricity of the work.
Chapter 1: This chapter deals with the basic introduction of the work and dielectric strength. It also
includes the organization of the Thesis work.
Chapter 2: In this chapter, the breakdown of the different insulating material has studied. It also covers
the basic definition of “Dielectric”, “Flash over voltage”, “leakage current”, “Transformer oil” and
“Insulator” and its nature in all insulting materials like air, gas, liquid and solids. Besides, discussion of
the standard test procedure and researches has been included.
Chapter 3: This chapter describes the experiment setup for dielectric strength of different materials
experiment circuit diagram.
Chapter 4: This chapter explains the equipment’s that is used for testing of dielectric strength of
transformer oil.
Chapter 5: This chapter discusses the testing procedure of dielectric strength of transformer oil.
Chapter 6: In this chapter results and discussion part of the thesis is described and all the results are
furnished in a tabular as well as the graphical form to clarify the experiment of the thesis.
Chapter 7: Finally, the conclusion of the project work and also some important discussion about the
future work of the thesis has been included which helps the advancements in technology.
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