Flow and Potential Gradient

Flow is a physical process that depends on potential gradient.

Hubbert (1940) – defines Potential as:

A physical quantity capable of measurement at every point in a
flow system, whose properties are such that flow always occurs
from regions in which the quantity has higher values to those in
which it has lower values, regardless of the direction in space.

Examples:
Heat conducts from high temperature to low temperature
• Temperature is a potential
Electricity flows from high voltage to low voltage
• Voltage is a potential
Movement of water through porous media is due to difference
in fluid potential.
• Fluid pressure is a potential 1
 Fluid Potential
• Fluids flow from high to low fluid potential.
• Flow direction is away from location where mechanical
energy per unit mass of fluid is high to where it is low.
• How does this relate to measurable quantity?

Classical definition of potential as it is usually presented by

mathematicians and physicists is in terms of the work
done during the flow process is:

“The work done in moving a unit mass of fluid

between any two points in a flow system is a
measure of the energy loss of the unit mass.”

• The units of potential are Joules/kg and the dimensions of these units
reduce to L2/T2.
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 Fluid Potential

• Fluid flow through porous media is a mechanical process.

• The forces driving the fluid forward must overcome the
frictional forces set up between the moving fluid and the
grains of the porous medium.
• The flow is therefore accompanied by an irreversible
transformation of mechanical energy to thermal energy
through the mechanism of frictional resistance.
• Therefore fluid potential satisfies both Hubbert’s definition
of a potential (in terms of the direction of flow) and the
classical definition (in terms of the work done).
• The fluid potential for flow through porous media is
therefore the mechanical energy per unit mass of fluid.
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 Fluid Potential Components
The total fluid potential is the sum of several component
potentials:

Φ = Φm + Φo + Φu + Φp + Φb + Φg
where:
m is the matric potential,
o is the osmotic potential,
u is the velocity potential,
p is the pressure potential,
b is the overburden potential, and
g is the gravitational potential.

In general, only two or three of these potentials require

consideration in any particular problem. The required combination
will depend upon whether a saturated problem or an
unsaturated problem is being studied. 4
 Fluid Potential
• Fluid flow through porous media is a mechanical process.
• The Fluid Potential (the mechanical energy per unit mass):

The term (V2/2) is almost always unimportant in groundwater

flow, with the possible exception of where the flow is very fast,
and Darcy’s Law begins to break down.
After Simplification, total hydraulic head Ht = Hz + Hp

Hydraulic head is the elevation to which water will naturally

rise in a well (“static level”).
For unconfined aquifers the hydraulic head is the same thing as
the water table. For confined aquifers it is not. 5
 Fluid Potential and Hydraulic Head
In problems involving prediction of flow in fully saturated
aquifers, the water potential (head) reduces to the sum of
the gravitational and pressure potentials i.e.,

Φ = Φg + Φp
In terms of head

h = z + hp
Elevation head, z, is the vertical distance between an
arbitrary datum and the point of measurement.

Pressure head ψ or hp, is equal to the pressure exerted

by the overlying column of water above the point of
measurement.

This fundamental head relationship is basic to an 6

understanding of saturated ground-water flow.
Figure #1. The relationships between hydraulic head, elevation head and
pressure head are shown for a Piezometer and a flowing well.

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 Hydraulic Gradient
• The hydraulic gradient is the change in hydraulic head between two
points divided by the distance between the two points. Water moves in
response to a hydraulic gradient. If there is no hydraulic gradient the
water will remain stationary.

• The hydraulic gradient is often calculated in the x-y plane and referred
to as the horizontal hydraulic gradient.

• In many important situations, the hydraulic gradient varies vertically.

That is, if you could measure the hydraulic head at different depths
below the same location, the hydraulic head would change.

• Piezometers are usually installed in groups designed to investigate

either the horizontal or vertical movement of groundwater.

• Mathematically, the gradient of the hydraulic head can be 8

written as
 Horizontal Hydraulic Gradient
Horizontal hydraulic gradient is simply the slope of the water table
or potentiometric surface. It is the change in hydraulic head over
the change in distance between the two monitoring wells or dh/dl.
In mathematical terms, horizontal gradient is rise over run.
i = dh/dl= difference in head / horizontal distance between wells
= (h2 - h1) / L

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 Vertical Hydraulic Gradient

Vertical hydraulic gradient is

dh/dl = difference in head / vertical distance between wells
= (h2 - h1) / (z2 - z1)

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Calculation of Hydraulic Gradient; Horizontal Flow

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Calculation of Hydraulic Gradient; Horizontal Flow

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Calculation of Hydraulic Gradient; Horizontal Flow

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Calculation of Hydraulic Gradient; Vertical Flow

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Calculation of Hydraulic Gradient; Vertical Flow

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Calculation of Hydraulic Gradient; Vertical Flow

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Problem #1 Data from three A B C
piezometers located within a few Elevation at land surface (ft) 335 335 335
feet of each other is as follows Depth of monitoring well (ft) 170 130 85
Depth to water (ft below surface) 90 82 70

a. What is the hydraulic head (h) at each?

(surface elevation - depth to water)
A = 335 – 90 = 245 ft
B = 335 – 82 = 253 ft
C = 335 – 70 = 265 ft
b. What is the pressure head (hp) at each?
(depth of well - depth to water)
c. What is the elevation head (z) at each?
A = 170 – 90 = 80 ft (land elevation - depth of well)
B = 130 – 82 = 48 ft
A = 335 – 170 = 165 ft
C = 85 – 70 = 15 ft B = 335 – 130 = 205 ft 17
C = 335 – 85 = 250 ft
d. What is the vertical hydraulic gradient between Well A and Well B?

iV = [(head B - head A) / (depth well A - depth well B)]

= [(253-245) / (170-130)] = 8/40 or 0.2

OR

iV = [(head B - head A) / (zB - zA)]

= [(253-245) / (205-165)] = 8/40 or 0.2

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