Professional Documents
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Kuliah Hidraulika
Suseno Darsono
Open Channel Flow
• Liquid (water) flow with a ____free
________
surface
(interface between water and air)
• relevant for
• natural channels: rivers, streams
• engineered channels: canals, sewer
lines or culverts (partially full), storm drains
• of interest to hydraulic engineers
• location of free surface
• velocity distribution
• depth
discharge - stage (______) relationships
• optimal channel design
Topics in Open Channel Flow
• Uniform Flow normal depth
• Discharge-Depth relationships
• Channel transitions
• Control structures (sluice gates, weirs…)
• Rapid changes in bottom elevation or cross section
• Critical, Subcritical and Supercritical Flow
• Hydraulic Jump
• Gradually Varied Flow
• Classification of flows
• Surface profiles
• Steady and Unsteady
Classification
(Temporal)
of Flows
• Steady: velocity at a given point does not change with
time
• Uniform, Gradually Varied, and Nonuniform
(Spatial)
• Uniform: velocity at a given time does not change
within a given length of a channel
• Gradually varied: gradual changes in velocity with
distance
• Laminar and Turbulent
• Laminar: flow appears to be as a movement of thin
layers on top of each other
• Turbulent: packets of liquid move in irregular paths
Momentum and Energy
Equations
• Conservation of Energy
• “losses” due to conversion of turbulence to heat
• useful when energy losses are known or small
• ____________
Contractions
• Must account for losses if applied over long distances
• _______________________________________________
• Conservation
We needofan
Momentum
equation for losses
• “losses” due to shear at the boundaries
• useful when energy losses are unknown
• ____________
Expansion
Open Channel Flow:
Discharge/Depth Relationship
• Given a long channel of
constant slope and cross
section find the relationship
between discharge and depth
• Assume A
• Steady Uniform Flow - ___ _____________
no acceleration
• prismatic channel (no change in _________ with distance)
P
geometry
• Use Energy and Momentum, Empirical or Dimensional
Analysis?
• What controls depth given a discharge?
• Why doesn’t the flow accelerate?
Force balance
Steady-Uniform Flow: Force
Balance
V2
oP x
Shear force =________ 2g Energy grade line
P Hydraulic grade line
Wetted perimeter = __ b
Gravitational force = A x sin
________ x c
2 ghl hl = S f l
Ch Head loss coefficient
V2
l
Friction slope
2 gS f l Friction slope coefficient Slope of EGL
CS f =
V2
Dimensional Analysis
æl e ö 2 gS f l
CS f = f ç , , Re÷ CS f =
è Rh Rh ø V2
l æe ö
CS f = f ç , Re÷ Head loss length of channel
Rh è Rh ø
Rh æe ö Rh
CS f C
= f ç , Re÷ = l (like f in Darcy-Weisbach) S f =l
l è Rh ø l
2 gS f l Rh 2 gS f Rh 2g
=l V= V= S f Rh
V 2
l l l
Chezy equation (1768)
• Introduced by the French engineer Antoine Chezy in 1768 while
designing a canal for the water-supply system of Paris
2g
V = C Rh S f compare V= S f Rh
l
where C = Chezy coefficient
m m
60 < C < 150
s s
where 60 is for rough and 150 is for smooth
also a function of R (like f in Darcy-Weisbach)
Darcy-Weisbach equation (1840)
f = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor d 2
A 4 d
l V2 l V2 Rh
hl = f hl = f P d 4
d 2g 4 Rh 2 g
l V2 V2 8g
Sfl = f S f Rh = f V= S f Rh
4 Rh 2 g 8g f
A yb y 2 z
1 y
z
P 2 y 2 yz
2 1/ 2
b b
P 2 y 1 z
2 1/ 2
b
Use Solver!
Flow in Round Conduits
= ( r sin q )( r cos q )
r y
arccos
r
radians
A r 2 sin cos
r
T 2r sin
P 2 r A y
Maximum discharge
when y = ______
0.938d T
Open Channel Flow: Energy
Relations
V12 hL = S f Dx
velocity head 1
energy
2g V22
2 grade line
2g
hydraulic
y1 grade line
y2 water surface
S o x
x
2 2 Turbulent flow ( 1)
V V
y1 + So Dx + 1
= y2 + 2
+ S f Dx y - depth of flow
2g 2g
Energy Equation for Open Channel Flow
V12 V22
y1 + + So Dx = y2 + + S f Dx
2g 2g
Specific Energy
• The sum of the depth of flow and the velocity head is the specific
energy:
V2 y - potential energy
E y
2g V2
- kinetic energy
2g
E1 S o x E2 S f x
B
3 roots (one is negative)
10 Specific Energy: Sluice Gate
sluice gate q = 5.5 m /s 2
9
y1 8
2
EGL y2 = 0.45 m
7 q
6
E y V2 = 12.2 m/s
5
2gy 2 1
E2 = 8 m
y
4
3
2
1
2
y2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
E1 E2
E
Given downstream depth and discharge, find upstream depth.
alternate depths (same specific energy)
y1 and y2 are ___________
Why not use momentum conservation to find y1?
Specific Energy: Raise the
Sluice Gate
sluice gate
4
3
y1 EGL
2
y
1 2
y2 1
E1 E2
0
0 1 2 3 4 q2
E E y
2gy 2
as sluice gate is raised y1 approaches y2 and E is
minimized: Maximum discharge for given energy.
Specific Energy: Step Up
Short, smooth step with rise y in channel
Given upstream depth and 4
discharge find y2
4 3
3 2
y
2 1
y
1 0
0 1 y 2 3 4
0 E
0 1 2 3 4
E E1 = E2 + Dy Increase step height?
4
yc
2
y
1
0
0 1 2 3 4
dE
0 T
dy dy
Q2
E y A=f(y) y A dA
2gA2 P
dE Q 2 dA
= 1- 3
=0 dA Tdy T=surface width
dy gA dy
Q 2Tc Q 2T V 2T A
1 Fr 2
Fr 2
=D Hydraulic Depth
gAc3 gA 3
gA T
Critical Flow:
Q 2Tc Rectangular channel
T
1 T Tc
3
gA c
Q qT Ac ycT Ac yc
q 2T 3 q2
1
3 3
gy T
c gyc3
1/ 3
q 2
yc Only for rectangular channels!
g
Vc2 yc Vc2
yc velocity head = 0.5 (depth)
g 2 2g
V2 yc 2
E y E yc yc E
2g 2 3
4
y
1
0
0 1 2 3 4
Critical Flow E
• Characteristics
• Unstable surface
• Series of standing waves
Difficult to measure depth
• Occurrence
• Broad crested weir (and other weirs)
• Channel Controls (rapid changes in cross-section)
• Over falls
• Changes in channel slope from mild to steep
• Used for flow measurements
• ___________________________________________
Unique relationship between depth and discharge
q
1/ 3 Broad-crested Weir
2
E
yc H
g yc
P Broad-crested
3
q gy c Q = b gyc3 weir
2
yc E Hard to measure yc
3
3/ 2
æ2 ö E measured from top of weir
Q =b g E 3/ 2
è 3ø
3/ 2
æ2 ö Cd corrects for using H rather
Q = Cd b g H
è3 ø than E.
Broad-crested Weir: Example
• Calculate the flow and the depth upstream. The channel is 3 m
wide. Is H approximately equal to E?
E
yc m
yc=0.3
0.5 Broad-crested
weir
Energy equation
How do you find H?______________________
Solution
Hydraulic Jump
• Used for energy dissipation
• Occurs when flow transitions from supercritical to subcritical
• base of spillway
• We would like to know depth of water downstream from jump as
well as the location of the jump
• Which equation, Energy or Momentum?
Hydraulic Jump!
Hydraulic Jump
M1 M 2 W Fp1 Fp2 Fss Conservation of Momentum
hL
EGL
M 1x M 2 x Fp1 x Fp2 x
M 1x V12 A1 y2
2
y1
M 2 x V A2 2
L
QV1 QV2 p1 A1 p2 A2
2 2 gy Q
Q Q gy1 A1 gy2 A2 p V
2
A1 A2 2 2 A
Hydraulic Jump:
Conjugate Depths
For a rectangular channel make the following substitutions
A By Q By1V1
V1 Froude number
Fr1 =
gy1
y1
Much algebra y2 1 1 8Fr12
2
valid for slopes < 0.02
Hydraulic Jump:
Energy Loss and Length
•Energy Loss E1 E h
2 L
q2 y2 y1 3
E y algebra hL
2gy 2 4 y1 y2
significant energy loss (to turbulence) in jump
•Length of jump
No general theoretical solution
Experiments show
L 6 y2 for 4 Fr1 20
V 2
V 2
Gradually Varied Flow
y1 + 1
+ So Dx = y2 + + S f Dx
2 Energy equation for non-
2g 2g uniform, steady flow
æV22 V12 ö dy y2 y1
So dx = ( y2 - y1 ) + ç - ÷ + S f dx
è 2g 2g ø T
æV 2 ö dy
dy + d ç ÷ + S f dx = So dx
è 2g ø y A
P
dy d V
2
dx dx
Sf So
dy dy 2 g dy dy
Gradually Varied Flow
d V 2 d Q 2 2Q 2 dA Q 2T
Fr 2
dy 2 g dy 2 gA2 2 gA3 dy
gA3
2 Change in KE
dy d V dx dx
Sf So Change in PE
dy dy 2 g dy dy
We are holding Q constant!
2 dx dx
1 Fr S f So
dy dy
dy dy So S f
1 Fr
2
So S f
dx dx 1 Fr 2
Gradually Varied Flow
dy So S f Governing equation for
dx 1 Fr 2 gradually varied flow
• Gives change of water depth with distance along channel
• Note
• So and Sf are positive when sloping down in direction of flow
• y is measured from channel bottom
• dy/dx =0 means water depth is constant
yn is when So = S f
• Mild slope (yn>yc) Surface Profiles
• in a long channel subcritical flow will occur
• Steep slope (yn<yc)
• in a long channel supercritical flow will occur
• Critical slope (yn=yc)
• in a long channel unstable flow will occur
• Horizontal slope (So=0)
• yn undefined
• Adverse slope (So<0)
• yn undefined
Note: These slopes are f(Q)!
Surface Profiles
Normal depth Obstruction
Sluice gate Steep slope (S2)
Steep slope Hydraulic Jump
dy So S f
S 0 - Sf 1 - Fr2 dy/dx
2
dx 1 Fr
4
+ + +
yn 3
- + - yc
2
y
1
- - + 0
0 1 2 3 4
E
More Surface Profiles
dy So S f
S0 - Sf 1 - Fr2 dy/dx
4
dx 1 Fr 2
1 + + + 3
yc
2
y
2 + - -
yn 1
3 - - + 0
0 1 2 3 4
E
Direct Step Method
V12 V22
y1 S o x y2 S f x energy equation
2g 2g
V12 V22
y1 y2
2g 2g
x solve for x
S f So
rectangular channel prismatic channel
q q Q Q
V1 V2 V2 V1
y1 y2 A2 A1
Direct Step Method
Friction Slope
Manning Darcy-Weisbach
n 2V 2 fV 2
S f = 4/3 SI units Sf =
Rh 8 gRh
n 2V 2
Sf = English units
2.22 Rh4 / 3
Direct Step
• Limitation: channel must be _________
prismatic(so that
velocity is a function of depth only and not a function
of x)
• Method
• identify type of profile (determines whether y is + or -)
• choose y and thus yn+1
• calculate hydraulic radius and velocity at yn and yn+1
• calculate friction slope yn and yn+1
• calculate average friction slope
• calculate x
Direct Step Method
=y*b+y^2*z
V12 V22
=2*y*(1+z^2)^0.5 +b y1 y2
2g 2g
=A/P x
S f So
=Q/A
=(n*V)^2/Rh^(4/3)
=y+(V^2)/(2*g)
=(G16-G15)/((F15+F16)/2-So)
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
y A P Rh V Sf E Dx x T Fr bottom surface
0.900 1.799 4.223 0.426 0.139 0.00004 0.901 0 3.799 0.065 0.000 0.900
0.870 1.687 4.089 0.412 0.148 0.00005 0.871 0.498 0.5 3.679 0.070 0.030 0.900
Standard Step
• Given a depth at one location, determine the depth at a
second location
• Step size (x) must be small enough so that changes in
water depth aren’t very large. Otherwise estimates of the
friction slope and the velocity head are inaccurate
• Can solve in upstream or downstream direction
• upstream for subcritical
• downstream for supercritical
• Find a depth that satisfies the energy equation
V12 V22
y1 S o x y2 S f x
2g 2g
What curves are available?
S1
S3
y y+y y
V V+V V-Vw V+V-Vw y+y
1 1
F1 gy 2
F2 g y y 2
2 2 F1 F2
1 V-Vw V+V-Vw
Fr F1 F2
g y y y
2 2
2
Wave Celerity:
Momentum Conservation
M 1 V Vw y
2
Fr M 2 M 1 Per unit width
Fr y V Vw V V Vw V Vw
Fr y V Vw V
y V-Vw V+V-Vw y+y
1
g y 2 y y 2 y V Vw V
2
1 steady flow
g 2 yy y V Vw V
2
gy V Vw V
Wave Celerity
y V Vw y y V V Vw Mass conservation
yV yVw yV yV yV yV yVw yVw
y
V V Vw
y
y V-Vw V+V-Vw y+y
gy V Vw V Momentum
y
gy V Vw
2
y steady flow
V V
gy V Vw
2
c V Vw c gy Fr
yg c
Wave Propagation
• Supercritical flow
• c<V
• waves only propagate downstream
• water doesn’t “know” what is happening downstream
• _________ control
upstream
• Critical flow
• c=V
• Subcritical flow
• c>V
• waves propagate both upstream and downstream
Most Efficient Hydraulic
Sections
• A section that gives maximum discharge for a
specified flow area
• Minimum perimeter per area
• No frictional losses on the free surface
• Analogy to pipe flow
• Best shapes
• best
• best with 2 sides
• best with 3 sides
Why isn’t the most efficient
hydraulic section the best design?
Minimum area = least excavation only if top of
channel is at grade
Cost of liner
3/ 2
æ2 ö
• Broad-Crested Weir Q = Cd b g H
è3 ø
y
• Methods of calculating location of free surface 1
0
0 1 2 3 4
E
Broad-crested Weir: Solution
q gyc3 E
yc m
yc=0.3
q (9.8m / s )0.3m
2 3
0.5 Broad-crested
weir
q 0.5144m 2 / s
3
Q qL 1.54m3 / s 2 E2 yc 0.45m
yc E 2
3 E1 = E2 + Dy = 0.95m
q2
E1 y1
2gy12
q2
E1 - 2
@y1 y1 0.935
2 gE1
H1 y1 0.5m 0.435
Sluice Gate
reservoir Sluice gate
2m
10 cm
S = 0.005
Summary/Overview
• Energy losses V=
8g
S f Rh
• Dimensional Analysis f
1 2/3 1/2
• Empirical V R h So
n
V12 V22
y1 + + So Dx = y2 + + S f Dx
2g 2g
Energy Equation
V2 q2 Q2
• Specific Energy E y = y+ 2 = y+ 2
2g 2 gy 2 gA
• Two depths with same energy!
• How do we know which depth
is the right one? 4
y 1
0
0 1 2 3 4
E
Specific Energy: Step Up
Short, smooth step with rise y in channel
Given upstream depth and 4
discharge find y2
4 3
3 2
y
2 1
y
1 0
0 1 y 2 3 4
0 E
0 1 2 3 4
E E1 = E2 + Dy Increase step height?
Critical Depth
• Minimum energy for q
• When dE 0
• When kinetic yc Vc2
dy = potential!
• Fr=1 2 2g
4
V q T
Fr = c = =Q 3
yc g gyc3 gA3
2
• Fr>1 = Supercritical
y
1
• Fr<1 = Subcritical
0
0 1 2 3 4
E
What next?
• Water surface profiles
• Rapidly varied flow
• A way to move from supercritical to subcritical flow (Hydraulic Jump)
• Gradually varied flow equations
• Surface profiles
• Direct step
• Standard step
Pengertian
• Saluran terbuka: saluran di mana air mengalir dengan muka air
bebas.
Saluran tertutup
Saluran terbuka
X=1/m,
Contoh
Hitunglah jari-jari hidraulik dari saluran dengan tampang
lintang berikut ini: