EM 1601 Chapter 2 Final 2008

United States Army Corps of
Engineers
Engineering Manual
EM 1110-2-1601
1
Chapter 2
Open Channel Hydraulic

Theory
2
Theory
• Physical Hydraulic Elements
• Hydraulic Design Aspects
• Flow Through Bridges
• Transitions
• Flow in Curved Channels
• Special Considerations
• Stable Channels
3
Physical Hydraulic Elements
• Channel slope
• Cross-sectional area
• Wetted perimeter
• “Most efficient section”
• Boundary surface roughness
4
Invert Slope
• Controlled by surrounding topgraphy

• Can be altered to achieve desired
project goals, but…
– Cut/fill can be expensive
– Effect on hydraulics and costs
– Need to examine out of reach influences
5
Channel Cross-Section
• Balance capacity with costs

• Typically:
– Trapezoidal for rural areas
– Rectangular for urban reaches
– V-bottom for minimizing effects of
sediment
6
Roughness
• Absolute roughness
– Theoretical interest only
• Effective roughness
– Dimension of length
– “Effective roughness height”
• Composite roughness
– Most common approach
7
Theory
• Transitions
• Stable Channels
8
Hydraulic Design Elements
• Assumptions
• Friction Losses
• Friction Coefficients
• Flow Classification
9
Assumptions
• Familiar with concepts of:

– Uniform flow
– Gradually varied flow
– Conservation of Energy
– Conservation of Momentum
– Conversion of friction loss terms
• Have or have access to Chow (1959)
10
• Assumptions
• Friction Losses
11
Friction Losses
• Three main equations/concepts

– Chezy
– Manning
– Darcy-Weisbach
• Included
– Losses due to friction
– Uniform turbulence and eddy losses
• Not Included
– Local turbulence and eddy losses
12
Types of Fluid Flow
• Laminar Flow – flow persists as
unidirectional movement
– Molecules flow parallel
– Movement up and down by diffusion
• Turbulent Flow – highly distorted flow
– Large scale flow perpendicular to direction of
flow
– Transfer of movement up and down by
macroscale processes
• Turbulence = irregular and random
component of fluid motion
• Eddies = highly turbulent water masses 13
14
Laminar vs Turbulent Flow
• Laminar flow – velocity constant at a point over
time
• Turbulence
– Most flows = turbulent
– Slow settling velocity – upward motion of water
particles
– Increases effectiveness of fluid in eroding and
entraining particles from the bed; but less
efficient transport agent
– Velocity measured at a point over time – tends
towards an average value; but varies from instant
to instant
15
Friction Losses
Type of Energy Losses
In consideration of the energy losses in fluid flow, they
are generally broken down into 2 types:
Major losses
Minor losses
16
Friction Losses
Major Head Losses
Major head losses are a form of energy considered to

take place continuously along the path of flow.
These losses are generally called “Friction Head Losses”.
17
Friction Losses
Minor Head Losses
Minor head losses are those losses generally created by
increased turbulence and resistance to flow at points in
the stream where the direction of flow is changed or
where other obstruction tale place.
The most commonly encountered forms of minor head losses are as

follows:
Hf head losses due to a sudden of gradual enlargement of the
cross section of flow.
Hc head losses due to a sudden of gradual contraction of the
cross section of flow.
Hg head losses due to obstruction in the path of flow (gates,
valves, metering devices, and so on)
Hb head losses occurring at bends and changes in direction of
the flow path. 18
Friction Losses
Total Head Losses
The total head loss in a stream of flowing fluid is equal to
the sum of all the head losses along its path
Total Head Losses = Major Head Losses + Minor Head Losses
Hl = hf + he + hc + hg + hb
19
• Assumptions
• Friction Losses
20
Recap
• If depth & velocity remain constant over a

length of channel which has a constant
cross-section and slope, then the flow is
uniform and water surface will be parallel
to streambed. The depth is called the
normal depth.
• If depth and/or velocity change over
distance then it is varied flow, which can
be divided into gradually varied or rapidly
varied
21
Steady Flow
• Law of continuity
– Q = V1A1 = V2A2 = …
– Q = discharge, V = Average velocity, A = cross
sectional area
– Must have continuous, steady-varied flow
• Flow may also be:
– Unsteady-varied
– Unsteady-uniform
– Steady-uniform
22
Uniform flow
• Gravity (force causing motion)

• Friction (force opposing motion)
• For uniform flow the gravity force
will equal the friction force and the
energy line, the water surface and
the streambed will be parallel (have
the same slope)
23
Analysis of Major Energy Losses
Chezy Analysis and Formula
Antoine Chezy, in 1775

A French civil engineer developed the
Chézy equation, which relates the
uniform flow velocity to channel
roughness, hydraulic radius, and bed
slope.
v = average velocity of flow
R = hydraulic radius
v = C Rs S = slope of the channel

C = coefficient depending upon the
various characteristics of the
channel and their comparison
with those of another similar
channel 24
Chezy’s Equation
• The gravitation force is

approximately proportional to the
velocity squared
• V= √(ρg/α)RS
– V is the mean velocity (ft/s)
– α is a coefficient mainly dependent on
channel roughness
25
Chezy’s “C”
• The term √(ρg/α) was later replaced

with a single coefficient C
• C has units of (ft1/2/s)
• And varies from:
– 30 (small rough channels)
– 90 (large smooth ones)
26
27
Chezy
Where:
Sf = EGL slope
V = velocity
C = Chezy coefficient
R = Hydraulic radius 28
Chezy
Hydraulically smooth channels
Where:
Rn = Reynolds number
29
Reynolds Number
VL Internal Forces
Re = or
Viscous Forces
υ
Where:
Re = Reynolds number
L = characteristic length
ν = kinematic viscosity
V = velocity
30
Chezy
Hydraulically rough channels
Where:
k = effective roughness
R = hydraulic radius 31
Hydraulically Rough or Smooth?
• Hydraulically rough
– ks > kc
• Hydraulically smooth
– Ks < kc
32
Hydraulically Rough or Smooth?
Where:
kc = Equivalent roughness
C = Chezy C
ν = kinematic viscosity
g = gravity
V = Velocity
33
Darcy-Weibach Formula
Henry Darcy, 1857
Showed that f is not dimensionless but
dependent upon numerous parameters
-the roughness of conduit wall
-the velocity of flow
-the viscosity and density of fluid
-the diameter of pipe
34
Julius Weisbach,
Developed a formula for pipe flow,
based to some extent on the Chezy
formula.
l v 2
hf = fx x f = friction factor
d = pipe diameter
d 2g l = pipe length
hf = head losses over pipe length
v = velocity
35
Analysis of Major Energy Losses
Values for f for water flowing in straight smooth pipe

are shown in table.
36
Darcy – Weisbach f
Where:
Sf = EGL slope
V = velocity
f = Darcy-Weisbach coefficient
Reynolds Number
Moody Diagram
L.F. Moody developed the diagram which expresses
the relationships between
-Reynolds number
-f for various ranges of values of k/d
Moody diagram
-all curves are concave upward and tend to
flatten out as value of Re increase.
d d
Re = 400 log(3.7 )
k k
38
Moody Diagram
Friction Factor
Reynolds Number
39
Open-Channel Flow Formulas
Manning Formula
Robert Manning, in 1885
Developed Manning formula used

for open channel flow conditions.
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
v= R s
n
v = velocity of flow, m/s
R = hydraulic radius, m
S = slope of the energy gradient
n = a roughness coefficient
40
Manning’s Equation
• V= 1/n R2/3S1/2
• Q= 1/n AR2/3S1/2
– Q is discharge (ft3/s)
– n is a coefficient known as “Manning’s n”
– SI units (imperial are multiplied by 1.486)
• n = sd1/6
– d is the median diameter in (mm) d50 for which
50% of streambed particles are smaller
• n = (0.1129R1/6)/(1.16+2log(R/d84))
– d84 is the diameter (m) for which 84% of
streambed particles are smaller
41
Manning
Where:
V = velocity
Sf = EGL slope
n = Manning’s n
Manning’s n Examples
43
Manning’s n Examples
44
Coefficient Relation
45
Plate 3 – k to C and f
46
Plate 3
Hydraulically Rough Channels
Plate 5 47
Hydraulically Rough Channels
Stop 15 SEP 08 48
Plate 4
Rules of Thumb
• Most channels are hydraulically rough

• k values for natural rivers:
– 0.1 to 3.0 (ft)
• Typically larger than spherical
diameters of bed materials – why??
49
Rules of Thumb
• If field data is
available
– Determine k from:
EQ 2-6
50
Rules of Thumb
• If field data is available

– Determine k from Equation 2-6
• Value of k can be assumed for flow

levels at or lower than observed
condition
• Appendix C outlines method for
determining an effective roughness
51
Why use k ?
• Can be assumed to be spherical
diameter of average bed material
– What if losses other than friction?
• Consider relations:
k does not vary with R

n varies with R1/6
52
However…
• k must be evaluated for each

subsection
• Use subsections:
– Differing bed materials
– Bed forms present
– Expansions and contractions
– Form roughness significant
53
Why do we need to know all
this stuff?
• Environmental flows
– Depth of flow
– Min particle size to prevent erosion
• The depth of flow is obviously
important in calculating possible flood
depths….
• But its not that simple, we actually
use this for back water calculations.
54
• Assumptions
• Friction Losses
55
Flow Classification
• Tranquil and rapid flow

• Pulsating rapid flow
• Varied Flow
56
Tranquil vs. Rapid Flow
• Distinction centered around specific

energy and critical depth
57
Depth vs. Specific Energy
58
Tranquil Flow d > 1.1dc
or Fr < 0.86
Rapid Flow d < 0.9dc

or Fr > 1.13
59
If in instability region:
Evaluate both high and

low resistance values
Adjust slope (or k) to

design in proper zone
60
Pulsating Rapid Flow
• Occurs at Froude numbers much

greater than 1
• Formation of slugs
• Typically on steep slopes with shallow
depths
• What is effect?
61
• Need to determine roughness

• Concept of limiting Froude number
• Rather difficult to quantify
62
Roughness
EQ. 2-10
Where:
R = Hydraulic radius
n = Manning’s n
F = Froude number of flow
Fs = Limiting Froude number 63
Limiting Froude Number
EQ. 2-11
Where:
Fs = Limiting Froude number
g = Gravity
ξ = Flow function
ζ = depth/width ratio
Z = Channel side slope 64
Limiting Froude Number
Where:
ξ = flow function
ζ = depth/width ratio
d = flow depth
b = bottom width 65
Q = 1000
b = 10
Y=3
z=2
Fs = 2.12
??
z=0
Fs = 3.4
??
Plate 7 66
Varied Flow Profiles
• Prismatic Channels
– Unvarying cross sections
– Constant invert slope
– Straight alignment
• How to determine profile
– Direct integration
– Direct step
– Standard step
Start 11 SEP 67
Direct Step Method
E 2 − E1
∆x =
So − Sf
• Calculation steps
– Determine starting depth
– Assume second depth and compute
parameters associated with that depth
– Solve for step length
68
Direct Step Method
• Compute
– Upstream direction
• Subcritical flow
– Downstream direction
• Supercritical flow
• Utilize small changes of y so that:
nV 2 2
fV 2
Sf = Sf =
2.22 R 4/3
8 gR
69
Standard Step Method
• Calculation steps
– Assume WS2 at upstream location
– Compute associated velocity head
– Solve for Sf
– Solve for WS2
– Compare with assumed WS2
– Iterate as needed 70
Comparison
Comparison between direct step and standard step methods.
No. Characteristic Direct step method Standard step method
1 Ease of computation Easy (hours) Difficult (months)
any (prismatic or
2 Type of cross section prismatic
nonprismatic)
3 Independent variable flow depth length of channel
4 Dependent variable length of channel flow depth
by iteration (trial and
5 Calculation advances -> directly
error)
Accuracy increases a smaller flow depth lesser cross-sectional
6
with -> increment variability
Type of cross-section one typical cross many cross sections
7
input section (prismatic) (nonprismatic)
8 Data needs minimal extensive
spread sheet (or HEC-RAS (or
9 Tools
programming) programing)
Answer sometimes not
Answer always possible (depends on
10 Reliability
possible the type of cross-
sectional data) 71
Theory
• Transitions
• Stable Channels
72
Flow Through Bridges
• Energy losses
• Turbulence
• Water surface elevations
73
Abutment Losses
• Rapid flow
– Stay out of channel !
• Tranquil flow
– Flow depth between abutments is > yc
– Preliminary layout
• 1.0 for expansion loss
• 0.5 for contraction loss
• Bradley (1978) – Design charts
74
Pier Losses
• Three conditions (Chow 1959)

– Class A
– Class B
– Class C
75
• Three
Energy
condition Pier Losses
s
Momentum
– Class A
– Class B
– Class C
Momentum
76
Plate 10
Pier Losses
Plate 11 77
Energy Method
E1 = E 2 + hl1 − 2
E 2 = E 3 = hl 2 − 3
Where:
E1 = Energy at Section 1
hl1-2 = Losses between sections 1 and 2
hl2-3 = losses between sections 2 and 3
78
Momentum Method
Where:
M = momentum per unit time (lbs)
β = momentum correction factor (1.0)
Q = discharge (cfs)
V = average channel velocity (fps) 79
Momentum Method
Where:
m1 = hydrostatic force in section 1
mp = hydrostatic force on pier ends
80
Pier Losses
81
Plate 12
Analysis Tools
Plate 14 Plate 15
82
Analysis Tools
Plate 16 Plate 17
83
Theory
• Transitions
• Stable Channels
Start 22 SEP 84
What Is A Transition?
• Structure that joins two geometrically

dissimilar cross-sections
• Contraction or expansion of flow
• Minimizes flow disturbance
• Affects the water surface elevation

through energy loss
85
Transitions
Contraction & Expansion
Plan View
b1 width 1 b2 width 2
Contraction
1 b1 > b2 2
Expansion
b1 < b2
86
Application of Transition
Structures
• Approach to bridge
and culvert crossings
• A placeholder
between existing and
future improvements
• To create a choke in
the channel
87
Analysis
of
Transition Structures
88
Principles of Open Channel
Hydraulics
Three Governing Principles
– Conservation of Mass
– Conservation of Momentum
– Conservation of Energy
E1 = E2 + Losses
89
Energy Equation (Bernoulli’s)
elevation head
v2
p1 v 2
p2
1
+ y1 + z1 + = + y2 + z2 + + hL,1− 2
2
2g γ 2g γ
velocity head Energy loss between
pressure head sections 1 and 2
90
Open Channel Energy
Equation
Channe
l Bottom
z1
z2
Datum
1 2
v 12 v 22
+ y1 + z1 = + y 2 + z 2 + h L ,1 − 2
2g 2g 91
Open Channel Energy
Equation
HGL
y1
Channe y2
l Bottom
z1
z2
Datum
1 2
v 12 v 22
+ y1 + z1 = + y 2 + z 2 + h L ,1 − 2
2g 2g 92
Open Channel Energy
Equation
v 12 v 22
+ y1 + z1 = + y 2 + z 2 + h L ,1 − 2
2 g 2 g
v 12
2g EGL
HG L
v 22
y1 2g
Channe y2
l Bottom
z1
z2
Datum
1 2
93
Open Channel Energy
Equation
v 12 v 22
+ y1 + z1 = + y 2 + z 2 + h L ,1 − 2
2 g 2 g
v 12
2g EGL hL1-2
HG L
v 22
y1 2g
Channe y2
l Bottom
z1
z2
Datum
1 2 94
Open Channel Energy
Equation
• Head Losses
hL1− 2 = Major Losses + Minor Losses
Friction between Change in velocity or

fluid and it’s flow change in flow
boundary
95
Open Channel Energy
Equation
• Losses due to Transitions are considered Minor

Losses
hL1− 2 = Major Losses + Minor Losses
Change in velocity or
change in flow
96
Open Channel Energy
Equation
• General Equation for Minor Losses
K mV 2
hL m =
2g
97
Transition Types
• For connecting trapezoidal and rectangular

sections
– Cylindrical quadrant
– Warped
– Wedge
• Rectangular sections
– Straight-line
• Abrupt/square
98
Types of Transitions
• Warped
• Straight Line
• Cylindrical Quadrant
• Wedge (longer or shorter
than warped?)
• Abrupt (square)
99
Abrupt Transition
100
Channel Transitions
• Subcritical Flow
– Each type can be used in either direction
– Cylindrical quadrant used for:
• Expansions from rectangular to trapezoidal
• Contractions from trapezoidal to rectangular
– Straight-line transition or quadrant for
rectangular channels
101
Channel Transitions
• Supercritical Flow
– Cylindrical quadrant
• Subcritical in trap section to supercritical in
rectangular
– Straight-line for contractions in
rectangular sections
– Special shape for expansions in
rectangular channel
102
Transition Design
– Rectangular to trapezoidal
• Wedge Type
• Plate 20
103
Plate 20 104
Transition Design
– Rectangular to trapezoidal
• Plate 20
– 6o maximum change in flow line
– Water surface profiles determined by
step computations
– < 20 percent change in velocity between
steps
– Adjust to make water surface as straight
as practicable 105
Transition Design
– Between trapezoidal and rectangular
• Typically incorporate wedge or straight-line
transition
• Need to minimize/contain standing waves
• Rule of thumb:
106
Recommended Convergence and
Divergence Rates
Mean channel velocity Wall flare
(fps) (horizontal to longitudinal)
1-10 1:10
15-30 1:15
30-40 1:20
107
Transition Design
– Rectangular contractions:
108
Plate 21
109
Transition Design
EQ 2-22
EQ 2-23
EQ 2-24
110
Transition Design
EQ 2-25
However, disturbances are minimized

when L = L1 + L2 so..
EQ 2-26
EQ 2-27
111
Transition Design
– Correct design requires choosing a value

of Θ so that L = L1 + L2
– Either solve equations simultaneously or
use Plate 22
– Plate 23 is a “go-by”
112
Plate 23
Plate 22 113
EQ
Plate 21
114
Transition Design
– Rectangular expansions
• Model studies have shown that changes in flow
direction are much more gradual in expansions
than in contractions
• Theory and empirical data show that a curved
transition helps regulate wave propagation
• Model testing has indicated that downstream
depths can be significantly greater than what
theory predicts
115
Transition Design
116
Transition Design
EQ 2-25
Where:
Z = Transverse distance from channel centerline
b1 = approach channel width
X = longitudinal distance from beginning of expansion
F1 = approach Froude number
117
Plate 24
118
Transition Design
– Non-rectangular transitions:
• No real design guidance, typically need to
model
119
Transition Design
• Supercritical to Subcritical Flow

– Typically expansions from rectangular to
trapezoidal
– Wedge type transition
– Can be rapid or gradual
– Jump needs to be contained within
transition
– Scenario??
120
121
122
123
Transition Losses
• Subcritical flow
– Design should minimize energy losses and
costs
– Can be substantial and drive the design
124
Transition Loss Equations
2
V2 − V1
2
Contraction: h = Kc
2g
2
Expansion: V1 − V2
2
h = Ke
2g
125
Transition Loss
Coefficients
SHAPE Kc (Contraction) Ke (Expansion)
Abrupt (Square) 0.30 0.80

Straight Line
10° 0.10 0.20
15° 0.10 0.30
20° 0.10 0.40
30° 0.10 0.70
Warped Design 0.10 0.20
126
Design Considerations
• Define purpose of structure

• Define project constraints
– Right-of-Way
– Site conditions
– Economic feasibility
– Location of transition structure
• Design will be case by case
127
General Guidelines for
Design
1. Define design parameters

• Design discharge, Q (cfs)
• Geometry of existing and proposed channel
section
2. Determine location of transition structure
3. Length of transition structure
4. Determine transition head loss, Ht
5. Determine existing WSE at beginning and end of
preliminary location of transition
6. Based on initial water surface elevation
calculation (output), refine design of transition
128
Key Points to Remember
• Transitions in Subcritical Flow are

analyzed using the Energy Equation
• Transition losses are energy losses
associated with a change in velocity
• If possible, avoid design of transitions in
supercritical and unstable range of flows
• Design of transitions is case by case and
comes with experience
129
References
1. Chow, V. T. , Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw Hill Book Co., Inc. New York (1959)
2. Ippen, A. T., “Mechanics of Supercritical Flow”, Transactions, ASCE, Vol. 116 (1951)
3. Ippen, A. T. and Dawson, J. H., “Design of Channel Contractions”, Transactions,
ASCE, Vol. 116 (1951)
4. Rouse, H., Bhoota, B. V., and Hsu, En-Yun, “Design of Channel Expansions”,
Transactions, ASCE Vol. 116 (1951)
5. Knapp, R. T., “Design of Channel Curves for Supercritical Flow”, Transactions,
ASCE, Vol. 116 (1951)
6. Morris, Henry M. and Wiggert, James M., Applied Hydraulics in Engineering,
Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons
7. U. S. Army, Office, Chief of Engineer, Hydraulic Design of Flood Control Channels,
Engineer Manual EM 1110-2-1601 (1970)
8. Mostafa, M. Gamal, Open Channel Transitions in Subcritical Flow, Final Report No.
ERC-78-396FR, (1978)
9. Orange County Flood Control District Design Manual, O.C.F.C. D., Orange County,
California
10. Majaj, Nadeem H., “Appendix A – Basics of Hydraulics”, Basin Analysis Software
User’s Manual, Hydraulic Solutions, Inc. (2003)
Note: Graphics and text depicting the Energy Equation were obtained from another slide presentation on
the web. Author was not named.
130
Theory
• Transitions
• Stable Channels
Start 6 OCT 08 131
Flow in Curved Channels
• Superelevation
• Limiting curvature
• Bend losses
• Shear stress
132
• Superelevation
• Secondary currents
• Shift in maximum velocity
133
• Superelevation
V W 2
∆y = C EQ. 2-31
gr
Where:
y = rise in water surface
C = coefficient
V = average velocity
W = channel width
g = gravity
r = radius of curvature 134
• Superelevation
– Subcritical
• Increase wall height along outside of curve
to account for rise in water surface
elevation
• Can have waves on inside of channel bend
135
• Superelevation
– Supercritical
• Effect propagated downstream requiring
increased wall height
• Mitigation
– Spiral transition curves
– Spiral banked curves
– Limiting curvature
136
• Spiral transition curves

– Induce curvature and superelevation at a
gradual rate
– Gradually increases from infinity to a
maximum value at plan view center point
VW
Ls = 1.82 EQ. 2-32
gy
137
• Spiral banked curves

– Used in rectangular channels
– Rotate channel bottom about centerline
– Maximum banking twice y from EQ 2-
31
• Inside bend depressed by y
• Outside bend elevated by y
– Permits wall heights to be equal on both
sides of channel
138
• Limiting curvature
– Subcritical flow
• Rc >3 times channel width
– Supercritical flow
• Use Equation 2.34
139
4V W 2
rmin ≥ EQ. 2-34
gy
Where:
rmin = minimum radius of curvature
V = average velocity
W = channel width at design water
surface
y = flow depth
140
• Bend losses
– Scobey (1933) recommended increasing n by 0.001
for each 20o of curvature per 100 feet of channel
– Maximum increase of 0.003
– Minor losses in HEC-RAS, assumed to be negligent
– Effective roughness due to secondary currents
– Recent experiments indicate that losses can be
significant for values of rc/W < ~4
141
Curved Channels and Shear
Stress
142
Shear Stress Distribution
Upstream Bend
Baseline Test
16cfs
12cfs
0.033 psf
8cfs
0.029 psf
0.025 psf Flow Direction
0.021 psf
0.017 psf
0.013 psf
0.009 psf
0.005 psf
143
Design Guidance: EM-1601
(1970)
144
Design Guidance: HEC-15 (1988)
• Rc = Centerline Radius of Curvature
• B = Channel bottom width
• Kb = τb / τo
• τb = Maximum bend shear stress
• τo = Average approach shear stress
145
Data Information
• Ippen, A. T., et. al. (1962) ; 16 data points
• USBR (1964) ; 1 data point
• Yen, B.C. (1965) ; 5 data points
• CSU / USBR (2002) ; 8 data points
• Characteristics (for all sets)

– Trapezoidal channels
– Preston Tube utilized for shear measurements
– Rigid boundary
Bend Geometry Ranges
Variable Range
Side Slope 1 to 2
Bottom Width 1 to 10.2 ft
Top Width 1.67 to 16.27 ft
Centerline Radius of Curvature 5 to 65 ft
Centerline Radius of Curvature / Top Width 1.22 to 6.73
Centerline Radius of Curvature / Bottom Width 2.5 to 10.83
HEC-15 Method
Maximum Shear in Channel Bends
Ippen (1962) USBR (1964) Yen (1965) CSU (2002)
Ippen (1962) USBR
Ippen
Ippen (1964)USBR
(1962)
(1962) Yen
(1964)
USBR (1965)
(1964) YenYen
(1965) CSU
(1965) (2002)
CSU (2002) Original HEC-15 Curve
(2002)
CSU
Upper Envelope Original HEC-15 Curve Upper Envelope Curve
3.500
3.500
3.000
3.000
Upper Envelope Curve
-0.53
Kb = 4.89(rc/b)
b b==τbτ/b /τoτo
2.500
2.500
Original HEC-15 Curve

KK
2.000 -0.41
2.000 K-0.41
b = 2.86(rc/b)
Kb = 2.86(rc/b)
Best Fit on All Data

1.500
1.500 -0.43
Kbb = 3.16(rcc/b)-0.43
22
R = 0.59
1.000
1.000
1.00
1.00 2.00
2.00 3.00
3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00
9.00 10.00
10.00 11.00
11.00
Centerline Radius of Curvature, rc / Bottom Width, b
EM-1601 Method
Ippen (1962) Ippen

USBR (1962)
Ippen(1964)
(1962) USBR (1964)
Yen
USBR (1965) Yen
(1964) Yen(1965) CSU
CSU(2002)
CSU (2002)
(1965) (2002)Original EM-1601 Equation
3.500
3.500
3.000
3.000
Kb = τb / τo
2.500
2.500
Upper Envelope Equation

-0.50
2.000
2.000 Kb = 3.53(rc/w)
Original EM-1601 Equation

-0.50
Best Fit on All Data Kb = 2.65(rc/w)
1.500 Best Fit on All -0.47
1.500 Data
Kb = 2.63(rc/w) -0.47
Kb = 2.63(rc/w)
2
R 2= 0.80
R = 0.80
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 6.000
6.000 7.000
7.000
Centerline Radius of Curvature, rc / Top Width, w
Comparison of Methods
Shear Stress Correction Factor for Channel Bends
LinearFitFittotoData
Linear Data LineofofEqual
Line EqualFitFit
2.5 3.5
Kb = τ b / τ o (CSU/USBR Upper Envelope Equation)
Kb = τ b / τ o (CSU/USBR Best Fit Equation)
22 %
65 % MaximumV
3.0 Maximum ariability
Variability
2.0 y = 1.44x
2.5 y = 1.09x
2.0
1.5
1.5
1.0 1.0
1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.5 2.0 3.0 2.5
3.5
Kb =Kbτ b=/ ττbo/(HEC-15
τ o (HEC-15)
Envelope)
Reality
151
3-D problem
152
Application
Boundary
shear stress
has been
determined to
be a
fundamental
part of channel
migration
(Brown, 1988)
153
Theory - Overview
• Boundary Shear Stress in a stream
bend can be expressed as
τb = τ viscous + τ turbulent
τviscous = viscous boundary shear stress in a stream bend
τturbulent = turbulent boundary shear stress in a stream
bend
Start 8 OCT 08
Theory - Overview
• And in further detail as

Viscous

Turbulent

τb = τo + τlat + τg + τ zx + τ yx + τ zy
τb = total boundary shear stress in a stream bend
τo = average longitudinal viscous shear stress
τlat = average lateral viscous shear stress
τg = average additional viscous shear stress due to channel geometry
τzx = average vertical turbulent shear stress component in longitudinal
direction
τyx = average lateral turbulent shear stress component in longitudinal
direction
τzy = average vertical turbulent shear stress component in lateral
direction
Theory - Illustration

Viscous

Turbulent

τb = τo + τlat + τg + τ zx + τ yx + τ zy
Top of Bank
Flow
Direction Cross
Section
Centerline τ
la
t o
τ
τ
g
τ
zy
τ
zx
θ τ
yx
τb
Toe of
Bank 156
Top of Bank
Flow
Direction Cross
Section
Centerline τ
o
τ
t
la
τ g
τ
zy
τ
zx
θ τ
yx
τb
Toe of
Bank
157
Theory – Viscous Shear Stress
τo = γRSf
Where: τo = average longitudinal viscous shear stress

γ = unit weight of water
R = hydraulic radius
Sf = friction slope
ρV ∂z 2
∂τlat = ρVz ∂Vy − + γSy ∂zx
r
Where: τlat = average lateral viscous shear stress
γ = unit weight of water
r = centerline radius of curvature
ρ = density of water
Sy = lateral water surface slope
Vx = average velocity in the x-direction
Vy = average velocity in the y-direction
τ g = τs − τ o
Where: τg = average additional viscous shear stress due to
channel geometry
τo = average longitudinal viscous shear stress
τs= average longitudinal boundary shear stress due to
super elevation
Top of Bank
Flow
Direction Cross
Section
Centerline τ
o
τ
t
la
τ g
τ
zy
τ
zx
θ τ
yx
τb
Toe of
Bank
161
τzx + ∆τzx
z τyx
y
δz
τxx τxx + ∆τxx
τyx + ∆τyx δy
δx τzx
162
Theory – Turbulent Shear Stresses
⎡ −ρ( u')2 −ρ( u'v') −ρ( u'w') ⎤
⎡ τ xx τ xy τ xz ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ τ yx τ yz ⎥ = ⎢ −ρ( v'u') −ρ( v') −ρ( v'w') ⎥ =
2
τ yy
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ τzx τzy τzz ⎥⎦ ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ app
⎢⎣ −ρ( w'u') −ρ( w'v') −ρ( w') ⎥
⎦
⎡ normal to normal to normal to ⎤
⎢ the x-plane applied the x-plane applied the x-plane applied ⎥
⎢ in the x-direction in the y-direction in the z-direction ⎥
⎢ normal to normal to normal to ⎥
⎢ the y-plane applied the y-plance applied the y-plane applied ⎥
⎢ in the x-direction in the y-direction in the z-direction ⎥
⎢ normal to normal to normal to
⎥
⎢ the z-plane applied the z-plane applied the z-plane applied ⎥
⎢ in the x-direction in the z-direction ⎥
⎣ in the y-direction ⎦
⎡ −ρ( u')2 ⎤
⎡ τ xx ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ τ yx ⎥ = ⎢ −ρ( v'u') −ρ( v') ⎥=
2
τ yy
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ τzx τzy τzz ⎦⎥ ⎢ 2⎥
⎣ app
⎢⎣ −ρ( w'u') −ρ( w'v') −ρ( w') ⎥
⎦
⎡ normal to ⎤
⎢ the x-plane applied ⎥
⎢ in the x-direction ⎥
⎢ normal to normal to ⎥
⎢ the y-plane applied the y-plance applied ⎥
⎢ in the x-direction in the y-direction ⎥
⎢ normal to normal to normal to
⎥
⎢ the z-plane applied the z-plane applied the z-plane applied ⎥
⎢ in the x-direction in the z-direction ⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ τ yx ⎥ = ⎢ −ρ( v'u') ⎥=
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎦ app ⎣ −ρ( w'u' ) −ρ( w'v')
⎢ τzx τzy ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ normal to ⎥
⎢ the y-plane applied ⎥
⎢ normal to normal to
⎥
⎢ the z-plane applied the z-plane applied ⎥
Top of Bank
Flow
Direction Cross
Section
Centerline τ
o
τ
t
la
τ g
τ
zy
τ
zx
θ τ
yx
τb
Toe of
Bank
166
Illustration
167
Illustration
168
Example Data
Model discharge was 20 cfs.
τo was calculated to be 0.0225 psf
Cross Section 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Piezometer C C C C C C C C
2
τ p (lb/ft ) 0.022 0.029 0.038 0.028 0.026 0.024 0.028 0.033
2
τ g (lb/ft ) 0.000 0.006 0.015 0.005 0.003 0.001 0.005 0.011
% of τ o 0% 28% 68% 23% 14% 5% 23% 49%
2
τ lat (lb/ft )* 0.000 0.003 0.007 0.003 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.005
% of τ o 0% 13% 31% 13% 10% 4% 9% 22%
* These values were estimated.
XS # Piezo % Depth τ yx % of τ o τ zx % of τ o τ zy % of τ o
(psf) (psf) (psf)
1 C 100 0.009 42% 0.009 41% 0.001 4%
2 C 100 0.009 40% 0.008 36% 0.001 5%
3 C 100 0.006 26% 0.007 29% 0.001 4%
4 C 100 0.001 3% 0.007 32% 0.002 8%
5 C 100 0.005 21% 0.007 32% 0.003 12%
6 C 100 0.002 9% 0.006 26% 0.000 0%
7 C 100 0.005 24% 0.006 28% 0.002 9%
8 C 100 0.004 19% 0.008 36% 0.002 9% 169
Illustration of Example
Cross In this particular
Section 5
Piezo C example, τb,
would have a
magnitude of
τ 0.038 psf with an
o
τ
t
la
τ
g
τ angle θ of 82.4
zy
τ
zx
θ τ
yx degrees, which is a
total of 68% larger
τb
than τo.
170
Summary of Theory
• Total boundary shear stress in a stream bend
can be theoretically calculated, however:
– All terms except, τo, require a detailed set of
data
– The dataset would require:
• Direct shear measurements
• Water surface elevations throughout and across the bend
• Turbulent three-dimensional velocities
• Detailed channel geometry
– All of which are not generally available
171
Shear Stress Distribution
Upstream Bend
Baseline Test
16cfs
12cfs
0.033 psf
8cfs
0.029 psf
0.025 psf Flow Direction
0.021 psf
0.017 psf
0.013 psf
0.009 psf
0.005 psf
172
HEC-15 Method
Upper Envelope Original HEC-15 Curve Upper Envelope Curve
3.500
3.000
Upper Envelope Curve
-0.53
Kb = 4.89(rc/b)
Kb = τb / τo
2.500

-0.41
2.000 Kb = 2.86(rc/b)

1.500 -0.43
Kb = 3.16(rc/b)
2
R = 0.59
1.000
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00
HEC-15 Method
Maximum Shear in Channel Bends (HEC-15)
Ippen (1962) USBR (1964)
Yen (1965) Upper Envelope
8 cfs Maximum Kb P iezo d T(P res to n)/T(HEC-RAS Approach) 12 cfs Maximum Kb P iezo d T(P res to n)/T(HEC-RAS Appro ach)
16 cfs Maximum Kb P iezo d T(P res to n)/T(HEC-RAS Appro ach) 20 cfs Maximum Kb P iezo d T(P res to n)/T(HEC-RAS Appro ach)
8 cfs HEC-15 12 cfs HEC-15
16 cfs HEC-15 20 cfs HEC-15
8 cfs Maximum Kb Outs ide o f Bend T(P res to n)/T(HEC-RAS Appro ach) 12 cfs Maximum Kb Outs ide o f Bend T(P res to n)/T(HEC-RAS Appro ach)
16 cfs Maximum Kb Outs ide o f Bend T(P res to n)/T(HEC-RAS Appro ach) 20 cfs Maximum Kb Outs ide o f Bend T(P res to n)/T(HEC-RAS Appro ach)
New Upper Envelo pe Curve New All Data Fo r Bes t Fit
Upper Envelo pe Curve P o wer (New All Data Fo r Bes t Fit)
3.5 P o wer (New Upper Envelo pe Curve)
Old Upper Envelope Curve (Black Dash Line)

3 -0.53
Kb = 4.89(rc/b)
New Upper Envelope Curve (Pink)
-0.2775
Kb = 3.8687(rc/b)
2.5 2
R =1
Kb = τb / τo
1.5
Old Best Fit on All Data (Black Solid Line)

1 -0.43
New Best Fit on All Data (Green)
Kb = 3.16(rc/b) -0.321
2
Kb = 2.842(rc/b)
R = 0.59 2
R = 0.4352
0.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
EM-1601 Method
3.500
3.000
Kb = τb / τo
2.500
Upper Envelope Equation

-0.50
2.000 Kb = 3.53(rc/w)

1.500 -0.47
Kb = 2.63(rc/w)
2
R = 0.80
1.000
1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 6.000 7.000
EM-1601 Method
Maximum Shear in Channel Bends (EM1601)
Ippen (1962) USBR (1964)
Yen (1965) 8 cfs Maximum Piezo d Kb T (Preston)/T (HEC-RAS Approach)
12 cfs Maximum Kb Outside of Bend T (Preston)/T (HEC-RAS Approach) 16 cfs Maximum Kb Piezo d T (Preston)/T (HEC-RAS Approach)
20 cfs Maximum Kb Outside of Bend T (Preston)/T (HEC-RAS Approach) 8 cfs Kb (HEC-15)
12 cfs Kb (HEC-15) 16 cfs Kb (HEC-15)
20 cfs Kb (HEC-15) 12 cfs Maximum Kb Piezo d T (preston)/T (HEC-RAS Approach)
20 cfs Maximum Kb Piezo d T (Preston)/T (HEC-RAS Approach) 8 cfs Maximum Kb Outside of Bend T (Preston)/T (HEC-RAS Approach)
16 cfs Maximum Kb Outside of Bend T (Preston)/T (HEC-RAS Approach) New Upper Envelope Curve
3.5 Old Best Fit Power (Upper Envelope)
Power (Old Best Fit) Power (All Data)
Power (New Upper Envelope Curve)
Old Upper Envelope Equation (Black Dash Line)

-0.50
Kb = 3.53(rc/w) New Upper Envelope Curve (Pink)
2.5 -0.3208
Kb = 3.3928(rc/w)
Kb = τb / τo
2
R =1
1.5

1 -0.3667 Old Best Fit on All Data (Black Solid Line)
y = 2.5099(rc/w) -0.4691
Kb = 2.6281(rc/w)
2
R = 0.6249 2
R = 0.8004
0.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Reality
Maximum Shear in Channel Bends (EM1601)
Ippen (1962) USBR (1964)
1.5 < Kb < 3.25

Yen (1965) 8 cfs Maximum Piezo d Kb T (Preston)/T (HEC-RAS Approach)
12 cfs Maximum Kb Outside of Bend T (Preston)/T (HEC-RAS Approach) 16 cfs Maximum Kb Piezo d T (Preston)/T (HEC-RAS Approach)
20 cfs Maximum Kb Outside of Bend T (Preston)/T (HEC-RAS Approach) 8 cfs Kb (HEC-15)
12 cfs Kb (HEC-15) 16 cfs Kb (HEC-15)
20 cfs Kb (HEC-15) 12 cfs Maximum Kb Piezo d T (preston)/T (HEC-RAS Approach)
20 cfs Maximum Kb Piezo d T (Preston)/T (HEC-RAS Approach) 8 cfs Maximum Kb Outside of Bend T (Preston)/T (HEC-RAS Approach)
16 cfs Maximum Kb Outside of Bend T (Preston)/T (HEC-RAS Approach) New Upper Envelope Curve
3.5 Old Best Fit Power (Upper Envelope)
Power (Old Best Fit) Power (All Data)
Power (New Upper Envelope Curve)
Old Upper Envelope Equation (Black Dash Line)

-0.50
Kb = 3.53(rc/w) New Upper Envelope Curve (Pink)
2.5 -0.3208
Kb = 3.3928(rc/w)
K b = τb / τo
2
R =1
1.5

1 -0.3667 Old Best Fit on All Data (Black Solid Line)
y = 2.5099(rc/w) -0.4691
Kb = 2.6281(rc/w)
2
R = 0.6249 2
R = 0.8004
0.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.05 < Kb < 2.0
177
Theory
• Transitions
• Stable Channels
178
Special Considerations
• Freeboard
– Distance from WSE to top of channel
wall or containment
– Provides factor of safety against
• Changes in hydrology
• Urbanization
• Sedimentation
• Variations in channel/overbank roughness
179
• Freeboard
– Identify local areas where WSE may be
indeterminate
• Bridge piers
• Hydraulic jumps
• Transitions
• Drop structures
180
Freeboard
• Amount
– Concrete lined channels
• Rectangular sections – 2 ft
• Trapezoidal sections – 2.5 ft
– Riprap channels
• 2.5 ft
– Earthen channels
• 3 ft
• Consequence of damage!
181
• Sediment Transport
– EM-1601 provides limited information
and is generally out of date
– However..
• Plate 27
182
Plate 27 183
Plate 27
• Estimate relative effects

of channel characteristics
on bed-load movement
• Estimate equilibrium
sediment discharge
• Estimate scour and/or
deposition
• Estimate size of a
detention basin
184
Theory
• Transitions
• Stable Channels
185
Stable Channels
• Lanes balance
186
187
Stable Channels
• Lanes balance
• Scour of channel bed and banks are
typically main concerns
• Revetments designed through analysis
of tractive force:
– Limiting shear stress
– Limiting velocity
188
Limiting Velocity
189
Limiting Velocity
Plate 28 190
Chapter 3
Riprap Protection
191

EM 1601 Chapter 2 Final 2008

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

EM 1601 Chapter 2 Final 2008

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

United States Army Corps of

Open Channel Hydraulic

• Controlled by surrounding topgraphy

• Balance capacity with costs

• Familiar with concepts of:

• Three main equations/concepts

Major head losses are a form of energy considered to

These losses are generally called “Friction Head Losses”.

The most commonly encountered forms of minor head losses are as

Total Head Losses = Major Head Losses + Minor Head Losses

• If depth & velocity remain constant over a

• Gravity (force causing motion)

Antoine Chezy, in 1775

v = C Rs S = slope of the channel

• The gravitation force is

• The term √(ρg/α) was later replaced

Values for f for water flowing in straight smooth pipe

Robert Manning, in 1885

Developed Manning formula used

• Most channels are hydraulically rough

• If field data is available

• Value of k can be assumed for flow

k does not vary with R

• k must be evaluated for each

• Tranquil and rapid flow

• Distinction centered around specific

Rapid Flow d < 0.9dc

Evaluate both high and

Adjust slope (or k) to

• Occurs at Froude numbers much

• Need to determine roughness

• Three conditions (Chow 1959)

• Structure that joins two geometrically

• Contraction or expansion of flow

• Minimizes flow disturbance

• Affects the water surface elevation

hL1− 2 = Major Losses + Minor Losses

Friction between Change in velocity or

• Losses due to Transitions are considered Minor

hL1− 2 = Major Losses + Minor Losses

• General Equation for Minor Losses

• For connecting trapezoidal and rectangular

However, disturbances are minimized

– Correct design requires choosing a value

• Supercritical to Subcritical Flow

Abrupt (Square) 0.30 0.80

• Define purpose of structure

1. Define design parameters

• Transitions in Subcritical Flow are

• Spiral transition curves

• Spiral banked curves

0.025 psf Flow Direction

• USBR (1964) ; 1 data point

• Yen, B.C. (1965) ; 5 data points

• CSU / USBR (2002) ; 8 data points

• Characteristics (for all sets)

– Preston Tube utilized for shear measurements

Original HEC-15 Curve

Best Fit on All Data

Ippen (1962) Ippen

Upper Envelope Equation

Original EM-1601 Equation

Where: τo = average longitudinal viscous shear stress

– All of which are not generally available