13304

PRODUCTION ENGINEERING I
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
YEAR 2021/2022
 RESERVOIR
DELIVERABILITY
Previous Meeting
• Introduction to Production Engineering
• Production System
• Reservoir: Types of reservoir, diagram phase, drive mechanism
• Wellbore: Types of completion
• Wellhead: how to open well, xmas trees
• Treatment facilities
• Oil and gas properties
• Production system analysis
RESERVOIR DELIVERABILITY
• Darcy’s law
• Flow regimes
• Inflow performance relationship
• Construction of IPR curves using test points
• Composite IPR of stratified reservoirs
• Future IPR
System Analysis Approach
Nodal Analysis: method to analysze
well, which will allow to
determination of the producing
capacity for any combination
components

Inflow to the node:

Pr – ∆P (upstream components) =
Pnode

Outflow from the node:

Psep + ∆P (downstream components)
= Pnode
Inflow to the node:
Pr + ∆P (porous
medium) = Pwf

Outflow from the

node:
Psep + ∆P (flowline)
+ ∆P (tubing) = Pwf
How to determine qp?
• qp = balance of energy given by the reservoir to the fluid and
energy used by the fluid to go up to the surface.

• We need:
• The description of the flow from the reservoir to the bottom of
the well (Inflow)
• The description of the flow from the bottom of the well to the
well head or to the separator (Outflow)
DARCY‘S LAW - EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
FOR LINEAR ONE PHASE FLOWS
k: permeability of porous medium
(mD)
v: apparent fluid velocity (m/s)
q: volumetric flow rate (bbl/day)
A: area open to flow (m2)
μ: fluid viscosity (cp)
Linear Flow dp/dx: pressure grandient (negative)

𝑘𝑑𝑝
𝑣=
𝜇𝑑𝐿
𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝑝
𝑞 = 𝑣𝐴 = −
𝜇𝑑𝐿
HYPOTHESIS
• Geometry : horizontal, circular, with a
constant thickness h
• Homogeneity : permeability k and
saturation s constant in all horizontal
directions
• Drainage : drained by a single fully
penetrating well located at its centre
Single Well Model
• The model represents fluid flow in porous medium
• The model represents phenomenon of fluid flow from reservoir to
the bottom hole
• Fluid flow in porous medium
• Porosity
• Permeability
• Fluid Saturation
• Physical and chemical properties of fluid
• Viscosity
• Density
• Bubble point pressure
RADIAL HORIZONTAL FLOW
TRANSIENT, PSEUDO STEADY STATE OR
STEADY STATE FLOW CONDITIONS
P(r,t) P(r,t)

transient flow Late transient flow

no limit has been reached some limits have been reached
or

t

pseudo steady-state flow

steady-state flow All limits are reached
the pressure profile is stable The pressure profile goes down during time
TRANSIENT FLOW
• Pressure profile in an infinite-acting, radial reservoir, with slightly
compressible and constant viscosity fluid (undersaturated oil)
• Constant rate solution for oil:
DARCY’S LAW APPLIED TO PETROLEUM PRODUCTION
Flow conditions in the reservoir
• Case of a steady-state flow into the
well
• injector/producer
configurations
• large aquifer
Constant pressure at the
outer boundary of the
drainage area.
• Case of a pseudo steady-state flow
into the well
• no flow boundary
• natural limits such as faults,
etc. or other producing wells
Outer boundary pressure
declines at constant rate with
time.

 P   P 
  =0   = cte
 t  r  t  r
STEADY STATE FLOW
Well transmissibility

Drainage
and well radii
S'= S + D q
S = Skin factor
Dq = Turbulent flow
term
 PSEUDO STEADY STATE FLOW
Well transmissibility Pr = Average reservoir
pressure

Drainage
and well radii S ' = S + FND q
S = skin actor
FND q = turbulent
linked with pseudo steady-state
flow term
conditions of flow
TRANSITION TO PSEUDO-STEADY STATE
• The flow time required for the pressure funnel to reach the
circular boundary:
DRAINING PATTERNS
• Pseudo-steady state flow:

Where:
A: drainage area, ft2
ɤ: euler’s constant=1.78
CA: drainage shape factor
TRANSIENT FLOW
• For gas well, transient solution:

m(p) : real gas pseudo-pressure

PSEUDO STEADY STATE FLOW
• For gas well:

Dqg: non-Darcy flow coefficient, d/Mscf

T: temperature, oR
Reservoir Deliverability
• Reservoir pressure
• Pay zone thickness and permeability
• Reservoir boundary type and distance
• Wellbore radius
• Reservoir fluid properties
• Near-wellbore condition
• Reservoir relative permeability
THE RESERVOIR WELLBORE INTERFACE
C k .h
Pr
qBo o   re  3 
Pr − Pwf =  ln   − + S ' 
 P =Pwf
q= f ( P) dP  r  4 
  re  3 Ckh   w 
 ln   − + S ' 
 r  4 
  w 
case of oil well
one phase flow

Data:
reservoir thickness : 25 ft well radius: 0.25 ft
reservoir permeability: 120 mD skin: 0
viscosity: 2.5 cP production rate: 600 STB/d
FVF: 1.25 bbl/STB

Question:
Calculate the pressure profile and list the pressure drop
across the following 1 ft intervals: [rw;1.25] [4;5] [19;20]
[99;100] [744;745]. Conclusion ? 27
INFLOW EXERCISE1 : NEAR WELLBORE PRESSURE
PROFILE
radius pressure
qBo o  r  r (ft) p (psi)
interval drop (psi)
P = Pwf + ln 
Ckh  rw  0.25 1800
0.25ft - 1.25ft 142
1.25 1942

P = 1800 +
(2.5)(1.25)(600) ln r  4 2045
4ft - 5ft 19
(0.00708)(120)(25)  0.25  5 2064

19 2182
19ft - 20ft 4
 r 
20 2186
P = 1800 + 88.28 ln  99 2328
 0.25  100 2329
99ft - 100ft 1

744 2506.1
744ft - 745ft 0.1
logarithmic shape 745 2506.2

pressure profile (psi)

3000
Conclusion
2500
The near wellbore area
pressure (psi)

2000
plays a major role
1500 p (psi)
on the well productivity.
1000

500

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
radius (ft)
SKIN EFFECT ON THE PRESSURE DROP
P PR

Pskin = (Pwf )no disturb − (Pwf )Actual

well near wellbore
zone

Estimated pressure profile without disturbance

Actual pressure profile in the case of

a positive skin factor
Pskin < 0 Actual pressure profile in the case of
Pwf a negative skin factor

Pskin > 0
radius

well near wellbore zone

reservoir
EVALUATING SKIN
• Positive skin factor, S>0
Kskin < K
• Negative skin factor, S<0
Kskin > K
• Zero skin factor, S=0
Kskin = K
THE SKIN EFFECT

31
GLOBAL SKIN

geometric skin

Turbulences

S ' = Sm + S g + S q

mechanical skin
Skin factor
• The global skin is the sum of the skin due to formation damage
(mechanical skin) + geometric skin + skin linked with turbulences.
• The global skin can be estimated from well test interpretation,
• the geometric skin is the result of technical choices and is given by
models (ex : trajectory of the well, number of perforations),
• the skin due to turbulences is neglected excepted in the case of gas wells
or in the case of very high oil production rates.
• the skin due to formation damage can sometimes be estimated from well
tests, but can also be estimated by the difference between the global skin
and the geometric one.
• The smaller the skin, the higher the productivity.
• The knowledge of the mechanical skin allows to take decisions for extra jobs
(acidizing job, reperforation) before starting production to finally obtain a
lower global skin, and a better productivity index.

33
THE SKIN FACTOR IN PRACTICE

S ' = Sm + S g + S q can be estimated

with well tests

can be estimated
can be estimated
with models
with well tests

the part of the skin we can act on

has to be estimated
Example of the formation damage
due to the drilling process
• Main roles of the mud :
• To balance formation
pressure by hydrostatic
injection line
high pressure pressure,
• To clean the hole and
High Pressure Circulation transport cuttings,
Low Pressure Circulation
BOP • To stabilize the wellbore,
• To cool and lubricate the bit.
Drilling pump
landing collar

casing • Main kinds of mud :

Mud tank
+ mud treatment • water based mud
open hole
• oil based mud
35 drilling bit
Interface well-reservoir during the drilling
process
Filtration through the wellbore

impermeable

External cake
zone

Invaded zone
Internal cake

Non invaded
Well

zone
reservoir rock
cake

Circulating mud
The penetration depends mainly on the filtration properties of the mud.
36
Formation Damage and Formation Skin
• In terms of productivity of the well, an adequate mud is a mud
• which cake is generated very rapidly, and seals very efficiently the
reservoir from the well,
• which the filtrate is compatible with the fluid in place,
• which cake can be removed easily.

• The granulometry of the solid part of the mud is chosen in order to

minimize the internal cake thickness.

• The good removal of the cake is one of the main conditions for a good
production of the well when produced open hole (case of horizontal
drains)

37
Formation damage
• In the case of a cased hole, the perforations must have a sufficiently deep
penetration to allow the effluent to bypass the damaged zone.
• In the case of an open hole, the cake has to be well removed for a good
connection between the reservoir and the well.

38
MECHANICAL SKIN

re
rw
pay zone ks k
rs

Zone of changed permeability

due to FORMATION DAMAGE s → skin
w → well
Formation damage is any impairment
of reservoir permeability around the wellbore.
HAWKINS FORMULA

k − ks  rs 
Sm = ln 
Rw
s → skin
Rs ks  rw  w → well
Ks
K

K = 500 mD ; Dw = 81/2"
Ks = 50 mD ; Rs = Rw + 30 cm

S = +11.9 If Rs = Rw + 10 cm
If Ks = 100 mD
→S= ?
→S= ?
INFLOW EXERCISE: EXAMPLES OF SKIN
FACTOR CALCULATION
k − ks  rs 
Sm = ln 
ks  rw 

K = 500 mD ; Dw = 8"1/2 inches →m

Case 1:
Ks = 100 mD ; Rs = Rw + 30 cm

500 − 100  (8.5 / 2)* 0.0254 + 0.3 

S= ln  
100  (8.5 / 2)* 0.0254 
 0.40795 
S = 4 ln  
 0.10795 
S  +5.3
diam. to radius
INFLOW EXERCISE: EXAMPLES OF SKIN
FACTOR CALCULATION
k − ks  rs 
Sm = ln 
ks  rw 
Case 2: K = 500 mD ; Dw = 8"1/2
Ks = 50 mD ; Rs = Rw + 10 cm

500 − 50  (8.5 / 2)* 0.0254 + 0.1 

S= ln 
50  (8.5 / 2)* 0.0254 
 0.20795 
S = 9 ln 
 0.10795 
S  +5.9
GEOMETRIC SKIN
geometric skin

Turbulences

S ' = Sm + S g + S q
well trajectory
mechanical skin

S g = S pp + S + S frac

Partial penetrating hydraulic

Completion fracturing
Skin from Partial Completion and Slaint
How to derive the skin factor
How to derive the skin factor
PBU tests (shut-ins) should share
the same stabilization on the
derivative, indicative of radial flow
regime.
Blockage or plugging can be caused
by:
- Fine accumulation
- Scale deposition
- Hydrates
- Wax
- Debris, etc
 Formation damage
The formation damage is any impairment of the reservoir permeability
near the wellbore.

ONLY TWO WAYS to impair the near wellbore permeability :

- Physical reduction in pore/pore throat size,
- Reduction of the relative permeability to oil (with WBM)

Remember that it can occur during ...

• Drilling, cementing
• Completion, workover
• Gravel packing, perforating
• Production, stimulation or injection ...

The mechanical skin, Sm, is the parameter for integrating

all sources of damage in the reservoir-wellbore interface model.